1 23

bFh~l~flr9

THE SOTH AFRI wl\fli3BLI ES :

THE ORIGINS OF II:@i.JSTRIALilIOi\IS II\I SOnH AFRICA

John P h i l i p s
Kecp your eyes on SouLli Africa, cornrades
und fellow-workers of t l z ~I J O I Z ~ .
There
capitalism i:; scen in i t s mosL nakcd und
unac hmed, i t u rnost crue l und inexorable,

Archibald Crawford, The CZass War i n South

Africa, 1911.

On Fcbruary 21, 1910, Tom Mann arrived in Durban from

f m u s Ehglish u n i o n i s t intended t 0 survey
A ~ s t r d i a . This
~
t h e economic conditions i n South M r i c a , and assist t h e strug-

Nter t h e 1910 e l e d i o n s a i t e South African workers

w e r e f e e l i n g alienated from t h e purely p l i t i c a l a c t i v i t y of
t h e Couth N r i c a n Labc>ur Party. In January 1911 t h e t r w a y
m r k e r s s t r u c k t o r m v e a p a r t i c u l a r l y obnoxious insy:cctoir
n&
Peach. A l l public t r m , s p r t i n thc c i t y stopwd.
The
leaders cf the c r a f t unicns w e r e thrown out of t h e workcrs'
nr'eting whui they t ~ i e dto explain t h a t the s t r i k e was i l l e g a l
under the Trade Disputes Act. The T r m a y s Comnittee OE City
Council cpitulated t h a t sarrt- day. The Mayor promised t h a t
there woulc! bo no r e p r i s a l s . Tom Giynn, Glendon and AnDunhr convinced their f e l l m t r m r k e r s t o form a branch of
the I.W. W. , p r e s W l
Munincipd T r a n s p r t a t i o n iJorkcrs
I n d u s t r i a l Union 540.$0

. Lhc ocLunl rnining i:; (lonc b g Lhc

naliva:: :;upcrvised by b)hitc man.
Uccix~~sci
Lhc pnymcnt qivciiz t o K a f f i r s 7;s
u C I - i fL ing ~ h c yarc pLenLifulZy used
rc:: Zabor~ers und hclpcrs tu thc u h i t e clarl.
'l'his m a n t t h a t the whit-e wage " i s rcccivcd a t t h c expcrisc of
thc Native Kaffir. " 7
nder such conclitions Mann did not even attcmpt to
prcach interracial solidUrity
lio thn whitc
miners.8 Ilc rca>clnised that racism held back the m r k i n g c l a s s stmcyglc.9 Dut

Marm did aqree when pressed t h a t i n d u s t r i a l unionisrn

was impcssible without N r i c a n s . 12 Y e t he refrclincd from asking t h e unions to k t e g r a t e and evui t o l d Dr. A b i i u r a t m , a
Colored leader t h a t antgonising White workers would be munterprcdu~tive.~
~
StiAl,
his ideas were f a r in advancc of thosc
of a h m s t a l l Couth N r i c a n Whites. The i;outli ,I f13lcari Poli Li":uL
Association, a colored qroup, presented him with a silver munted
sjankok f o r h i n g the f i r s t white in Johannesburg t o advocate
Colored peoples ' r i g h t s -14
Mai?! p e r s M e d t-he Trades Council to pay two nonths
s a l a r y t o Jack P. Anderson t o organise the 'industcrial' unicn
t h a t had h n founded. The council quickly lcst i n t e r e s t m d
Anderscn went t o Rhodesia.15 Mann had reported ti-iat tliere was
much i n t e r e s t i n what ikwrican workers were doinrj i n the f i e l d
of i n d u s t r i a l unionisrn. l6 He had a l s o becn bitter1.y attacked
by raCicals such as Archie Crawford f o r soft-pdalliric; h i s attacks oll racism.17 The n a I union e l e d e d J i m Lhvidson as its
ned Secretary, got i.n touch with +Ac I.W.W. i n thci Ui-ti.tcd
S t a t e s , a i ~ drcorganised i t s e l f a s tlic J t z i l ~ ls, ~ ~ i Z).! i i > k i ~ r a z(J;' /,/:<
b?orZd (South Afr.i,cu) . l 8 I t described i t s e l f a s a " c l a s s a n scious, r e v o l u t i o n a q organisation &racinq a l l w o r k e r s regardless of c r a f t , race o r a>lourU and dcdicatcd tc thc ovcrthnm of capitalisrn. 19 'l'his was t h e f i r s t t r c l y i r - i c l ~ t r i a l
unicn i n S o ~ t hAfrica.

Som recent r e p r t a g e on South M r i c a has noticed an

ikwrican influence in the Black Consciousness m m t there-l
Others have focuscd on t h e i n s p i r a t i o n a l and o r g a n i z a t i o n d
influence of t h e I n d u s t r i a l and C o m r c i a l Workers Union of t h e
1920's and o t h e r e a r l y Black Unions on subsequent South African
unions, includincj thasc which wcre r e s p n s i b l e f o r t h e 'stayat-ho' o f 1976.2 M;iny bcoks have bcui m i t t e n on thf hfistory of the Lndustrial Workers of the World ( I . W . W . o r "Wobb l i e s " ) as p a r t of t h e l h r m v m t i n t h e nited S t a t e s .
Som mrks have cven a c h w l e d g e d the inpact of t h e I.W.W.
'overseas' . 4 Tkis p a p r w i l l a t t e n p t t o assess the irrpact of
t h e I.W.W. on South M r i c a n h i s t o r y and r e l a t e d events.

he feit s o strongly &out ' b r i n g fromwithin' the c l d unions

f o r reform t h a t he evcn tempered his a t t a c k s on craft clwwinism.l.0 ~ h i iiocs
s
not man t h a t hc e n t i r e l y aband~ncdi n d u s t r i a l
unionism. H e nrirely d e f o d it. Under his guidancc a i?mJ
I n d u s t r i a l Union w a s set up to organise those white workers
f o r h b m no a l t e r n a t i v e organisation existed. 11

By Yay n m i ~ c i p i lcf f i . c i a l s w e r e ready t c s t r i k c back.

. I c o t t e d an investigation of tram*orkers i j r i e v ~ n c e s .
Th6
They s a i d it was biased. Twn I-lall was peacefully picketc-d.

