What are the most important controls on

reservoir quality in carbonate sequences?

The main controls on reservoir quality (porosity and
permeability)
in carbonate sequences are :

depositional fabric (primary lithofacies, texture)

mineral dissolution (creation of secondary porosity)
mineral precipitation (cementation and replacement)
karstification (an important from of mineral
dissolution/precipitation)
compaction
fracturing

Effects of early diagenesis on reservoir quality,

Burial diagenesis will modify reservoir Quality (RQ)
further information required in purple
no

INITIALLY POROUS
AND PERMEABLE UNIT
(Sedimentology)

yes

MARINE DIAGENESIS following deposition

Cementation, little effect on poroperm.
no dissolution
no

EXPOSED
(Sedimentology)

yes

no

Close to
unconformity

METEORIC PHREATIC
limited dissolution,
cementation by low Mg
calcite around grains

COMPACTION
LIMITED?
yes

RQ poor

RQ good

Poroperm decrease, framework

resistant to mechanical compaction
during burial

yes

METEORIC VADOSE
Extensive dissolution
limited but patchy cementation
(especially at pore throats)

Porosity increase, permeability

lowered, framework resistant to
mechanical compaction

no

RQ moderate

RQ moderate

RQ moderate - good

Effects of Burial diagenesis on reservoir quality

further information required in purple

1
mechanical

RQ
REDUCED

COMPACTION
(Effective Stress)

Quantification
of effects?
chemical

2B

2A
RQ
REDUCED

RQ
MAINTAINED

No source of cement?
Hydrocarbon filling?
(Geochemistry)

no

CEMENTATION
(Petrography)

yes

Source of cement
Extent of cement
(Gheochemistry)

3A

RQ
IMPROVED

DISSOLUTION
(Petrography)

local

3B
regional

Reprecipitation as cement
Elsewhere in basin

4A

BURIAL DOLOMITISATION
(Petrography)

5A
RQ
REDUCED
RQ
IMPROVED
RQ MAY
IMPROVED

Yes
(compartmentalise)

No
(inc. permeability)

Import of Ca MgCO3

4B
Cementation

Yes

FRACTURING
(Well Data)

No

RQ
REDUCED
RQ
REDUCED

RQ
IMPROVED
RQ
MAINTAINED

5B

UPLIFT AND EXPOSURE

(Seismic)

Process
Por.
Perm.

1 2A 2B
-ve -ve 0
-ve -ve 0

3A 3B 4A 4B 5A 5B
+ve -ve -ve 0
0
0
+ve -ve -ve +ve -ve +ve

Effects of meteoric diagenesis

on reservoir quality

Meteoric Diagenesis

Effects on RQ
if yes

Was there an aragonite precursor? (I.e. of PreCambrian, Carboniferous, Permian, Triassic or

Tertiary age)
Was it a humid climate at time of exposure?
(Palaeogeographic position)
Was there a high rate of water drainage? (elevation,
climate, size of hinterland)
Was reprecipitation of dissolved CaCO3 as cement
limited (due to high drainage)?

+ve
+ve
+ve

+ve

Effects of karstification
on reservoir quality
Sequence Boundary Karst

Effects on RQ
if yes

Is there a joint/fracture system which may have had

high water throuhput? (may be so if in faulted/folded
terrain, if uplifted or recognizable on seismic)
Was there an aragonite precursor? (I.e. of PreCambrian, Carboniferous, Permian, Triassic or
Tertiary age)
Is the reservoir close to the unconformity/above the
water table?
Is the pore system matrix dominated? (vuggy porosity
may have poor permeability, caverns may be detrimental
to drilling)
Can overlying clays/shales be ruled out? (May infiltrate
porous zone beneath)

+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve

MODIFYING TERMS
GENETIC MODIFIERS
PROCESS

SIZE* MODIFIERS
CLASSES

DIRECTION OR STAGE

SOLUTION
CEMENTATION
INTERNAL SEDIMENT

ENLARGED
REDUCED
FILLED

s
c
i

x
r
f

TIME OF FORMATION
PRIMARY
pre-depositional
depositional
SECONDARY
eogenetic
mesogenetic
telogenetic

EXAMPLES:

