Cement Industry

A cement is a binder, a substance that sets and hardens independently, and

can bind other materials together. Cement is a very important material used in the
construction industry. Cement has replaced all other binding materials, for example,
clay and lime. Cement is the strongest binding material.
Cement is a fine, soft, powdery-type substance made from a mixture of
elements that are found in natural materials such as limestone, clay, sand and/or
shale. When cement is mixed with water, it can bind sand and gravel into a hard,
solid mass called concrete. Cement mixed with water and sand, forms cement
plaster. Cement mixed with water, lime and sand, forms mortar.
Cement is used as one of the materials in making concrete buildings, roads,
bridges and other structures. It is one of the ingredients of concrete, the others
being gravel and sand.
Cement has been used as a binder of materiel for millenia. No one knows for
sure who first came up with the idea to use a cement substance to bind materials
together to make concrete, bricks, and other building materials. The process can be
traced back to Ancient Macedonia, but was more widely popularized during the
Roman Empire. Early forms of cement used things like lime and pozzolana, a type of
volcanic ash. The Romans were able to produce massive structures like the
Pantheon and the Roman aqueducts using this formula.
Currently, cement comes in two forms: Hydraulic and Non-Hydraulic.
Hydraulic cement refers to any cement that uses water to begin a chemical reaction
that hardens the mixture and, when fully formed, creates a water resistant product.
This reaction is independent of the water content of the mixture so allows for the
material to harden even underwater. This makes it a very versatile construction
material. Most all cements used today are hydraulic cements. Non-hydraulic cement
uses materials that do not harden when exposed to water. While this type is much
cheaper than hydraulic cement, the problems of long drying times, combined with
the inability to use it in wet environments makes it a poor choice in most
applications.
The most common type of modern cement is portland cement (sometimes
referred to as OPC for Ordinary Portland Cement). This type of cement is typically
made by grinding small rock-like bits of sintered limestone and aluminosilicate
minerals into a very fine powder. Its fast drying times combined with its higher
compression strength compared to other cements, makes it a great choice for use in
concrete, mortar, grout, and stucco.
Concrete and cement are not synonymous terms. Concrete is artificial stone
made from a carefully controlled mixture of cement, water, and fine and coarse
aggregate (usually sand and coarse rock).

History of Cement
3,000 BC
800 BC
300 AD - 476
AD

1779
1793

1796

1812 - 1813
1822
1824

1853
1854

1858

1860

1875

The Egyptians used gypsum mortars and lime mortars to

build the pyramids.
Greeks and Cretans used lime mortars, which later became the
base of the famous Roman Mortar.
The Romans used lime and cementing pozzolan from Pozzuoli,
Italy, to build the Apian Way, the Roman baths, the Coliseum, and
the Pantheon in Rome. They used animal milk and blood as
additives when preparing the mixture of two parts of pozzolan
and one part of lime. These structures still exist nowadays.
Bry Higgins promoted a patent for hydraulic cement (stucco) to
be used in exterior plasters.
John Smeaton found that calcining limestone-containing clay
formed a lime that gets hardened under the water (hydraulic
lime).
Joseph Parker patented in England a natural hydraulic cement
produced by the calcination of coarse limestone nodules
containing clay which was called Parker Cement or Roman
Cement.
The Frenchman Louis J. Vicat prepared an artificial hydraulic lime
by the calcination of a mixture of limestone and clay.
James Frost prepared a hydraulic lime similar to that prepared by
Vicat and called it British Cement.
Joseph Aspdin, a bricklayer and mason in Leeds, England,
invented the Portland cement by the calcination of a mixture of
chalk and clay finely divided. The senterized product was milled
and denominated Portland cement, for its similarity in high quality
for construction to that found in the stones quarried on the isle of
Portland, England. His Portland cement was called 'proto-Portland
cement'
William Aspdin made what could be called 'meso-Portland
cement' (a mix of Portland cement and hydraulic lime).
Isaac Charles Johnson further refined the production of 'mesoPortland cement' (middle stage of development) and claimed to
be the real father of Portland cement.
The next development with the manufacture of Portland cement
was
the
introduction
of
the rotary
kiln patented
by
German Friedrich Hoffmann called a Hoffmann kiln for brick
making
The Hoffman "endless" kiln which gave "perfect control over
combustion" was tested and showed the process produced a
better grade of cement.
The first Portland cement was produced by Coplay Cement
Company under the direction of David O. Saylor in Coplay,

1878
20th century

Pennsylvania.
The Association of German Cement Manufacturers issued a
standard on Portland cement.
American made Portland cement had displaced most of the
imported Portland cement.