1 24

c i d i s t , he remgnised t h a t t h e I.W.W.
l e f t such questions FIS
p l i t i c s up t o each individual worker. The union i t s e l f sinply
refused " a l l a l l i a n c e s , dir& and i n d i r e c t , with e x i s t i n g
p l i t i c a l . p a r t i e s o r a n t i - p o l i t i c a l s e c t s " (i.e. anarchist
groups) .25 Crawford was h i m e l f inportant i n forming a i/,zi tc.4
S u c i a l i s t Party .in %uth ~ r i c a .Iie~ c ~
a r e f u l l y avoided n~lkinrl
pzditics an issw i r i the union. Wlien FVICIL-cw
Txinbar, ;ui a r ~ ~ r &ist, a t t q t e d t o inpose h i s MI
k l i e f s h c was c q x l l c d fol:
"intolerante, unpredictable behavior and intenpcratc a t t a c k s
on comrades" i n Felsruary of 1912.27 l'he I . W . W . had r e a f f i n ~ d
its m n - p o l i t i c a l l i n e i n a country wherc t h e m j o r i t y of t h e
workers could not v o k , and thus had l i t t l e i n t e r e s t i n foirnul
elections.

The c i t y f i r e d Glynn and Glendon and requested trocps with

*ich t o crush a s t r i k e . They were given permission tc arm
t h e i r p l i c e . Tramheds and workshops w e r e quickly surmunded
by 300 armd p l i c e . Within a few hours all s t r e e t c a r s had
been abandoned, and another s t r i k e was on.
Womn o r g m i s c d by Mary Fitzgerald s a t d m on thc
t r a c k s t o prcvcnt sc&s from d r i v i n g t h c t r m , o r cvcn ret u m i n g thcm t o t h e i r sheds. Whcn t h c workers atterrptcd t o
hold mss m e t i n g s i n Market Square t h e c i t y invoked Trmsvaal
Law #6 of 1894, prohibiting gatherings of 6 or mre persons.
The result was a SOU^, African version of a wobbly free speech
fight.21 Police a r r e s t e d each speaker in turn, including
rrembers of the c i t y council. 4,000 p o l i c e then charged i n on
brses swinging pickhandles. The I.W.W.
fought back with pickhandles and clairred to have h e l d a mss meeting with 12,000
in a ttendance

W o workers nanled Whittaker nd Morant were m c s t e d

and charged with placing dymmite on t h e tramlines. During
t h c r e s u l t a n t panic p u b l i c opixiion turned a g a i n s t the I.W.W.
Prominent c i t i z e n s volunteered t o run t h e trams. With scabs
abundant and well-protected the s t r i k e was soon broken.

A t t h e s a t~
i m a s the I . W . W . ' s i n t e r n a l d i f f i c u l t i e s ,
a conference of Africans i n Johannesburg heard Zini bring
f o r t h a resolution i n favor of an African miner's union. The
Voice of Labour edi.ted by Archie Crawford asked the White mincrs
to cooperate w i t h such an organisation. I t c l a i m d t h a t t h c
proposed union m u l d organise t h e rca Z 1,ro 2e Lnricr L- i n t h c mincs .
The I.W.W.
i n the U.S. seemd t o agree, and p r i n t c d Crawford's
article in i t s rn p r e ~ s . ~ Before
9
t h i s new union could bc
organised o t h e r c i r a m t a n c e s intervencd.

Whittaker 2nd Morant were l a t e r acquitted. A paid

g o v e m t i n f o m r had placed the dynamite on the t r a c k s hins e l f . Whittaker was awarded damziges when he sued the govemmt, b u t it was t o c l a t e to save t h e s t r i k e . The g o v e m t
had apparently succeeded i n crushing revolutionary i n d u s t r i a l
unionism by i l l e g a l m a n s . 22

Early i n 1913 workers a t t h e New Kleinfontein mine were

ordered to work a l l day Saturday. They had been working only
Saturday mrnings. Al1 the m r k e r s walked o u t and t h e rrjanaqemt seerred t o back dum. The m r k e r s could go back to their
o l d hours. But 30 of them would be f i r e d f o r troubl&ir,g.
The workers refused to bc divided t h i s way and staycd out.

The I.W.W.
refused to surrender. M i l i t a n t w o r k e r s and
supporters armd with pickhandles were l e d by Glynn, Dmbar,
and 'Pickhandle Mary' Fitzgerald. They broke up t h e canpaiqn
meetings o f those c i t y Councillors who had been r e s p n s i b l e
f o r breaking t h e tranworkers' s t r i k e . L i t t l e physical v i o l m c e
occurred, b u t t h e I.W.W. kept its reputation as a f i g h t i n g org m i s a t i o n . Many candidates o f the Property Cwners' ~ s s o c i a PJrty
t i o n w e r e successfully denied the r i g h t b speak. L&ur
representation jorp>ed fmm 5 t o 11 on the 30 man council. 23

The Transvaal Federation of Trade Unions wished to kccp

the s t r i k e from spreading beyond this one mine. They d i d n ' t
count On Archie Crawford and Mary Fitzgerald. Going from minc
to mine t h e s e two succeeded i n shutting d m t h e whole mining
industry. Crawford's slogan: " S t r i k e r s stand on t h i s s i d e scabs over there" w a s probably t h e only way t o g e t Englishspeaking and Afrikaaner miners (much less Black and Whitr'!) to
unite. The leaders of the Transvaal Fcvleration belatedly c a l l c d
f ~ ar general s t r i k e i n t h c mining industry.

In t h e mantime Archie Crawford was touring t h e world

under sponsorship of I.W.W.
(S.A.). I n addition to studying
labor conditions hc s p k e about t h e s i t u a t i o n s i n Couth M r i c a ,
Australid and N m Zcaland. I n t h e United S t a t e s he s p k e bef o r e I.W.W. l o c a l s . He returned mre convinced than ever t h a t
t h e I.W.W. represcnted the mst p r a c t i c a l m a n s o f ending

pJmugh Crmford

C-

back a ~ 0 n v i n c dp l i t i c a l so-

Transvaal Law #6 of 1894 was again dustcil o f f . N.1

a v a i l a b l e p l i c e i n Couth Africa were nishcd to the Rand. ?wo
thousand s o l d i e r s with rmchine cpns w e r e s e n t i n t o p a r d the
mines. The m r k e r s decided tc test t h e goverrnriuit: by holcling
a mass meeting i n M r k e t Square, Johannesburg on FriCt-iy, J u l y
4, 1913. The g o v e m t rret t h i s peaceful asscrrS3ly with f i r e p e r . Police and t x ~ p ks i l l e d 31 workers and jnjured 417
o t h c r s . Workers anred themselves arid f c u j h t back. M y cjimStores were l m t e d . Although Crmford and Fitzcjcrjld s p k c ;L-