+ DIRECTION

P
Pp
Pd
S
Se
Sm
St

mg

large
small

lmg
smg

MESOPORE

ms

large
small

lms
sms

MICROPORE

mc

256
32
4
1/2
1/16

porosity types:
msVUG
smsMO
mcBP

*For regular-shaped pores smaller than cavern size

**Measures refer to average pore diameter of a
single pore or the range in size of a pore assemblage.
for tubular pores use average cross-section. For platy
pores use width and note shape

ABUNDANCE MODIFIERS

TIME

solution-enlarged
cement-reduced primary
sediment-filled eogenetic

MEGAPORE

Use size prefixes with basic

mesovug
small mesomold
microinterparticle

Genetic modifier are combined as follows:

PROCESS

mm**

Percent porosity
or
Ratio of porosity
Ratio and percent or

sx
crP
ifSe

(15%)
(1 : 2)
(1 : 2)(15%)

ANY MODIFYING TERMS ARE COMBINED WITH THE BASIC POROSITY TYPES IN SEQUENCE GIVEN BELOW :
GENETIC MODIFIER
EXAMPLES :

SIZE MODIFIER

intraparticle, 10 percent
primary mesointraparticle porosity
solution-enlarged primary intraparticle porosity
micromoldic porosity, 10 percent
telogenetic cavern porosity

BASIC POROSITY TYPE

ABUNDANCE

WP (10%)
P-msWP
sxP-WP
mcMO(10%)
St-CV
Choquette and Pray, 1970

WP POROSITY
intraparticle porosity
Refers to pores formed where soft body parts lived in
body cavities (e.g., gatropods) or pores where
internal partitioning in otherwise solid material (e.g.,
rudist wall structures)
may add considerably to the total porosity of
grainstones and packstones
are commonly enlarged by dissolution to form moldic
or vuggy porosity
an example follows of 10 perm plugs measured from
three coral heads (Holocene), yielding average
porosities of 47, 63 and 53 %

BC POROSITY
intercrystalline porosity
Forms between crystals of dolomite or
limestone
provides one of the most evenly distributed
types of porosity in carbonates (except for
vugs)
occurs as mesoporosity and macroporosity in
dolomites
occurs as microporosity in limestone (within
the lime mud matrix

BP POROSITY
interparticle porosity
Intergranular pores from spherical triangles
between packed spheres and irregular
between platy grain shapes
rare in lithified rock--not commonly preserved
due to cementation
commonly is modified by thin isopachous rim
cements that form in the marine phreatic
common in jurassic carbonate of the Middle
East and accounts for the success of these
giant reservoirs

KV POROSITY
keystone vug porosity
Forms by the natural bridging of sand
grains to form a keystone arch with
pore space below it
forms in the swash zone of beaches
relatively rare porosity type
recognized in the Pleistocene of the
Bahamas

FENESTRAL POROSITY
A porosity type commonly associated with algal
stromatolite lithofacies
voids formed within algal laminations by algae
forming bridges and growing over other algal
layers or by air/gas pockets within algal layers
fenestra means window in latin and refers to
the window-like openings within algal layers
fenestral porosity may not be effective porosity

PROBLEMS with
CARBONATE RESERVOIR
Heterogeneous porosity and
permeability complex depositional
enviroments diagnetic overprints

GF POROSITY
growth framework porosity
associated with boundstone fabrics and reefs
created by branches or tubes winding and
bridging together to form pore space between
their framework elements (not within them)
one of the most difficult pore types to indentify
may be relatively unimportant, since detritus
commonly fills such spaces at the time of
deposition

MO and VUG POROSITY

moldic and vuggy porosity
molds retain original particle shape
vugs are irregular in shape
aragonite grains are subject to dissolution and
the formation of molds and vugs
molds can leach further to form vugs
the term MV porosity is coined for moldic-vuggy
porosity combinations that are often difficult to
separate
moldic porosity (especially oomoldic) may
represent isolated pores with non-effective
porosity

MAJOR TECTONIC SETTINGS

FOR CARBONATES

Large offshore banks or platforms

The sides of major cratonic blocks
Intracratonic basins
Sub-basins on wide shelves

FR POROSITY
fracture porosity
Brittle versus ductile behavior: dolomites fracture
more readily than limestones
Orientation of most natural fractures is verticle
Maximum amount of porosity due to fracturing (e.g.,
in the Monterrey Shale of California) is about 6 %
It is commonly beneficial to induce fracturing in the
area surrounding the borehole to increase daily
production rates: acid-fracs with propants
Presence of fractures is critical for reservoir facies
development in tight boundstones that grade to
wackestones and in chalk deposits (coccolith
mudstones)

