MANAGEMENT OF TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

Unit 1
Introduction to training and learning: Definition of training and learning;
Pedagogy; Awareness of best practice and current trends; Understanding
training methods (Off-the-Job Training Methods, On-the-Job Training
Methods and Technology-Based Training Methods); Understanding the key
elements of learning and learning transfer

Training
Organized activity aimed
at
imparting
information
and
/
or
instructions to improve the recipient's performance or to help him or her attain
a required level of knowledge or skill.

Learning
Measurable and relatively permanent change in behavior through experience,
instruction, or study. Whereas individual learning is selective, group learning is
essentially political its outcomes depend largely on power playing in the group.
Learning itself cannot be measured, but its results can be. In the words of Harvard
Business School psychologist Chris Argyris, learning is "detection and correction of
error" where an error means "any mismatch between our intentions and what
actually happens."
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------'Training' suggests putting stuff into people, when actually we should be developing
people from the inside out - so they achieve their own individual potential - what
they love and enjoy, what they are most capable of, and strong at doing, rather
than what we try to make them be.
'Learning' far better expresses this than 'training'.
Training is about the organisation. Learning is about the person.
Training is (mostly) a chore; people do it because they're paid to. Learning is quite
different. People respond to appropriate learning because they want to; because it
benefits and interests them; because it helps them to grow and to develop their
natural abilities; to make a difference; to be special.
Training is something that happens at work. Learning is something that people
pursue by choice at their own cost in their own time. Does it not make sense for
employers to help and enable that process? Of course it does.
The word 'learning' is significant: it suggests that people are driving their own
development for themselves, through relevant experience, beyond work related

skills and knowledge and processes. 'Learning' extends the idea of personal
development (and thereby organisational development) to beliefs, values, wisdom,
compassion, emotional maturity, ethics, integrity - and most important of all, to
helping others to identify, aspire to and to achieve and fulfil their own unique
individual personal potential.
Learning describes a person growing. Whereas 'training' merely describes, and
commonly represents, transfer of knowledge or skill for organisational gain, which
has generally got bugger-all to do with the trainee. No wonder people don't typically
enjoy or queue up for training.
When you help people to develop as people, you create far greater alignment and
congruence between work and people and lives - you provide more meaning for
people at work, and you also build and strengthen platform and readiness for any
amount of skills, processes, and knowledge development that your organization will
ever need.
Obviously do not ignore basic skills and knowledge training, for example: health and
safety; how to use the phones, how to drive the fork-lift, etc - of course these basics
must be trained - but they are not what makes the difference. Train the essential
skills and knowledge of course, but most importantly focus on facilitating learning
and development for the person, beyond 'work skills' - help them grow and develop
for life - help them to identify, aspire to, and take steps towards fulfilling their own
personal unique potential.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------"Training is the systematic development of the attitudes/knowledge/skill behaviour
patterns required by an individual in order to perform adequately a given task or
job." Patrick.

The link between training and learning

Learning is a natural process, whereas training is a managed or engineered process.
The words 'managed' and 'engineered' emphasize that training is effective to a
greater or lesser extent by virtue of what a person in control of that training - who
might be called a training officer, an instructor, a supervisor or a manager - does to
ensure that the conditions that the learner experiences are suitable to enable
learning to occur. Trainees learn when these conditions are appropriate. Training is
concerned with manipulating those conditions. This does not mean that in order to
train it is necessary to understand how people learn in any scientific sense. Music
teachers, driving instructors and parents are often successful in helping others to
learn without possessing knowledge of the psychology of learning.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Pedagogy
is the science and art of education. Its aims range from the full development of the
human being to skills acquisition.

PRODUCT AND PROCESS OF TRAINING

The product of training refers to the outcome of a training intervention.2 Training
will be undertaken to teach new capabilities or to improve performance in order to
serve the interests of the organisation - to improve productivity, flexibility, accuracy,
trainability, attitude, response, good practices, reliability and so on. It is to ensure or
improve whatever aspect of performance the organisation values. The resultant
performance in the context of work demands is the product of that training.
The processes of training refer to the things that are done in order to attain this
training product. This means the conditions that are specified in order to ensure that
a person being trained learns what is required and to the required standard. The
processes of training will expose the trainee to a number of different methods
before competency can be assumed.
Objectives of Training
Training activities and businesses objectives are related each other as links. With
the effective training program, organization easily catches their objectives. Training
activities has some general objectives. They are;
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Orienting new employee to the organization and their job

Helping employees perform their current jobs well
Helping employees qualify for the future jobs
Keeping employees informed
Providing opportunities for personal development

EFFECTIVE TRAINING PRODUCES MANY BENEFITS FOR BOTH

EMPLOYEES AND ORGANIZATION OVERALL.
For the employees training creates;
1. Greater job satisfaction and morale among employees: employees take more
satisfaction in a job when they know how to do it well. If they are not sure
what to do or how to do it properly, they can become frustrated and
dissatisfied with their work.
2. Improved self-esteem: the combination of job satisfaction and peer
acceptance leads to improved self-esteem.