gainst offensive violence the S t m n m p a p e r building w a s

burned h. Crawford and Fitzgerald were arrested f o r "inc i t i n g to violence." The murt f o m d them not guilty, but the
p i n t had been to keep than away f r m , the s t r i k e . This s t r a t egy w a s unsuccessful and the g o v e m t conceded the s t r i k e .
Fjbrkers w e r t back on the old t e m . 2 9
The rrrine ma:jnutcs of Johannesburg had l o s t the b a t t l e
but not the w a r . They woulcl f i g h t the next b a t t l e on t h e i r
m tenns. l h e story of the s t r i k e they provoked i n 1914 is
b e t t e r t o l d elsewhere. Suffice it to say t h a t as part of t h e i r
victory they kichappd and t e q m r a r i l y deported 9 labor leaders,
including Archie Crawford. 30 Crawford was by this tim secretaxy of tke Transvaal Federation of Trades' Ekecutive Comnittee. 31 A m j o r i t y of the d e p r t e e s were avowed s c c i a l i s t s . 32
Subsequent blacklisting did much to reduce s o c i d i s t influence
i n South M r i c a and spread it elsewhere. 33

Early i n 1913 Torn Glynn had already arrived in Austral j a . Fis influence helped drive out the DeLeonist elenrnt
from the I. W. W. 34 DeLeonist p o l i t i c a l sectarianism ms ccnsidcred the partisan equivalent of Andrew Dunbar's anarchism.
The Dr?Leonists l e f t the I.W.W. i n the nited States over the
Resolution on P o l i t i c a l Parties and Discipline. mey resisted
the South African I.W.W. but were only a winor i r r i t a n t to
Crawford i n 1312.35 Glynn and another South African WobbZy
narred Peter Larkin went on to becorw irivolved i n the f m u s
Sy dney 12 tri& duri c g W r l d War I. 36
A much mre inportant s o c i a l i s t figure was tc take
ideas t o India. Whandas Gandhi, a s e l f declared "out
2nd o u t Cocialist," w a s i n touch with the Couth N r i c a n rsdical
m m t of this timi.37 In 1913 he led a general s t r i k e G
Indians i n Natal which won a b l i t i o n of the h 3 hut t;ur.38 Upon
h i s return to India, the famus Mahatma l e d the Ahrredabad text i l e workers i n an industry-wide genercll ~ t r i k e . 3 ~
I.W.W.

International S o c i a l i s t League. DeCeonist Yifliience in t h i s

organisation w a s strong and a decisicri w a s m d e t o a t t u r p t organisation of a W n i s t 1.W.W. 43 Africans attended the
founding m t u l g . 44 A Zulu newspaper, E m t u Batho , praise
the n w organisation and advocated a general strike against
the new Native Aifairs Pdministration Bi11.45 &ian workcrs
were a l s o organising themelves a t t h i s t i m . 4 6 Thc .%uth
Mrican Mministration grew d m d . 4 7 The iicw union IJC~:;
crushed m r c i l e s s l y . 48
T'hese c v e n t s 1wd sigriificdnt i n i p i d on s d s a l u c r i t Soiil h
Airican history. The I ~ i t e r n a t i o n a lS o c i a l i u t Leaguc bec<m
the Comunist Party of South Africa.49 I.W.W.
ideas werc influencing the Comnunist- Party o f Souzh Africa f m n its inception. I.W.W. s a i l o r s even tawt the Capetoim Intcrnrrtional
S o c i a l i s t h a g u e t n sing, according t o the Ieague' s m rewrds. 50
The I.W.W.
in the nited States started t o rccovcr
f m w a r t i m persecution. 51 It kept up an m t c r e s t i n a u t h
Afrlcan unionism. While i t w a s considermg a f f i l i a t i o n with
t k Syndicali t (AIT) and C o m n i s t (m)mtcrnat..mnd u n ori
~
federations, ~t was r e ~ o r t r n go1-i thc a c t i v l t l c s of thc Tpzdl~.Lrsiul und Comercial Iv'orblcer.; Union of A f r ~ i w (ICIJ) dc part F
the mternational m m t W a r d i n d u s t r i d unioriisrn:

The I.W.W. in t h e nited States presented thc I.C.U.

as an the verge of a successful revolution. Under the headl i n e "Black Workers Organising" the I n d u s t r i a l Workcr r e p r t u l
that "twenty-two natives of the Transvaal wcre k i l l e d " by
a u t h o r i t i e s f o r d m s t r a t i n g on behalf of President "M;isabalaba" (sic) of the Native Workaro Anocia1,ion ( s i c ) .53

I.W.W.
ideas w e r e not t o t a l l y dead i n Couth Africa, althouqh the World W a r I had k i l l e d the union i t s e l f i n the
country 40 Archie Crawford had b e a m ~S e c r e t a r y of the S o ~ ~ t h
African I n d u t r i a l Federation (an ' i n d u s t r i a l ' union f o r whites
cr,ly) a f t e r returning frcm exile.41 Andrew Dunbar t r i e d to
swt an Industricrl S o c i a l i o t i k a p c on 1.W.W. liries. Ile h i m
s e l f w a s dropped a s a s p a k e r f o r his a n t i - p o l i t i c a l a t t i t u d e
and i n a b i l i t y to m p e r a t e with others. Tkis organisation
confined i t s e l f t o agitating f o r thc new r e v o l u t i o n q governmt i n the Coviet Union.42

N e x t week American recders learned t h a t a f t e r asserrr

bling i n M a r k t Square t o l i s t e n tc~"inciting speeches" M r i cans had m c h e d to the police s t a t i o n to release their leader.
After two or three charges they brokc t h r o q h p l i c e lines.
The p l i c e got soldiers who f i r e d i n t o the crmid k i l l i n g 14,
Uicliuiing 2 whites. A t New Bright-on a p=iwer s t a t i o n was attacked, telephone and telegraph l i n e s were cut and an at-t
was mde to e x p l d e 70,000 cases of gasoline. 54

Memwhile the w a r had l e d to a s p l i t in the then grw

ing k h o u r Party. The radical War on War L e a p e becan-? the

on r a c i s t Australian ~ n i o n s . 3 ~
Tlw? I.W.W. saw timt r a c i m m d
c a p i t a l i s t exploitation were driving the Africans to revolt.