Fractures can be categorized descriptively as

follows:
open fractures
closed fractures
fractures swarm
open microfractures
closed microfractures

PROBLEM: how to distinguish natural from articially induced fractures in cores

1.
Look at the orientation of fractures, most of which should be vertical;
partings caused by unloading will be subpareallel to bedding
2.
Look for the presence of mineral cements lining the fracture
Recommendation: drill exploration holes at the intersection of fracture zones if
possible; lineament analysis by LANDSAT imagery is useful for determining where
such intersections occur. If a fracture intersection can be found within an
exploration fairway, such as a barrier reef trend, the odds for success are
dramatically increased.

BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR

DOLOMITE FORMATION
SOURCE OF Mg
SEAWATER
Mf-RICH CLAYS FOR CEMENT
SKELETAL Mg CALCITE

FLUID FLOW SYSTEM

SUITABLE Mg/Ca RATIO

RESERVOIR QUALITY
POROSITY

PERM

EXCELLENT

> 20 %

> 100 md

GOOD

> 15 %

> 50 md

FAIR

5 15 %

10 50 md

POOR

<5%

< 10 md

DIAGENETIC PHENOMENA
AFFECTING CARBONATES
MINERALOGIC STABILIZATION
ARAGONITE, CALCITE
NEOMORPHISM (REPLACEMENT)
CALCITE, CALCITE
DOLOMITIZATION
CALCITE, DOLOMITE
CEMENTATION
VOID-FILLING CALCITE,
DOLOMITE or
EVAPORITES

SILICIFICATION
PRESSURE SOLUTION /
COMPACTION
DISSOLUTION /
KARSTIFICATION
BRECCIATION / FRACTURING

DIAGENESIS
DEFINITION:
THOSE NATURAL CHANGES WHICH OCCUR IN
SEDIMENTS BETWEEN THE TIME OF INITIAL
DEPOSITION AND METAMORPHISM

COMMON CARBONATE MINERALOGIES

MINERAL

FORMULA

CHARACTERISTICS

ARAGONITE

CaCO3

MG-CALCITE

CaCO3

TRACE IMPURITIES;
ORTHORHOMBIC
4-25% Mg IMPIRITIES;
HEXAGONAL
TACE IMPURITIES;
HEXAGONAL
50% or so Mg;
HEXAGONAL

CALCITE
DOLOMITE

CaCO3
CaMg(CO3)2

FRESH WATER VADOSE ENVIRONMENT

CEMENTS TEND TO BE
MENISCUS
PENDULOUS

OTHER CHARACTERISTICS
LEACHING OF ARAGONITE
SLIGHT CEMENTATION
COMMON POROSITY

FRESH WATER PHREATIC

ENVIRONMENT
CEMENTS TEND TO BE

ISOPACHOUS BLADED
EQUANT CALCITE
INTERLOCKING CRYSTALS
COARSER TO PORE CENTER

OTHER CHARACTERISTICS
SOME LEACHING OF ARAGONITE; LEACHING MAY BE ACCOMPANIED BY
CALCITE REPLACEMENT.
LOW POROSITY
RAPID CEMENTATION
SYNTAXIAL OVERGROWTHS ON ECHINODERMS

MARINE PHREATIC ENVIRONMENT

CEMENTS TEND TO BE

ISOPACHOUS ARAGONITE NEEDLES

MICRITIC Mg-CALCITE
COMMONLY INTERBEDDED WITH INTERNAL SEDIMENT
SOMETIMES BOTRYOIDAL
SOMETIMES BORED

OTHER CHARACTERISTICS
NO LEACHING
SLOW CEMENTATION EXCEPT WHERE TIDES PUMP WATER
THROUGH SEDIMENT
POLYGONAL BOUNDARIES
MANY MINOR DISCONFORMITIES

DEEP SUBSURFACE
ENVIRONMENT

CHARACTERISTICS:

DISSOLUTION or CEMENTATION POSSIBLE

SLOW RATES OF DIAGENESIS CAUSED BY:
NEAR-SURFACE STABILIZATION OF ARAGONITE & Mg-CALCITE TO
FORM CALCITE
NEAR-SURFACE CEMENTATION REDUCES POROSITY & PERMEABILITY
WHICH INHIBITS WATER MOVEMENT IN THE DEEP SUBSURFACE