3. Opportunity to advance in the organization: employees who demonstrate

excellent performance at one level in an organization often have the
opportunity to advance to other levels of responsibility.
4. Increased employee motivation

For the organization, training causes;

1. Increased productivity: employees who know how to perform their jobs are
more effective and more productive than those who learn through error and
trial are.
2. Higher levels of customer satisfaction: employees are able to take care of
customers properly and have better skills for solving customer-related
problems.
3. Improved quality: standards are met when people know what the organization
expects from them
4. Increased innovation in strategies and products
5. Reduced employee turnover.
6. Enhanced company image

TRAINING NEED ANALYSIS

1. WHY conducting training need analysis ?
2. Increases the chances that the time and money spent on training would be
spent wisely
3. Determines the benchmark for evaluation of training
4. Increases the motivation of participants
5. Provides an essential component in the implementation of the strategic plan
6. Allows trainer to present logical explanation, at the start of training about
what is not happening now( but should be) on the job, and how the training
will be useful
7. For most types of training, need analysis will increase the relevance
effectiveness of training.
Methods of Conducting Need Analysis
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Advisory Committee
Job Description and Job Specification
Work Sampling
Performance Appraisals:
Skill Tests:
Questionnaires
Exit Interviews

Awareness of best practice and current trends

Training and development is a critical aspect of an organization's talent
management strategy. Every organization needs to invest in it to attract and retain

talent and grow their employees' knowledge base and capabilities. Here are five
current trends influencing training and development.
1. Trend #1: Training is a means of keeping, developing, and rewarding talent.
2. Trend #2: Investments in training and development remain strong.
3. Trend #3: Managerial and supervisory training is the most common type of
training.
4. Trend #4: Training and development methods are evolving.
5. Trend #5: Training and development drives results.
Multimedia and Online Training
If youre not in multimedia or online training, youd better be thinking about it,
said one trainer to another at a recent training conference. Both the Exposition and
the Conference sessions echoed this sentiment. A recent ASTD conference featured
less multimedia, but online providers of educational sessions proliferated. Even
though the current move in organizations has been to offer training on CDs, Webbased training (WBT) is not far behind.
As one booth worker explained, There are basically three market segments these
companies are going after. They want to be aggregators of content from whom
organizations purchase a set of courses to offer internally. They want to develop and
offer their own courses for an annual or pay by course fee. Or, they want to offer
classes to individual consumers.
The quality of the courses varies as does the amount and type of multimedia used
in their presentation.
Additional Topics Generated by Web Based Training (WBT)
This move to online learning has created several sub-conversations. One is
Electronic Performance Support Systems (EPSS) that deals with the interface
between people and software. Another is creating and offering courses that trainees
will actually finish; the drop out rate in self-monitored training is high.
In a less positive direction, some providers of traditional training were attempting to
move traditional, manual-based courses online. The resultant courses looked like
training manuals online and did not tap into the advantages of the Web including
interconnectivity and the ability to publish real-time, up-to-the-minute information.
Finally, training professionals were discussing how to integrate a real, live instructor
and peer interaction with Web-based or CD training.
Performance Consulting
Human Performance Technology or performance consulting is changing the face of
the traditional training department forever. Few training organizations offer trainer-

led, generic classes as the only, or even major, solution to organizational challenges
and opportunities any more.
Emphasis is now placed on providing a range of potential solutions and assists that
include in-depth needs assessment via interviews, surveys and focus groups.
Alternatives to training offered by progressive human resource departments include
coaching, organizational development or planned change consultation and
interventions, facilitated planning sessions and large group processes. The training
that is provided is often custom-designed with stated outcomes congruent with the
direction of the business.
Performance Management
Another trend that is sweeping the field of human resources is the integration of
training and development into an entire performance management system.
Organizations are moving away from the long-established, one-on-one appraisal or
performance review with a boss held once per year.
They are designing performance management systems, instead, that provide an
individual with personal and professional developmental goals and training
opportunities. In a performance management system, people receive more frequent
feedback from many points of view including peers, direct reporting staff members
and the boss. The feedback, known as 360-degree feedback, provides a more
balanced set of observations for the employee.
The performance management system also integrates a performance development
plan for the individual. This plan assists the employee to continue to develop his
skills and abilities. For these plans, preference is accorded to integrated corporate
university courses and internally custom designed and presented training.
Performance development plans may include coursework, but also provide learning
activities on the job such as special projects, serving on cross-functional teams, and
skill stretching job assignments.
Conclusions About Training Trends
One training trend is for sure. Traditional classroom training is no longer the
exclusive opportunity to learn. The age of training that includes training CDs, email
classes, online learning, blended learning and university degrees online is
exploding. These training opportunities are here to stay. I look forward to watching
and participating in their growth and change.