"Cmsrts Fears Revolutjon" s a i d headlines ncxt t o atta&.s

The I.W.W. did not advocate the anred overthrm of the s t a t e ,

but it did niaintain th3t workers haw the r i g h t to defend
themselves, whether from attack by police w i t h pickhandles ,
o r fmm Cmits ' air force " M b n e n t s " .56

The I . W . W . ' s sense of solidarity w i t h the I.C.U. is

f i r s t PreanS3le and Constitution
not surprising. The I.C.U.'s
were based on those of the I .W.W. 57 The "One Big Union"
rhetoric and ideology were s t r a i g h t out of the I.W.W.58 Even
its claim t o be a non-political organisation fighting the pass
laws wouid mke sense to an I .W.W. which fought regular frees p c h fights with Anierican a u t h r i t i e s and care out against
W r l d W a r I. 59 Organising Black Wrkers had been inportant
to the 1.W.W. fmm its f o d i n g .

!
I

The I.C.U. and the I.W.W. had tco m y differentes to

iniite. The I.C.U. diswuraged strikes and d i r e c t action. Instead it put its t r u s t i n pleas t o the g o v m t , conferences
and peaceful petitions.60 Ca-iit.es were accepted as men33ers but
c o d d not bemm of f i c e r s -61 The I. C. U. also had leaders , mmthing which I. W. W. ideology opposed. 62 ~ e a d e r s h i pstniggles
Its stoq
and personal arrbitions helped to k i l l the I.C.U.
i s also told b e t t e r e l ~ e w h e r e . ~ ~
In the m t i m Archie CraJford was pursuing his new
career as a trade Union bureaucrat. H e had beaxre recognised
as the leader of Couth Nrican White Unionism. H e was not
opposed to Black workers organising; he had sirrply givm
On
trying to organise lacks and Whites i n t o tlzc vnmc UrzZon.
Crawford applauded the success of Clemons ~ a d a l i eand the
H e cansidere the I.C.U. not to be r a c i s t but as part
I.C.U.
of thie international working c l a s s m m t .

Crmford and Kadalie both saw t h a t uniting ~ l a c kand

White workers i n South Mrica w a s fraught with m r e than usual
d i f f i c u l t i c s . 'Llic fcw ol~fx,rtiuiil;jc~, tliis t j . 1 1 ~hld bmn
lost through *e
of white miners to
thc
of Black miners i n the 1913 and 1914 strikes, and the ina e a s i n g use of whites a s supervisors rather than as actual
workers. An indcpencimt Black miners' s t r i k e had been ruthlessl y crushed by the g o v e m t i n 1920.66 As long as Blacks and
Whites had different relations t o the ~ r o d x t i v eprocess, t k
*te
Worker was m s t i y interested in ~ r e s e r ~ i nbis
g position
of privilege. !he resdt was Couth Africa's p e c ~ l i a rsystun
of legal job reservation .67
Crawford's m t i t u i n c y saw their i n t e r e s t s better i&m
he did. The Qlanjser of f i e s a l s o saw that they could increase
Blacksp m f i t s by replacing White rnine workers with
m
r m e d i n early 1922 t o change the Proportion of

129

~ l a c k sand Whites in the mines. These prop~rtionshad f o m r l y

been w o t i a t e d by thc dmtba- with the South Afri.can I n d ~ i s t r i d
~ederation. 'Il~eWhite minerc' s t r i k e wkicl~resultcd cnuld not:
shut
mincs o p r a t e d by Supervisors and non-wkite workers.
Smts' g o v e m t imdertmk to protect a l l scabs.68 ?%Cstrike
quickly turned into a r e w l t i n which one of the slogans b c c m
" ~ o r k e r sof the World, Fight and Unite for a White South Mrica. "
Thc white workers were i n i t i a l l y defeated, but a f t e r thc next
clections the color bar was entrenchcd m r e firmly. 69
The whole episcde would not deserve m t i o n iri a history OE the South African I.W.W. i f one auzhor had not ascribed the role of organising this strike to thc I.W.W.70 i i i u torians should take note that this was not the case. 12lthourjh
thc I .W.W. in the United States h1op4 that the rcvolt had
been a successful and interracial one17l they kncw that the
I.W.W.
(S.A.) w a s long dead. When m r d c m of thc intent of
the s t r i k e they did not hesitate to c o n d m j.t.72
I t shoxld not be a surprise that the only I . W . W . i r i
Africa would be in South Africa. South Africa is the only industrially developed muntry in Mrica. 'i'he I.w.W. hcld that
Engels ' position on developmt in SociaZi,irn, l/t;opicnz a ~ l d
S c i c n t i f i c was correct. Thus it d i d not expcd any wrkers
revolutions i n underdeveloped muntries. I t considermi that
syndicalism, with its c r a f t Union structure, wouLd f
x mre
p p u l a r i n underdevelopcd countries rather than the purely ind u s t r i a l structure of the I.W.W.
(See references i n note 25).
The l-st
I.W.W.
i n an under&velo@ muntry (that in Chile)
l e f t the I.W.W. in the 1920's to join the Syndicdist intcniational .

The 1 . w . W . ' ~ rewlutionary t a c t i c , the general s t r i k e

has b
e
m p a r k of Black Couth Africa's trraditimal r e p r t o i r e
of protest. This is the s t a y a t home. I t r e resents i n forni
the early S p d i c a l i s t typc of general strikc.73 Ws form o i
s t r i k c can succcssLully stop prduction w i U i Uic! ::oli<.hi.Ly
of unskilled workers a h n e . !
i
s a revolutionary strategy it provides for no transition to post-revolutionary prouction other
than the surrender of the defeatcd capitalists.
The idea of an 1.W.rJ. general strike b e c m different.
Tkis 'strike on the job' would not Let prduction stop. Workcrs
On the j& wuld run a l l the industries. This would be the only
way the workers could outlast the bosses. 74 From t h i s cam the
Amrican s i t d o m s t r i k e .