PERMEABILITAS OF ROCKS
AND SEDIMENTS
Tightly cemented criniodal limestone
Uncemented carbonate mud
Sucrosic dolomite
Cemented quartz or sandstone
or carbonate grainstone
Poorly cemented quartz sandstone
or carbonate grainstone
Unconsolidated quartz sandstone
or carbonate grainstone
Fractured sandstone or carbonate

10 md
0.01 10 md
0.1 150 md
10 300 md
300 500 md

>1000 md
>1000 md

COMPARISON OF MAJOR SUBSURFACE

DIAGENETIC CONTROLS
NEAR-SURFACE

BURIAL DIAGNESIS

STRUCTURAL
CONTROL

MINIMAL
IMPORTANCE

VERY IMPORTANT

MINERAL
STABILIZATION

VERY IMPORTANT

MINIMAL
IMPORTANCE

EQUILIBRIUM
CONDITIONS

WIDE VARIATION

SLIGHT VARIATION

RATE OF WATER
INFLUX

VERY HIGH

LOW

TIME OF RESIDENCE SHORT PERIOD

LONG PERIOD

PRESSURE

UNIMPORTANT

VERY IMPORTANT

TEMPERATURE

UNIMPORTANT

IMPORTANT

TRACE ELEMENTS
ENVIRONMENT

Fe2+

Na+

Sr2+

ISOTOPES

Mn2+ Mg2+

MARINE

FRESHWATER
VADOSE

L
(VAR.)

H
(VAR.)

FRESHWATER
PHREATIC
SUBSURFACE
(Shallow burial)
ENRICHED

H = HEAVY

OCCASIONALLY L = LIGHT
ENRICHED

General Properties of
Carbonate Reservoir Rocks
LITHOLOGY
POROSITY

dolomite
grainstones
boundstones

PRIMARY

interparticle
intraparticle
intercrystalline

SECONDARY

moldic
vuggy
intercrystalline

POSITION
ON PROFILE

INNER-SHELF FAIRWAY
OUTER-SHELF FAIRWAY
MIDDLE-SHELF HIGHS
DEEP-WATER REEFS/ATOLLS

DIAGENESIS

STEADY SUBSIDENCE
SINGLE UPLIFT
MULTIPLE UPLIFTS

ORIGIN of CARBONATE CEMENTS

Cements
definition: crystal growths that form in void spaces in rock (i.e.,
pores and fractures) and occlude porosity
All cements form as precipitates, in mineral-saturated waters
Calcite crystal growth can occur in two main diagenetic realms:
1) shallow burial
2) deep burial
Some cements textures are diagnostic of the diagenetic
environment in which they formed

COMMON ASSEMBLAGES of CARBONATE GRAIN TYPES

Fresh water / lacustrine
0 250 ft
0 salt

low-mod energy

ostracods, algal stromatolites, onkolites, chara seeds, gastropods, plant remains

Tidal flat / brackish / hypersaline

0 15 ft
hyper- to hyposaline

low-mod energy

algal stromatolites, peloids, gastropods, ostracods

Inner shelf (restricted marine)

0 30 ft
hyper- to hyposaline

low- mod energy

algal stromatolites, peloids, gastropods, ostracods, molluscs, mollusc fragments

Middle shelf (subtidal)

0 500 ft normal marine

mod-high energy

bioclasts, crinoids, echinoids, echinoids spines, brachiopods, bryozoa, forams, fusulinids, molluscs,
mollusc fragments, pelecypods, platy green algae, dasyclads

Outer shelf
1) Shoals
0- 30 ft
2)

normal marine

high energy

bioclasts, crinoids, echinoids, echinoid spines, brachiopods, bryozoa, forams, fusulinids, molluscs, mollusc
fragments, pelecypods, platy green, algae, dasyclads, ooids, pisolites, coated grains, peloids, intraclasts

Reef environments
0 200 ft
normal marine

mod-high energy

corals, encrusting red algae, oysters, tubiphytes, rudists, thick branching, corals, thin branching corals,
bryozoa, stromatoporoids

Basinal

>600 ft

normal marine

low energy

spicules, planktonic forams, cephalopods, radiolarians, dinoflagellates, nannofossils, graptolites,

diatoms, fish scales, fish remains, echiniods