TRAINING METHODS
1. TRAINING COGNITIVE METHODS

2. OFF THE JOB TRAINING

3. BEHAVIOURAL METHODS (ON THE JOB TRAINING)
Cognitive Methods
Cognitive methods provide verbal or written information, demonstrate relationships
among concepts, or provide the rules for how to do something. These stimulate
learning through their impact on cognitive processes and are associated most
closely with changes in knowledge and attitudes. These types of methods can also
be called as off-the-job training methods.
Behavioral Methods
Behavioral methods allow trainee to practice behaviour in real or simulated fashion.
They stimulate learning through behaviour are best for skill development and
attitude change. These methods can be called as on-the-job training methods.
1. Thus either behavioural or cognitive learning methods can effectively be used
to change attitudes, though they do so through different means.
2. Cognitive methods are best for knowledge development and behavioural
methods for skill development . The decision about what approach to take to
training depend on several factors that include the amount of funding
available for training,
3. specificity and complexity of the knowledge and skills needed,
4. timeliness of training needed, and the capacity and
5. motivation of the learner.
To be effective, training method should
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Motivate the trainee to improve performance

Provide for active participation by the trainee
Encourage positive transfer from training to job
Provide timely feedback on the trainees performance
Be structured from simple to specific problems
Orientation

Orientation is the formal introduction of the new employees to the organization and
to the job. Orientation answers what questions new employees have on the first
day of the work.
Orientation is a specific taype of training which is given to the new employee
Why Orientation Is Important
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Orientation explains basics often provided in an employee handbook

Rules and policies are often discussed
Makes new employee feel at ease
Describes the organization the big picture
Defines expected work behavior

6. Socializes new employee in companys ways

COGNITIVE METHODS (OFF THE JOB TRAINING METHODS)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

The Lecture
Computer Based Training
Vestibule Training: Simulation
Business Games
Case Studies
Role Playing

1. The Lecture
a. The lecture is best used to create a general understanding of a topic or to
influence attitudes through education about a topic.
b. T he most common form of off-the-job training is the oral presentation of
information to an audience
2. Computer Based Training
a. Computer based training can be defined as that any training that occurs
through the use of computer.
b. E- Learning new ways of delivering training programs are constantly being
developed in the attempts to match the high speed at which businesses are
moving. One of the new methods of delivering training programs is with
online .
3. Vestibule Training : Simulation
a. Vestibule Training involves the virtual duplication of work environment in an
off-site setting.
b. Simulation exercises place the trainee in an artificial environment that closely
imitates actual working conditions where the trainer demonstrates on the
same kind of machine and using the same procedures that trainees will use
on the job.
4. Business Games
a. Business games are another form of simulations that attempt to indicate the
way in an industry, company, or subunit of company functions. Generally,
they are based on a set of relationships, rules, and principles derived from
the theory or research.
b. In this type of training, participants learn how to deal with a variety of issues
in a simulated business environment. Trainees are provided with information
describing a situation and are asked to make decisions about what to do.
(e.g., develop leadership skills , strengthen executive and upper management
skills )
5. Case Studies
a. D etail s of series of events, either real or hypothetical, which take place in a
business environment.

b. When this method of training used, participants asked to sort through data
provided in the case to identify the principal issues and then propose solutions to
these issues
6. Role Playing
a. The purpose of this method is to give participants a chance to experience
such situations in a controlled setting.
b. Trainees are provided with a description of the context usually a topic area, a
general description of a situation, a description of their roles, and the
problem they each face.
Each of the formats has particular types of skills for, which is most
appropriate.
1. Vestibule training obviously is best at teaching people how to work with
equipment.
2. Business games are best for developing business decision-making skills and
for exploring and solving complex problems
3. Case studies are most appropriate for developing analytic skills, higher-level
principles, and complex problem-solving strategies.its focus is more on the
what to do(strategic knowledge) than on the how to get it done(skills)
4. Role plays provide a good vehicle for developing interpersonal skills and
personal insight, allowing trainees to practice interacting with others and
receiving feedback
BEHAVIOURAL METHODS ON THE JOB TRAINING
On-the-job training places employees in actual work situation and makes them
immediately productive.
On-the-job training involve learning by doing, relies on demonstration and coaching.
This form helps particularly to develop the occupational skills necessary to manage
an organization, to fully understand the organizations products and services and
how they are developed and carried out.
BEHAVIOURAL METHODS ON THE JOB TRAINING
1.
2.
3.
4.