This
a Black-ican,

t y ~ e
of

s t r i k e was f i r s t suggested by L u ~ yParsons,

who was one of the founders of the I.w.w.:

I wish t o say t h a t ml/ conception of t h e

1 31
f

future method o f taking possession of t h i s

i s t h a t o f t h e gencral s t r i k e : t h a t i s mj
conception of i t . 3'he trouble w i t h a l l
the s t r i k e i n t h e past has been t h i s : the
workingn~en. . . s t r i k e und go out ant stnrve.
Their children s t a r v e . Their i , ~ i v e sgct
discouraged. Some fceZ t h a t they haue to
!ro oft1 und l ~ e gfur r c l i c j ' , and t o gcL u
L i LLLc coal Lu kccp Lhc clilZdr~cntiar,m, or2
a ZittZe hread t o keep thc u i f e frorn
starving, o r a l i t t l e son~ethingt o kecp t h e
spark of Z i f e i n them so they can remain
wage slaves. That i s thc way w i t h the s t r i k e v
i n the past. My conception o f the s t r i k e
o f t h e future ii: not t o s t r i k c und go out
und starve, but t o s t r i k e and remain i n
and take possession o f t h e necessary property of production. if anyone i s t o starve-I do not sag i t i s necessary--Let i t be thc
c a p i t a l i s t c l a s s . Tlzcy haue starvcd us Zong
cnough, while they haue had wealth and Luxury
und aZ l t h a t i s neccssarv. 75
Such a s t r i k e requires the umperation of s k i l l e d workers much mre than t h e earlier type does. Tkis r e s u l t e d in a
s h i f t in t h e 1 . W . w . ' ~ a t t i t d e tm~ardsskilled workers. The
e a r l y a t t i t u d e i s b e s t s m d up in t h e speech by Big B i l l IIaywood a t the fomding mnvention:

i do not eure the snap 01mj finger

whether or not t h e s k i l l e d workcrs join
t h i s indus t-mal mucmcnt a t thc preccnt
time . . . the s k i l l e d m r k e r today i s
e x p l o i t i n g the laborer beneath him, t h c

I f t h i s was true i n t h e United S t a t e s in 1905, think

To unite t h e Black
and White Workers of Couth N r i c a in such a general s t r i k e is
a utopian drearn.

~ p e n . ~ 'I n such a s i t m t i o n t h e prcper s t r a t e g y and goal of a

revolution m y be to shut d m the mines e n t i r e l y .
.:.;1-12 !-ur- cption rcrriains.
I t hzs b n a r ~ t d
h a t t2.c
allccced1y ck.illcC b f i t e rriner is e s s e n t i ~ l l ya gun thuc; hji-c<i
tc ' ci!r.cii:j se ' *.E. M r i c z n anci assre hici t>.qt, r?rr*iixkiviQ .
ihe core of h i s ' s k i l l ' is in t h e hmdling of explosives m d
f i r c a m . 7 8 Coi~lx>undcdDlack 1ahr of the typc usCd in S O U ~ ~ I
I\f r i c a was attcnpted in the l a t e 19th ccntury u.S. m a l miriincj
industry. Tennessee rniners fowjht the " ~ o Crcek
d
~ ~ l l i o n "
against it.79 I t has not been t r i e d since in mininrj. lt is
doubtful i f South h f r i c a ' s White 'miners' would bc e l i g i b l c f o r
rrur3jership in t h e i'nited M-inc Workcrs of ,lrncr2c(i,i f t h c r c wcrc
such an i n s t i t u t i o n as the ' w h i t e mincr' i n t h c IJnittxi Statx::;. 80

It i s not inwnceivable t h a t exprimcd Ulack rnincrl;

i n South Rfrica would imm enough &out explosives from e w r i m c e to be a b l e to use t h m a d q u a t e l y . T do not man to sucjg c s t that Blacks w u l d take over only the minincj industry and
hold it. I t micjht be possiblc f o r a properly organised 'strikt
on the job' coordinated w i t h an arni-d i n s u r r e c t i o n , t o take cont r o l 6f South Africa and keep the gold mines operating long Cnough t o provide t h e foreign exchangc n c c e s s a y t o r c o r i c n t thc
economy. Since mre and mre South African miners mm? from
OAU &r
countries, it should be e a s i e r t o oryanise unions
m n g them. Such a strike-on-the-job could be t h e y r e a t e s t
w n t r i b u t i o n to the errerging South nfrican rcvolirl lorl t h a t Lucy
Parsons and t h e I.W.W. m u l d niake.

E'ootnotes :

1.

J u s t i c e Minister Jarres Kruger t o l d t h e South h f r i c a I'=l i m t that Black P m e r ideology was t h e mst dmgerous
thing t o have coim to South Africa from t h e nited S t a t c s .
T i i u Lukk, "What Biko Rcprescnts, " Afr+iciz i?,!pnrt X\(, no.6
(MV.-Ikc. 1977), p.6.

2.

Besides m t i o n i n n e w c p a ~ r sof t h c t i n c , s c c " I n d u s t r i a l

Relations Legislatian: One of C-ipital's Deferises," Rokrt
Davies and David Lewis , and "Briefings" i n Iii;vic~,)oj. i1.fr~r.ican PoliticaZ o;:onorrnj, no.7 Sept.-Ec. 1976.

3.

Thonpson, Fred and Pat Muri n , l'lze I. W. W . : T tv J'i:r1 :;Cventy Ycaru, (Chicago: I n d u s t r i a l Workers of t h e World,
1376).

haw tsue it must be in South A f r i c s today!

?b run t h e gold mines of South Africa requircs skilled

This problem exists, as secn in Z d i a and S h h , b u t
l&r.
its irrportmce hac lxen exaggerated i n reference t o South M r i -

So= observers would say let the mines go. The o r e in

South African gold mines is s o P r t h a t it would be a geoloqic a l c u r i o s i t y i n the United S t a t e s . It is indeed doubtful i f
the mines m u l d provide a l i v i n g wage f o r all mincrs and rfimxh

Archibald Crawford, "The C l a s s W a r in South Africa, " Y'he i ) i I c r national SociuZist H G V ~ C ~ Vo1.
,
12, p.83, A u w t 1911.

Kornbluh, Joyce L. , Rebe2 Voices: An I . W . W. AnthoZogy

(Ann A1130r: n i v e r s i t y of Michigan, 1964)
Foner, P h i l i p , The I n d u s t r i a l G/orkerc of t h e m r l d Vol. IV
of Historg o f thc r,abor Movement i n t h e U.S.A. ( N m York:
I n t e r n a t i o n a l I ~ l i s h e r s ,1966).
Dubofsky, Wlvyn, Wc ShaZZ Be A L 2 (New York: Quadranglc
Bcoks, 1969).
Brissenden, Paul. F. , The I . W. W . , A Stud!] i n American SyndicnLism (1919, rptd. Ihissel and Russel, 1957).
Conlon, Joseph, Brcad und Roses Too (Greemccd, 1970).