In the Philippines:

Chemical Composition of Portland Cement

Portland cements are composed of four basic chemical compounds, shown
with their names, chemical formulas, and abbreviations:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Tricalcium silicate: 3CaO SiO2 = C3S

Dicalcium silicate: 2CaO SiO2 = C2S
Tricalcium aluminate: 3CaO Al2O3 = C3A
Tetracalcium aluminoferrite: 4CaO Al2O3FeO3 = C4AFe

Tricalcium silicate hardens rapidly and is largely responsible for initial set and
early strength. In general, the early strength of Portland cement concretes will be
higher with increased percentage of C3S. Dicalcium silicate hardens slowly, and its
effect on strength increases occurs at ages beyond one week. Tricalcium aluminate
contributes to strength development in the first few days because it is the first
compound to hydrate. It is, however, the least desirable component because of its
high heat generation and its reactiveness with soils and water containing moderateto-high sulfate concentrations. Cements made with low C 3A contents usually
generate less heat, develop higher strengths, and show greater resistance to sulfate
attacks. Tetracalcium aluminoferrite assists in the manufacture of Portland cement
by allowing lower clinkering temperature. C 4AFe contributes very little to the
strength of concrete even though it hydrates very rapidly.
Properties of Portland Cement
1. Fineness
One factor which affects the hydration of cement, regardless of its
chemical composition, is its fineness. The finer a cement is ground, the
higher the heat of hydration and resulting accelerated strength gain.
2. Soundness
Soundness is the ability of a cement to maintain a stable volume after
setting. An unsound cement will exhibit cracking, disruption, and
eventual disintegration of the material mass. This delayed-destruction
expansion is caused by excessive amounts of free lime or magnesium.

3. Setting Time
A cement used in concrete must not set too fast, for then it would be
unworkable, that is, it would stiffen and become hard before it could be
placed or finished. When it sets too slowly, valuable construction time
is lost. Most Portland cements exhibit initial set in about 3 hours and
final set in about 7 hours. If gypsum were not added during final
grinding of normal Portland cement, the set would be very rapid.
4. Compressive Strength
The ability of a cement to develop compressive strength in a concrete
is an important property. Compressive strength is the ability of the
cement to resist squeezing (compressive) load without fracture.
Types of Cement
1. Portland Cements
It is the product obtained by pulverizing clinker consisting essentially of
hydraulic calcium silicates, to which no additions have been made
before calcinations other than water or untreated calcium sulfate,
provided the addition will not exceed 1.0%. it is the main raw material
in the production of concrete.
2. Pozzolans
Since the beginning of the Christian era, the Italians have successfully
employed pozzolan cement, made by grinding 2 to 4 parts of a pozzolan with
1 part of hydrated lime. A pozzolan is a material which is not cementitious in
itself but which becomes so upon admixture with lime. The early strength of
such a cement is lower than that of Portland cement, but within a year the
strengths are equal. The advantage of this cement is that it resists the
corrosive action of saline solutions and seawater much better than does
Portland cement.
3. High Alumina Cements
High-alumina cement, essentially a calcium aluminate cement is
manufactured by fusing a mixture of limestone and bauxite, the latter usually
containing iron oxide, silica, magnesia, and other impurities. It is
characterized by a very rapid rate of development of strength and superior
resistance to seawater and sulfate-bearing water.
4. Silicate Cements
Silica-filled, chemically setting silicate cements withstand all
concentrations of inorganic acids except hydrofluoric. They are not suitable at
pH values above 7 or in the presence of crystal-forming systems. Usually 2
parts by weight of finely divided silica powder is used to 1 part of sodium
silicate. Two typical applications are the joining of bricks in chromic acid
reaction tanks and in alum tanks.

5. Sulfur Cements
Since 1900, sulfur cements have been available commercially as
simple mixture of fillers, and since 1930, as homogeneous plasticized filled
sulfur ingots possessing low coefficients of expansion. Sulfur cements are
resistant to nonoxidizing acids and salts but should not be used in the
presence of alkalis, oils, greases, or solvents. The crystalline change in sulfur
structure at 93C limits their use. Thiokol-plasticized silica-filled sulfur
cements have been accepted as a standard material for joining bricks, tile,
and cast-iron pipe.
6. Quick setting Cement
Used in works to be completed in very short period.
7. White Cement
It is more costly and is used in architectural purposes such as facing
panels and terrazzo surface.
8. Colored Cement
It is widely used for decorative works in floors.