Job Rotation
Coaching
Apprenticeship Training
Internship

Job Rotation
1. Job rotation is the systematic movement of employees from job to job or
project to project within an organization, as a way to achieve many different
human resources objectives.

2. Excellent job rotation program can decrease the training cost while also
increasing the impact of training, because job rotation is a hands on
experience. Make individuals more self-motivated, flexible, adaptable,
innovative, eager to learn and able to communicate effectively and better
understanding of strategic issues.
3. One of the possible problems with the rotation programs will be the cost,
because job rotation increase amount of management time to spent on lower
level employees.
Coaching
1. Coaching is the process of one-on-one guidance and instruction to improve
knowledge, skills and work performance.
2. Coaching is becoming a very popular means of development, and often
includes working one-on-one with the learner to conduct a needs assessment,
set major goals to accomplish, develop an action plan, and support the
learner to accomplish the plan.
Apprenticeship Training
Apprenticeship is another form of on-the-job training, is one of the oldest forms of
training. Apprenticeship are designed to provide planned, practical instruction over
a significant time span. Apprenticeship were the major approach to learning a craft.
Internship
Internship are opportunities for students to get real world experience, often during
summer vacations as a part of fulfilling requirements for degree programs.
Internship are offered usually by organization to college students wanting to find
work experience. The internship offer precious, real life job experience and the
organization often get skilled, highly dedicated service.
On-the-job training is clearly useful method for skill development, since trainees
implementing their knowledge in the actual job conditions. Transfer of training
naturally occurs. Because employees getting on-the-job training are actually
working, not being trained in classroom, it has clear cost advantages, if it is done
effectively.
Productivity will be lower during the training, because neither the trainee nor the
trainer will be producing full capacity. But it is real that on-the-job training method is
really cost effective method over simulations, games and computer based training
modules.

Training For Special Purposes

Global business training samples include:

1. Executive etiquette for global transactions

2. Cross-cultural technology transfer
3. International protocol and presentation
4. Business basics for the foreign executive
5. Language training
6. Diversity training
7. Better cross-cultural sensitivity
8. Results examples:
9. Improving technical skills
10.Socialization
Lifelong Learning
1. Lifelong learning provides continuing training from basic remedial skills to
advanced decision-making techniques throughout an employees career
2. New & old skills alike are learned & updated continuously

Managerial Development
Management development is any attempt to improve managerial performance by
imparting knowledge, changing attitudes, or increasing skills with an aim to
enhance the future performance of the company itself

Managerial On-the-job Training

1. Job rotation
2. Coaching/understudy approach

Managerial Off-the-job Training

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

The case study method

Games
Seminars
University programs
Role playing
In house development

Five distinguishing elements OF LEARNING

Ability-dictates the prospects of success in any purposeful activity
Aptitude innate talent or gift
Interests
Family and cultural background
Attitude perspective and disposition
These five elements make learners different from one another.

Following core components are at the heart of good teaching:

1.
2.

Clear expectation of learning what is being taught?

The value of the message what is the impact or result of using this
new information?
3.
The right delivery method (everyone learns differently what is the
right approach for this audience and this message?
4.
A follow-up process to assess the effectiveness of the lesson how did
the class or audience understand and use the new information?

Transfer of Learning
Definition
Transfer of learning is the ability to apply knowledge learned in one context to new
contexts.
Transfer of learning occurs when the learner recognizes common features among
concepts, skills, or principles; links the information in memory; and sees the value
of utilizing what was learned in one situation in another.
Examples
1.
2.
3.
4.