4.

Rcnshaw, P a t r i c k , The Wobblies (New York: Doubleday, 1967).

B l a i s d e l l , Lmell L. , The Desert RevoZution (Madison:
University o f Wisconsin, 1962).
's Burning (Sydney: Alpha M, 1969) .
Turner, Ian, ,?!jdn<.i~

5.

Mann,Tom, Mcmoir3s (Iondon1933).

6.

Mann, Torn, "Diarrond h i n g in Couth Africa," The Intcrnut i o n a l S o c i u l i c t Review XI (July 1310), p.2.

7.

rbid. p.3.

8.

S m s , 1I.J.

9.

Mann,Tom.op.cit.,p.6.

10.

Ihid. p.4.

11.

1L)id. p.3. This 1s c a l l e d the " I n d u s t r i a l Fcdcratmn" m

Mann' C il.l(<trrcr>ir:;
and t h e " J n d u s t r i a l hbrkers' Union" i n R.

17.

Crawford, op. c i t .

P.

Sirrons and Sirrons, op. c i t . ,

148; Cape, op. c i t . , p. 110;
'ibm, "Lndustrial Unionlsm in South n f r i c a , " I,iili~;trz-darity
Vol. 1, 42:3, New Castle, Pennsylvanla,
October 1, 1910.

1 Glynn,

19.

Voice o f Lubour, JULy 22, 1910, q m t e d in S m s and Sim n s , op . c i t . , p. 148; For I. W. W. r e l a t i o n s i n t h e U. S .

see Myland Hudolph B r m , Y'he I . W. W . h ? ( Z t h c Ncqro Woraki'r
(Unpublished d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , Ball S t a t e , 1968) and
P h i l i p Foner in JotulzaZ o f Negi.0 lii Lory, J a n w 1970.
I n t e r r a c i a l and i n t e r e t h n i c s o l i d a r i t y w a s a m j o r p a r t
of I.W.W.
ideology from t h e b e g i n m g . A t the height o t
I. W.W. influence approximately 100,000 of its 1,000,000
r&rs
were Black.

20.

Cope, op. c i t . , p. 117; Ivan Walker and B. Weinbren,

2,000 CauaZties (Natal: Witnes, 1961) p. 28. Dunbar had

1.4 a s t r i k e of Natal Railway m r k e r s i n 1909.

21.

For the mst f m u s o f m r i c a n f r e e speech f i y h t s l& by

the I.W.W. see Hictory of the San iego E'rcc Speech
Fight (Chicago: I.W.W.)
as w e l l as references in note 3
above.

22.
I

12.

C o p , Corrradc n i l l , p.110.

13.

S i m n s and S m n s , op. ci L.

14.

Cr~iwIord, A r c i i I c,, V o i r * i 3 o j ' I,,zi~u~ir~,

, l o ~ ~ ~ i c s k ~ M.irc21
u i - ~ j 2, 5 ,
1910 c ~ u o C e dm 'I'hc Intarnatio?~rrl,Johannesburg, May 10,
1318 as "hrchie on W i t e Unions".

, p. 147.

S i m n s a n d S m n s , op. c i t . , p.147; R.K.

C o p , op. c i t . ,

h n d o n Times, May 3, 1911, p.7; May 15, 1911, p.7; M a i

16, 1911, p.5; May 17, 1911, p.7; C o p , op. ciL. , pp.117119; Sirrons and Sirmns, op. c i t . , p. 148; Walker and
Weinbren, op. c i t . , pp.29-30; indus Lrial :;U Liduri t y ( N m
C a s t l e , PA) ~ 0 1 . 2 , #28 (whole n w b e r 80) June 24, 1911,
p.3; Gitsham, E. and J.F. Trenhath, A F i r s t Account o f
Labour Organization i n South Africa (Durban: C o m r c i a l
P r i n t i n g Co., 19261, pp. 33-4.

W,

Cornratic R i L L (Cape Tbm: Stewart Printng Co, Pty.

Ltd., no d a t c ) . I t was mre o f a c~eneralworkers' union
than a s t r i c t i y I n d u s t r i a l Union. I t m y have also qiven
rise t o thc ,;ouLli A f i 8 i c ! a n L I L ~ ~ I ! .tr.iul
;
I~'cdar*trL
in , an 'md u c t r i a l ' union f o r whites only, and thus mre of a 'transc r a f t ' than a s t r i c t l y i n d u s t r i a l union. I n d u s t r i a l
unions e n r o l l a l l workers in an industry.

15.

Mann, Tom. op. c i t . , p.3.

18.

and R.E., Class and Colomr i n S o i ~ t hAfrica

(Ha~m3nd.worth: Pencpin, 1969) , p. 147.

K.

16.

23.

Crawford, Archibald, "The Pick Handle Brigade, " Thc InLernational S o c i a l i s t lfeuiew XI, Feb1912, pp.494-499;
Walker and W e i n b r e n , op. c i t . , p.30; Cope, op. c i t . , p.122;
S h n s and Sixx-s, op. c i t . , p.150.

24.

Cerny, R a n k , L e t t e r in Industrial S o l i d a r i t y vo1.2, #26

(whole n m k r 78) June 10, 1911, p. 1; a r t i c l e s in 7ndui;LmaZ Workcr #115, June 18, 1911 and #133, O c t o k r 12,
1311.

25.

"Resolution on P o l i t i c a l P a r t i e s and Disciplinc" p a s s 4

a t the 1908 convention and printed i n t h e Constitution
wer since. Ws has caused sane h i s t o r i a n s t o m n s i d e r

t h e I.W.W.
i t s e l f t o be a n a r c k i s t o r s y n d i c a l i s t , a psit i o n taken by mst I h s t and DeLeonist Marxists. For
a c o n t r a s t i n g view, See the works of Joseph Conlin, o r
mst 1.W.W. propaganda, e s p e c i a l l y Mlph Chaplin, The
General S t r i k e (Chicago: I.W.W.,
1972) p.30 and IndustriaZ
S o l i d a r i t y #183, May 6, 1922, p.2.
26.

