Part II

Principle of Hydrostatic Pressure

1. Fluid Pressure, p: the force exerted on a unit area. If F represents
the total force on an area A, and dF is the elemental force on an
elemental area dA, the intensity of pressure is,

dF
p
dA
Note: If the pressure is uniform over the area A, then
F
p
A
Otherwise this formula gives only the average pressure
Units:
lb 2 psf
lb 2 psi
English System:
or
ft
in
Metric System:

gr
cm

S.I. :

m2

2. Pascals Law: states that at any point in a fluid at rest the pressure is
the same in all directions.

3. Variation of Pressure in a Fluid: The pressure at any point in a fluid

at rest is equal to its specific weight, multiplied by the vertical
depth of the point from the surface, or
Liquid surface

p h
h

Note: This relationship is only

true for liquids in which the
specific weight varies with small
changes in elevation

p = .h

3.1

Variation of Pressure of a Fluid

The theory states that a pressure of a fluid are rest or in equilibrium

condition ( or called static fluid) varies directly with the depth (or elevation)
measured from the surface of that fluid.
Consider a vertical homogenous infinitesimal fluid cylindrical element
column having a height of h and a cross-sectional area A with the upper end at the
surface of the fluid as shown below.

Fatm

Applying equilibrium of vertical

forces , we obtain:

F
= W + Fatm
p x A = (h x A) + patm x A
p
= h + patm
= gh + patm

Thus we obtain a relation

p h patm
p gh patm
F

p h patm
p gh patm

equation (2)

where: p = pressure at lower end (at depth h)

= density of fluid
= specific weight of the fluid
g = acceleration due to earth gravity
W = weight of the fluid cylindrical column
F = The total fluid force acting on the lower
end area of the column element.
Fatm = The total atmospheric force acting on
the upper end of the column element.
Patm = atmospheric pressure

N/m2
kg/m3
N/m3
m/s2
N
N

N/m2

= 1.013 bar (or 14.7 psi)

If the effect of atmospheric pressure is not considered, then equation (2)
is reduced to the following:
p = gh (the pressure exerted by the fluid, which varies
directly with the depth h).

3.2

Equipment for Pressure Measurement

There are various types of instruments for measuring pressure. The

commonly used ones are as follows:
3.2.1 Pressure gauge
Elliptical cross section

Metal tube

spring
Pinion gear
joint

Dial scale

Axial

Pressure gauge mechanism

(Bourdon Tube)

3.2.2 Piezometer

h
p+
Piezometers
This is a very simple instrument used for measuring liquid pressure only. The Piezometer is a
glass tube with an end open to the atmosphere. The lower end of the glass tube is connected to
the liquid source to be measured causing the liquid inside the source of container to move
freely within the tube as shown in Fig. above. The height of the liquid in the tube varies directly
with the magnitude of that liquid pressure by the following relation:

p gh h
where:

p = liquid pressure in the container

= density of the liquid
= specific weight of the liquid
g = acceleration due to the earths gravity
h = height of liquid in the piezometer tube

N/m3
kg/m3
N/m3
m/s2
m

3.2.3 Manometer
(a) A Simple manometer or open-end manometer.
p+
h

Simple manometer or open-end manometer.

The simple manometer consists of a glass U tube containing a liquid (normally

mercury) with one end open to the atmospheric pressure and the other end
connected to the fluid source to be measured. The pressure in the fluid source or
container will push the liquid in both sides of the U tube with different levels of
liquid as shown in Fig. above. The level difference of liquid in the U tube can be
used to determine the pressure of the fluid in the container.

(b) Differential manometer

Differential manometer

The differential manometer consists of a U-shape glass tube for measuring the
pressure difference of the fluids in two different containers as shown in Fig.
above. The level difference of liquid in the U tube can be used to determine the
pressure difference of the fluids in the two
containers.

(c) An inclined manometer

An inclined manometer

In the case the pressure in the container is very low which causes the level difference in the
liquid in the U tube to be very small. This makes it very difficult to read the value of h. Thus if
the tube on the right hand side is inclined the linear length of the liquid in the right hand
tube will increase resulting in a more accurate reading of the length H as shown in Fig.
above. The ratio of h /H is sin or
h = H.sin
Where: sin can be 1/10, 1/5 or 1/2 or any other fractions.
Thereby the value of H obtained from the length reading of the inclined tube can then be
used to determine the fluid pressure in the container.