Knowledge of French may help student learn Spanish

Learning to drive a car helps a person to later drive a truck
Learning mathematics prepares students to study physics
Learning to get along with siblings may prepare one for getting along better
with others

5.
Why is it Important?
1. If there were no transfer, students would need to be taught every act that
they would ever perform in any situation.
2. Because the learning situation often differs from the context of application,
the goal of training is not accomplished unless transfer occurs
3. All new learning involves transfer based on previous learning (Bransford, 41).
4. If we did not transfer some of our prior knowledge, then each new learning
situation would start from scratch.
5. Assumption of education: what is taught in a course will be used in relevant
situations in other courses, in the workplace and out of school

Factors that Affect Transfer

1.Initial acquisition of knowledge is necessary for transfer.

a. Rote learning (memorizing isolated facts) does not tend to facilitate transfer,
learning with understanding does
b. Transfer is affected by degree to which students learn with understanding
2. Context plays a fundamental role.
a. Knowledge learned that is too tightly bound to context in which it was learned will
significantly reduce transfer
1. Knowledge that is overly contextualized can reduce transfer; abstract
representations can promote transfer (Bransford, 41).
2. Attempts to cover too much too quickly may hinder transfer.
3. Motivation affects the amount of time people are willing to devote to learning.
4. People are more motivated when they can see the usefulness of what they
are learning

Positive vs. Negative

Positive transfer: when learning in one context improves performance in some
other context
Speakers of one language find it easier to learn related rather than unrelated
second languages
Negative transfer: when learning in one context has a negative impact on
performance in another context
Contrasts in vocabulary, pronunciation, and syntax create difficulties
Typically causes problems only in the early stages
Near vs. Far
Near transfer: transfer between very similar contexts
When a mechanic repairs an engine in a new model of car, but with a design similar
to prior models
Much better prospects than far transfer
Far transfer: transfer between contexts that seem alien to one another
A chess player may apply basic strategies to investment practices or policies
Mechanisms of Transfer
1. Abstraction

Highly abstract identical elements can appear in extremely different contexts

Branching of arteries and that of electrical power networks can demonstrate the
same principle (need to deliver something to a region point by point) with
differences in what constitutes a medium (arteries vs. wires)
2. Transfer by affordances
a. During initial learning, the learner may acquire an action schema responsive
to the affordances (the action opportunities) of the learning situation
b. If the potential transfer situation presents similar affordances and the learner
recognizes them, the learner may apply the same action schema there
Low road transfer: when stimulus conditions in the transfer context are similar to
those in a prior context of learning to trigger semi-automatic responses
Fairly reflexive process and occurs most often in near transfer
When a person rents a truck for the first time to move, he/she finds that the familiar
steering wheel and shift evoke useful car-driving responses
High road transfer: depends on abstraction from the learning context and a
conscious search for connections
Generally not reflexive and requires mental effort
A person familiar with chess but new to politics might carry over the chess principle
of control of center, contemplating what it would mean to control the political cente
Sometimes transfer is stimulus driven (the low road); sometimes transfer involves
mindful exploration and challenges (the high road)
Many learning conditions present practice only for a constricted range of examples
and not enough practice to achieve considerable automaticity- granting a meager
basis for reflexive transfer
Numerous learning conditions do not promote mental investments such as active
abstraction and exploration of probable associations

People who are more prone to metacognition are more likely to make such mental
investments
Teaching for Transfer
1. In many situations, transfer will take care of itself
students face instances of reading outside of school- newspapers, books, and so onprint provides a stimulus to call to mind reading skills

In other contexts of learning conditions for transfer are less promising

1. If social studies is not taught by including actual practice in looking at
current events with a historical perspective
2. If social studies instruction does not encourage learners to reflect upon
the eras they are studying and dig up widely applicable questions or
conclusions
Hugging and Bridging
Hugging: instruction directly engage learners in approximations to the performance
desired (maximizing low road transfer)
Teacher may give trial exams rather than only talking about exam technique
Job counselor may engage students in simulated interviews rather than only talking
about interview demeanor
Bridging: instruction encourages searches for possible connections, metacognition,
and mindfulness (emphasizing deliberate conceptual planning and analysis)
Teacher may ask students to develop an exam strategy based on their past
understanding
Job counselor may ask students to construct a plan to highlight their strong points
and downplay their weaknesses in an interview
Instruction that integrates the realistic experiential nature of hugging and the
thoughtful investigative character of bridging is most likely to yield high-quality
transfer (Perkins)

Strategies for Promoting Transfer

Teach subject matter in meaningful contexts
Employ informed instruction
1. Students should learn not only how to explain a concept, but
also to understand when and why the concept is useful
2. Teach subject matter in circumstances as similar as possible to
those in which it will be employed
3. Provide chances to practice using the subject matter in situations that
embody the full range of practical applications that the learner is likely
to come across
4. Present opportunities for allocating practice after the information has
been originally learned

Practice should be spread out over a period of time (not combined into a single
study session)
Encourage positive attitudes toward subject matter
Students will be less likely to avoid topics when they are encountered somewhere
else