27.

Crawford, Archibald, " S o c i a l i s t Party Progress in South

Africa, " The International S o c i a l i s t Review. For mre
on Crawford's ideas see "Capital and Labor: A Short Catec h i s m " a l s o in the I . S.R. , and Wilfred H. Harrison , Memi o r s o f a S o c i a l i s t i n South Africa: 1903-1947 (Cape 'Ibwn:
Stewart P r i n t i n g Co. (Pty. ) L t d . , 1948) , pp. 36-38.

I n d u s t r i a l Worker #154, March 7 , 1912, p.2.

29.

Murray, F., " C a p i t a l i s t D e v e l o p t and ~ n d u s t r i a lRevolt

in Africa," International S o c i a l i s t ReviezJ XIV, October 1913, pp.200-209; The "Iiolm" (sic), "The I r a n H e e l i n
South Africa, " The International ~ o c i a Z i tn ~ e v i e wX N ,
Sept-r
1913, pp.141-44; Walker and Weinbren, op. c i t . ,
pp.33 arid 35; " ~ h e
~ a n dSlaughter," 1ndustria2 SoZidarit y vol. 4, #43 (whole n d r 199) ~ l e v e l a n d ,Okio, Novemb e r 1, 1913, p.3.

30.

"Ferdinand PQrois" (sic), "Labor's B a t t i e in s u t h Africa, "

The International S o c i a z i s t Revieu XIV:10, April 1914,
pp.581-588; Ferinand Marois, "The Vaiue of t h e ~ t r i k e , "
The International S o c i a l i s t Review X I V June 1914, pp.73940; Tom Mann, "Latest News From Couth Africa," ~ h Ien t e r nationaZ S o c i a l i s t Review XV Septenhr 1914, ~ . 1 5 9 - 6 0 ;
"The South Af r i c a n Lator W a r , " I n d u s t r i a l so%zdamt y No.
228, May 23, 1914, p.3.

31,

F?alker and Weinbren, op. c i t . , pp.51-2.

32.

Wilfred H. Iiarrisan, op. c i t .

33.

Crawford, "Cocialist Party Progress in a u t h Afrrca.

36.

Industrial S o l i d a r i t y #178, April 1 , 1922, p.6;

Turner, op. c i t .

37.

Wilfrcd H. Iiarrisan, op. c i L .

38-

G i t s h a m arid Trerrbath, op. c i t .

bren, op. c i t . , pp.45-6.

39.

Gandhi, Mohandas K., An A u t ~ b i o ~ r a p h yThc

: Story o f (<,I
Experiments with T m t h (Boston: Beacon, 1957), pp.426-34.

40.

~ n d u s t r i a lSoZidarity (Chicago) #178, p.6, W r i l 1, 1922.

41.

G i t s h a m and Tr&ath,

42.

SirrPn d Sirrrns, op. c i t . , pp.215-16.

43.

The International (Johannesburg) #115, J m W 4, 1918,

p.3; #127, April 5, 1918, p.2; The New York Times July
19, 1918, p.13, ~ 0 1 . 5 ; The ~ e 1 s a'~sit1or ' D e t r o i t ' I.W.W.
s p l i t from the Chicago organization in 1908. It was ass o c i a t e d with the .%ciallst Labr Party, and &ed i n t h e
1920's.'

44.

Ths International #127, p.2.

45.

Thc International #112, Noven33er 30, 1917, p.2.

46.

The International #95, August 3, 1917, p.3.

47.

"I.w.w. on the Rind," The International #118. Janury 25,

1918, p.13.

48.

mux, Edward. Time Longrsr Than ilope (Madison: The Univers i t y of Wisconsin Press, 1964), pp.130 et seq.; P h i l i p s ,
John. "Digginq i n t o I.W.W. I L i s t o r y : Couth Africa, " Indu:t r i a l Worker. (Chicago) v01. 73, no.10, October 1976.

49.

mux, W a r d , op. c i t . , and S.P. Bunting: A PoLiLicaZ

Biography (Johannesburg; the author 1940).

50.

M. Lopes, "Cape Nctes," The International #168, J a n w

24, 1919, p.2.

51.

Fred Thanpson and Pat Murfin, op. c i t . , pp. 135-50 :

, p. 44-

Walker and k i n b r e n , op. c i t . , pp. 57-8; ' BJ-g B i l l ' &Yd,

wbse mther was South M r i c a n (see ~ e n s h w ,op.
c i t . , p. 71) wrote "A Message, " a poem dedicated to the

n
deported unionists. Although s o l d t o ~ e t r o ~ o l i t aMagazine it was n o t published u n t i l the I n d u s t r i a l ~ o r k e r
p r i n t e d it an March 3 , 1917 (vol.1, no.47, p.4).

34.

W t e s , wer, "Notes on t h e ~ n d u s t r i h lm r k e r s of the

an

35.

SinPns and S k n s , op. c i t . , pp.150-151; R.K. Cope, op.

c i t . , p.124; "&Letter frcin Archibald Crawford," l n d u s t r i a l
k'orker ( S e a t t l e ) , #154, March 7, 1912, P-2.

28.

World," Lahourb Ilistorg m. 6, ~ a 1964,

y
Canberra;
Turner, op. c i t . , p.13.

~tui

, p. 36.

op. c i t .

, pp. 38-9;

Walker and k m -

, p.160.

The f a c t t h a t t h e 1.W. W. g r ~ wfrom t h e

war years t o the L024 s p Z i t , and t h a t
the d i s a s t e r occurred when tlze Leaders
were relsased, does not f i t i n w i t h t h e
conclucion of Perlnlan und T a f t und other
izistorirms t h a t t h e declirze o f t h e I.W. W.
(Jas duc to Lhc los:: o f i t s lcadcrs by
imprisonnioi I ; .
52.

1ndustria2 Worker v o l . 1 , no.83, ~ o v m b e r20, 1920, p.2.

53.

~ d u s t r i a lWorker ~01.1,
110.82, Noverrber 1 3 1 19201 p.2.

54.

~ n d u s t r i a lworker v o l . 1 , 110.83, No-

55.

~ ~ d ~ s t p worker
ial
~01.1,
110.85,

56.

57.

R O ~ W
, a d , Time Longer ITlzan Rope, p.400;

68.

~ i t s h U m a n d T r e n b a t h ,op. c i t . , pp.47-52; Walker rind

Weinbren, op. c i t . , c h a p t e r s 11-23, a p p d i c e s B-I .