3.2.4 Pressure sensor and indicator (optional)

The digital pressure indicator consists of sensor head capable of transmitting a
pressure value and convert it into electrical ( i.e., mA or V) signals. The signal is then further
transmitted and converted into digital numbers on the monitor screen.

3.2.5 Mercury Barometer (optional)

patm

Barometer
This type of pressure measuring equipment is essentially a manometer for measuring
atmospheric pressure. It consists of a glass tube closed at one end and open at the other end.
The tube is initially filled with a liquid (normally mercury). It is then turned over into an upside
down position with the open end submerged in a small container of the same liquid as show in
Fig. above.
The height of the liquid column h rising above the surface of the liquid in the container can be
used to determine the atmospheric pressure.

3.2.6 Aneroid Barometer (optional)

Aneroid barometer is a device for measuring atmospheric pressure. The
aneroid is an exhausted chamber with corrugated diaphragm walls, the collapsing of
which is resisted by a spring. The deflections of the diaphragms against the spring are
indicated or recorded by a lever mechanism. The aneroid barometer is also made in
the more accurate null type in which the diaphragm is brought back to an initial
position by changing the tension of the loading spring. This same motion rotates the
scale to give the new reading.

In case of the atmospheric pressure, the variation is given by,

a) If is assumed a constant,

po

dp dh
0

b) If is considered to vary,

p
n 1 gh
1

po
n RTo

n
n 1

c) For isothermal process, n = 1

p
e
po

g h
RTo

Where; n = 1.2 for wet adiabatic process

n = 1.4 for dry adiabatic process

d) Temperature decreasing linearly with elevation

To

po K
To
p

po To K h
po = absolute pressure at sea level
p = absolute pressure at h above sea level
R = gas constant
To = absolute temperature at sea level
K = -0.00356 R/ft = -0.00650 K/m

Case c

Case d

Atmospheric, Gage and Absolute Pressure

4.1 Atmospheric or Barometric Pressure, Patm : The pressure exerted
by the atmosphere on every surface with which it comes in
contact. This is measured by means of Mercury Barometer which
was discovered by Torricelli in 1643. Under normal conditions
at sea level the atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psi or 2116 psf or
1.01325 bar or 101.325 kPa or 30 in. (760 mm)of mercury
column in the barometer.
4.2 Gage Pressure, pg : The pressure measured by means of gages
above or below the atmospheric level. At sea level, gage
pressure is zero.

4.3 Absolute Pressure, pabs : The pressure measured above

absolute zero. At sea level, under normal conditions,
absolute pressure is 14.7 psi or 2116 psf. Obviously, a
negative absolute pressure is impossible.
The relationship between these pressures is

pabs patm pg

See illustration below

Atmospheric Level
z
B

Atmospheric Pressure

v
Absolute Zero Level

y gage pressure at point A (+)

z gage pressure at point B (-)
x absolute pressure at point A
v absolute pressure at point B
Note: The term vacuum means a
negative gage pressure and the
term atmosphere is used for
absolute pressure.
1 atmosphere = 14.7 psi absolute
= zero gage

5. Pressure Head, h: The height of a column of a homogeneous fluid of

specific weight, that will produce an intensity of pressure p at its
bottom, or
p
h

6. Transmission of Pressure: At any point, 1, h units below point 2, the

pressure is,

p1 p2 h

This principle is attributed also to Pascal and was applied to the

F W1
F W2
concept of hydraulic jack F2
p 1
p 2
1

F1

W1

Liquid,

W2

A1

A2

where: W and W - weights of the plungers

A and A - areas of the plungers
F - applied force to raise up the
weight W and F

7. Solution of an Open Manometer Problem

i. Make an appropriate sketch of the given manometer
ii. Number in order the levels of contact of fluids of different
specific gravities starting at the atmospheric level.
iii. Starting with the atmospheric pressure head, proceed from
level to level, adding pressure heads as the elevation decreases
and subtracting pressure heads as the elevation increases,
multiplying the increase or the decrease in the elevation by the
corresponding specific gravities of the fluids.
This method gives all the pressure heads in head of water.
Note: For the differential manometer problems, the method given
above can be used except that there is no atmospheric leg and
the addition and subtraction of pressure heads may be started
from any of the two points of unknown pressures.

8. Variation in Atmospheric Pressure

ALTITUDE ABOVE SEA LEVEL
FEET
METER
0
0
1000
305
2000
610
3000
915
4000
1220
5000
1525
5280
1610
6000
1829
7000
2134
8000
2439
9000
2744
10000
3049

PRESSURE
14.69 psi = 101.26 kPa
14.17 psi = 97.67 kPa
13.66 psi = 94.16 kPa
13.16 psi = 90.71 kPa
12.68 psi = 87.40 kPa
12.21 psi = 84.16 kPa
12.08 psi = 83.26 kPa
11.76 psi = 81.06 kPa
11.32 psi = 78.03 kPa
10.89 psi = 75.06 kPa
10.48 psi = 72.24 kPa
10.09 psi = 69.55 kPa

69.55

3049

9. Vapor Pressure Heads of Water ( Feet of Water)

Pv

F
0
20
40
50

Pv

F
80
100
120
140

0.05
0.13
0.28
0.41

1.16
2.17
3.87
6.63

Pv

F
160
180
200
212

10.9
17.28
26.52
33.84

10. Vapor Pressure Heads of Water ( Meters of Water)

Temperature
C

Vapor Pressure Head

Pv/ (m)

Temperature
C

Vapor Pressure Head

Pv/ (m)

0.06

60

2.03

10

0.12

70

3.20

20

0.25

80

4.96

30

0.44

90

7.18

40

0.76

100

10.33

50

1.26

Example 1. What height of a column of special gage liquid ( s = 2.95)

would exert the same pressure as a column of oil 4.57 m high
( s = 0.84) ?

ps po or

s hs o ho

where:

N
N
ss w 2.95 9810 m3 28,939.5 m3
N
N
so w 0.84 9810 m3 8,240.4 m3

N
N
28,939.5 3 hs 8,240.4 3 4.57m
m
m
hs 1.3m

Example 2. What height of a column of water ( s = 1.0 ) would exert the

same pressure as a column of liquid with specific gravity s ?
L
Solution.

pw pL or

w hw L hL

w hw sL w hL
hw sL hL

Example 3.
A water barometer reads 10 m. If the temperature is 20
C, what is the pressure of the atmosphere in kPa?
Solution:
From table, the pressure head of water at 20 C is
pv
0.25m
w
The height of water in the barometer is expressed by the
difference of atmospheric pressure head and the vapor pressure
head.
p a pv
N
h

pa 9810 3 10.25m
w w
m
N
pa
pa 100,553 2 or pa 100.553kPa
10
0.25
m

pa

10 0.25

Example 4.
head in:

If the pressure in a tank of oil (s = 0.80) is 414 kPa, what is the

(a) m of oil;

(b) m of water

(c) mm of mercury ( s=13.6)

Assuming the specific weight of water is 9810 N/m3.

Solution:
3 N
414 x10 2
p
p
m
52.752m

ho
(a)
o so w 0.80 9810 N

3
m

3 N
414
x
10
2
p
m
hw
42.202m

(b)
N
w
9810 3
m
N
414 x103 2
p
p
m

3.103m 3103mm

hm
( c)
m sm w 13.6 9810 N

3
m

Example 5.
The pressure in a gas tank is 2.75 atmosphere. Compute
the absolute pressure in psi , the gage pressure in psi and the pressure
head in ft. of water assuming the specific weight of water is 62.4 lb/ft3.
Solution:
The absolute pressure in psi is,
14.7 psi
pabs 2.75atm
40.425 psi
atm
The gage pressure in psi is,
p g pabs patm 40.425 14.7 25.725 psi

The pressure head in ft of water is,

lb
lb
25.725 2
25.725 2
p
in
in
hw

lb
w
62.4 3
62.4
ft

144in 2
x
ft 2
59.365 ft
lb
ft 3

Example 6.
A gage on the suction side of a pump shows a vacuum of
250 mm of mercury. Compute (a) the pressure head in m of water;
(b) The pressure in kPa; ( c) absolute pressure in kPa if the barometer
reads 737 mm of mercury. The specific weight of water is 9810 N/m3.