69.

WUX, I-dwJrd, S . P . Btcnting: L PoLiticuL BLog~n~jl-l!~,

chapter 7 , firne Lonqcr T h m liope, Chapter =V.

70.

REnshaw, I'atrick, op. c i t . , p.291.

71.

Woi-kcr V. 3 ,
Tndu::l~r*i.aZ
Worker v.3,
Industrinl ~ o r k c rV. 3,
TndustriaZ Wor,kcr v.3,
7ndu:;t r i n l :;oliclnrl:ty,
1922.
I ndus Lr.ia1 So lidaz-i L?),
1~~dl,l~tP?:(LL
!;oLidarity,

201 1920, p e 2 -

D e c e d e r 4 1 19201 p e 2 72.

~ Worlkcy
~ ~ Lv o l~ . 3,, no.
~ 22,
~ ZS e p t a h r 1 7 , 19211 P - 2 -

m l p h C h a p l i n , 171e Centralia Conspiricy (Ckicago: Kerr,

S h e r i d a n Johnsr
Union, p o l i t i c d P r e s s u r e ~ r o i r pof m s m v m t ? :
The I'du.cjtri& arid m m r c i d Workers nim 0f Africa" in
m k r t 1. m & r g arid N i Mzrui (&. ) P r o f ; ~ ~ Power
i n Black ~ f p i c a ( N m mrk: Oxford &VerSi@ P ~ e s s ,1 g 7 0 ) *
"Tra&

58.

S h e r i d a n J o h n s , op. c i t . , P-717.

59.

I b i d , pp.704-5.

60.

Iizlid, p.707.

61.

i b i d , p.729.

62.

sec mte 5 1 &ve, as w e i l as i ~ y i ~ da l l 1 . W - W - ProPa9anda d e a l i n g w i t h l e a d e r s .

63.

JO-,

64.

Kadalie, C l m s , op. c i L . , P - 6 8 -

65.

crWford, "Tb S i g n i f i c a n c e o f K a d a l i e , " in Kadalier

c i t . , pp. 104-5.

66.

ROUX, Ekhard,

67.

Ibid.

op. cit. ; m,op. c i t . ; K a d a l i e , C~~~

I MY
Life
arid t h e 1.C. U. (London: Frank CaSS arid C W a n Y r L t d - l g 7 0 )

no.43 ( # 1 4 7 ) , p . 4
11, 1922.
no.45 ( # 1 4 9 ) , p.2 ~ e b 25,
v 1922.
no.48 ( # 1 5 2 ) , p . 1 ~
c 1 8 h, 192%.
no.49 ( # 1 5 3 ) , p . 3 m c h 25, 1922.
nrw series #173, p. 1 rd,ru;uy
25,
ncw series #176, p. 1 weh 1.8, 1922.
new series #177, p.6 March 25, 1922.

wril

lnchtstriul SoZidarit!j, new series #178,

1 , 1922,
L>.
6.
Jki,i~r::~.riirL
: : o L i d i ~ r ~ . tncw
? l , serics #179, Qjril 8 , ,1922,
P. 3.
The I.W.W. c o n s i d e r c d t h e w h i t e s m i n e r s ' ficjht i m p s s i b l c .
As ~ r i c a n tsh e y k m t h a t Blacks were c a p a b l e o f a11
s k i l l e d l a b o r , and t h a t q l o y e r s would uce thein t o rcduce the wages o f WUtes. Wkitc m r k e r s i.n %uth A f r i c ; ~
wcrc compxcd t o t h e d l q c d l y d m m d 'nt-iritrcr- LI^:;' of ~ l
s e y r e y a t e d A m r i c a n F e d e r a t i o n o f Labor.

73.

Fred T h o q s o n and P a t Murfin , op. c i L .

74.

C h a p l i n , Ralph, ii1!1i?CcnerctL : ; t ~ , i k i , .

75.

Ylzc I;'o~ndin!~
ConvcntZon oJ' L / L L ? i.L+/. 1. : I'ryiccccb:nci:; ( ~ m
York L&or Ncws, 1905; r p t d . M e r i t , 1 9 6 9 ) , pp.169-170.
M d i t i o n a l r e f e r e n c e : Achbaugh , C'lrolyn , i,ic,:!j ;i i r : ; i ~ ~ : :
(Chicago: C h x l e s 11. Kerr Co., 1976) , p.218.

76.

IOid., p.575-6.

77.

, p .8 3.

I l a r r i s , Marvin, Culture, Man und Nutur2c (Ncw York: ?'horrus

Y. C r w e l l Corrpany, 19711, pp.481-2.

78.

op. c i t . , pp.132-5-

lfltilr:;trni:

" 1 s t h e Whitc Miner a Miner, " Thc /rztcr~nc~Li.or~c~L,

&xy 25,
1917, pp.2-3; Davits, i b b c r t , "Mininy C a p i t d , The S t a t e ,
and U n s k i l l a i Whitie Workers i n %U#
Afrj.ca, 1910-1913,"
J i ) i i i ? n ~ ~ l .'but.hcmz Afr*icaiz St,cJic:: vo1 .3 , no. 1 (October
1976) , p. 63; S h o n , W a r d , "The M y t h o f t h e M i i t e Wrki n q C l a s s i n South A f r i c a , " 7'hc 11fricroi Iii,iiLci,~v o l . 4 , no.
2 (1974) , pp. 189-203; Crriwford, Archj.hald "'l'hc C l.;isc, W ; t r
in Soutli A f r i c a , " 2'hc Trz Li:,>r~ii
t7:on~ii:,?o<:i,i
L iv L i;i,:):l:i,~
clJ'

, p. 374.

,'

v . i 2 , August 1911, p.78.

79.

P h i l i p S. Foner in I'hu t / i : : t u r y of thci Arneraican Lubor Movement ~ 1 . 1 1 ;Green, Arckie, " C o a l Creek Troubles" i n OnZy
a Miner (University of I l l i n o i s ) r p t d . ~ p p a l a c h i a nmvemt P r e s s , 1973 as CoczL reck KebeLLion.

80.

When asked h Blacks and Whites f e e l about working together underqround in the U.S.A., the standard miners'
r e p l y is: "When we cmm o u t of t h e mines, a l l of us are
Black." See Hiirlun County, U.S. A . , a f i l m by Barbara
Kapple