Solution:
(a) The pressure head in m of water is,

3 N
101.325 x10 2
m
250mmHg
760mmHg

p 250mmHg

hw
N
w 9810 N
9810 3
m
m3
(b) The pressure in kPa
101.325kPa
33.33kPa
p 250mmHg
760mmHg

3.4m

(c) The absolute pressure in kPa is,

pabs p g patm
pabs

101.325kPa

33.33kPa 737 mmHg

760mmHg

pabs 64.928kPa

Example 7. Assuming the specific weight of air is constant at 12

N
, what is the approximate decrease in pressure in Pascal
3
m
corresponding to a rise in elevation of 305 m?
Solution.
p

po

dp dh

N
p dp 12 m3
o

305m

dh
0

N
p po p 12 3 305m 0
m
N
p 3,660Pa 3,660 2
m

Example 8. On a certain day the barometric pressure at sea level is

765 mm Hg and the temperature is 20 C. The pressure gage on an
airplane flying overhead indicates that the atmospheric pressure at
kN
that point is 73 2 , abs and that the air temperature is 8 C. Calculate
m
as accurately the height of the airplane above sea level. Assume linear
decrease of temperature with elevation.
Solution.
o To

po K
To
p

po To K h
N
, abs
2
m
hm 765mmHg
p 73x103

To 293K

po m hm sm w hm

K 0.00649 K / m
N
o 12.01 3
m

N
N
1m

102
,
514
13.66 9810 3 765mm

2
m
m
1000
mm

continuation

o To

po K
To
p

po To K h

73x10
293

102,514 293 0.00649 h
3

12.01 293
102, 514 0.00649

73x103

12.01293
293

ln
ln
102,514 102,514 0.00649 293 0.00649h

102,514 0.00649 73x103

293
ln

ln
12.01293
293 0.00649h
102,514

293

e
293 0.00649h

102, 514 0.00649 73x103

ln

12.01 293
102, 514

continuation

293

e
293 0.00649h

102, 514 0.00649 73x103

ln

12.01 293
102, 514

293

293 0.00649 h
e

102, 514 0.00649 73x103

ln

12.01 293
102, 514

293

0.00649 h 293
e

102, 514 0.00649 73x103

ln

12.01 293
102, 514

1
293

h
293

73x103
102, 514 0.00649
0.00649

ln
102, 514
12.01 293

h 2807.15m

Example 9.
Given the figure below, determine the pressure at m if
x = 760 mm and y = 760 mm.
1
Air

y
0
CaCl4 ( s = 1.60)

Oil ( s = 0.856)

x
2

Solution:
Using addition and subtraction of pressure heads, expressed
in head of water. The addition and subtraction maybe started at
atmospheric level (level 0) and proceeding from level to level up to
to obtain the algebraic sum of the pressure heads at the level in
consideration ( In this case, it is point m).

1
Air

y = 760 mm

0
CaCl4 ( s = 1.60)

m
Oil ( s = 0.856)

x = 760 mm

Note: In meters of oil, the head is

Starting from level 0, then to level 1, then to level 2 and lastly to level m
pm
N
pm 18,311 2
0 y 1.6 x0.856
m
w
kN
pm
18.311 2
0 0.760m 1.6 0.760m 0.856
m
N
or
9810 3
m
pm 18.311kPa

Example 10. Given the figure below, determine (a) Pm if x = 0.30 m

and y = 0.50 m; (b) how many millimeters in the 12 mm tube will the
fluid rises if the pressure at m is increased by 7 kPa.
12 mm dia. tube

s = 2.95

x
1

125 mm dia.
4 mm dia. tube

s = 0.915

Solution:
(a) Starting at the 0 level and proceeding up to the level m.

0 x2.95 y 0.915

pm

12 mm dia. tube

s = 2.95

X = 0.30 m

125 mm dia.
4 mm dia. tube

y = 0.50 m
s = 0.915

0 x2.95 y0.915

pm

0 0.30m 2.95 0.50m 0.915

N
pm 13,170 2
m

pm

N
9810 3
m
or 13.170kPa

( b ) Let d = drop in the 125 mm dia. Tube.

r = rise in the 12 mm dia. Tube
Note:
Volume that drops = volume that rises

1252 d 122 r

4
2
2
12
125
d

r
r
d or
Note when the pressure at m is
125
12
increased, the fluid inside tends
to push outward.
0

New level

Original level

12 mm dia. tube
s = 2.95

X = 0.30 m

125 mm dia.

New level

4 mm dia. tube
y = 0.50 m
s = 0.915

Consider the new levels

pm
0 r x d 2.95 y d 0.915
w

0 r 0.30 d 2.95 0.50 d 0.915

pm

New level

Original level

12 mm dia. tube
s = 2.95

X = 0.30 m

125 mm dia.

New level

4 mm dia. tube
y = 0.50 m
s = 0.915

0 r 0.30 d 2.95 0.50 d 0.915

13.17 7
9.81

2
2

20.17
12
12

0 r 0.30
r
2
.
95

0
.
50

r
0
.
915

125
125
9.81

r 0.24m

Example 11. In figure, fluid A is water while fluid B is oil (s = 0.85).

If x = 1500 mm and y = 750 mm, find (pm pn).
Fluid B
Level 1

y = 0.75 m

Level n
Level 2

x = 1.50 m

Level m

Fluid A
w

Fluid A

Note : x + z = y + w
or x y = w z
1.50 0.75 = w z
w z = 0.75

Solution: Using addition and subtraction of pressures

Starting from the end pressure pm and proceeding to pn.
p m w w o y w z pn

p m 9810 w 0.859810 0.75 9810 z pn

Fluid B
Level 1

y = 0.75 m

Level n
Level 2

Fluid A
x = 1.50 m

Level m

n
Fluid A

Note: w z = 0.75

p m 9810 w 0.8598100.75 9810 z pn

p m pn 0.859810 0.75 9810w z
p m pn 0.859810 0.75 98100.75

N
p m pn 13,611 2
m

or p m pn 13.611kPa

Exercise Problems:
1. If the pressure 4 m below the free surface is 150 kPa, calculate
its specific weight and specific gravity.
2. If the pressure at a point in the ocean is 1500 kPa, what is the
pressure 20 m below this point? The specific gravity of salt
water is 1.03.
3. An open vessel contains carbon tetrachloride ( s = 1.50 ) to a
depth of 2.5 m and water above this liquid to a depth of 1.5 m.
What is the pressure at the bottom?
4. How many meters of water are equivalent to a pressure of
120 kPa? How many cm of mercury?
5. What is the equivalent pressure in kPa corresponding to one
meter of air at 15 C under standard atmospheric conditions?
6. At sea level a mercury barometer reads 750 mm and at the
same time on the top of the mountain another mercury
barometer reads 745 mm. The temperature of the air is
assumed constant at 15 C and its specific weight assumed
uniform at 12 N/m3. Determine the height of the mountain.

7. At ground level the atmospheric pressure is 101.325 kPa at 15 C.

Calculate the pressure at a point 6500 m above the ground,
assuming (a) no density variation, (b) an isothermal variation of
density with pressure.
8. If the barometer reads 750 mm of mercury, what absolute
pressure corresponds to a gage pressure of 130 kPa?
9. Determine the absolute pressure corresponding to a vacuum of
20 cm of mercury when the barometer reads 745 mm of mercury.
10. If the pressure in a gas tank is 2.50 atmosphers, find the pressure
in kPa and the pressure head in meter of water.
11. The gage pressure at the suction side of a pump shows a vacuum
of 25 cm of mercury. Compute (a) pressure head in meter of
water, (b) pressure in kPa, (c) absolute pressure in kPa if the
barometer reads 750 mm of mercury.
12. The pressure of the air inside a tank containing air and water is
20 kPa absolute. Determine the gage pressure at a point 1.5 m
below the water surface. Assume standard atmospheric pressure.