Music therapy

1 Approaches

Music therapy is the use of interventions to accomplish

individual goals within a therapeutic relationship by a
professional who has completed an approved music therapy program.[1] Music therapy is an allied health profession and one of the expressive therapies, consisting of
a process in which a music therapist uses music and all
of its facetsphysical, emotional, mental, social, aesthetic, and spiritualto help clients improve their physical and mental health. Music therapists primarily help
clients improve their health in several domains, such as
cognitive functioning, motor skills, emotional development, social skills, and quality of life, by using music
experiences such as free improvisation, singing, and listening to, discussing, and moving to music to achieve
treatment goals. It has a wide qualitative and quantitative research literature base and incorporates clinical
therapy, psychotherapy, biomusicology, musical acoustics, music theory, psychoacoustics, embodied music
cognition, aesthetics of music, sensory integration, and
comparative musicology. Referrals to music therapy services may be made by other health care professionals such
as physicians, psychologists, physical therapists, and occupational therapists. Clients can also choose to pursue music therapy services without a referral (i.e., selfreferral).

Approaches used in music therapy that have emerged

from the eld of education include Or-Schulwerk
(Or), Dalcroze Eurhythmics, and Kodaly. Models that
developed directly out of music therapy are Neurologic
Music Therapy (NMT), Nordo-Robbins and the Bonny
Method of Guided Imagery and Music.[4]
Music therapists may work with individuals who have
behavioral-emotional disorders.[5] To meet the needs of
this population, music therapists have taken current psychological theories and used them as a basis for dierent
types of music therapy. Dierent models include behavioral therapy, cognitive behavioral therapy, and psychodynamic therapy.[6]
One therapy model based on neuroscience, called neurological music therapy (NMT), is based on a neuroscience model of music perception and production, and
the inuence of music on functional changes in nonmusical brain and behavior functions.[7] In other words,
NMT studies how the brain is without music, how the
brain is with music, measures the dierences, and uses
these dierences to cause changes in the brain through
music that will eventually aect the client non-musically.
As one researcher, Dr. Thaut, said: The brain that engages in music is changed by engaging in music.[8] NMT
trains motor responses (i.e. tapping foot or ngers, head
movement, etc.) to better help clients develop motor
skills that help entrain the timing of muscle activation
patterns.[9]

Music therapists are found in nearly every area of the

helping professions. Some commonly found practices include developmental work (communication, motor skills,
etc.) with individuals with special needs, songwriting
and listening in reminiscence/orientation work with the
elderly, processing and relaxation work, and rhythmic
entrainment for physical rehabilitation in stroke victims.
Music therapy is also used in some medical hospitals, cancer centers, schools, alcohol and drug recovery programs,
psychiatric hospitals, and correctional facilities.[2]

2 Children

Music therapy comes in two dierent forms: active and 2.1 Music therapy approaches used with
receptive. In active therapy, the therapist and patient acchildren
tively participate in creating music with instruments, their
voice, or other objects. This allows for the patient to be 2.1.1 Nordo-Robbins
creative and expressive through the art of music. Receptive therapy takes place in a more relaxed setting where
Further information: Nordo-Robbins music
the therapist plays or makes music to the patient who is
therapy
free to draw, listen or meditate. Usually the therapist determines the method unless specically requested by the
Paul Nordo, a Juilliard School graduate and Professor of
patient.[3]
Music, was a gifted pianist and composer who, upon seeing disabled children respond so positively to music, gave
up his academic career to further investigate the possibility of music as a means for therapy. Dr. Clive Robbins, a special educator, partnered with Nordo for over
1

17 years in the exploration and research of musics effects on disabled children- rst in the United Kingdom,
and then in the USA in the 1950s and 60s. Their pilot projects included placements at care units for autistic children and child psychiatry departments, where they
put programs in place for children with mental disorders,
emotional disturbances, developmental delays, and other
handicaps. Their success at establishing a means of communication and relationship with autistic children at the
University of Pennsylvania gave rise to the National Institutes of Healths rst grant given of this nature, and the 5year study Music Therapy Project for Psychotic Children
Under Seven at the Day Care Unit involved research,
publication, training and treatment.[10] Several publications, including Therapy in Music for Handicapped Children, Creative Music Therapy, Music Therapy in Special
Education, as well as instrumental and song books for
children, were released during this time. Nordo and
Robbinss success became known globally in the mental
health community, and they were invited to share their
ndings and oer training on an international tour that
lasted several years. Funds were granted to support the
founding of the Nordo Robbins Music Therapy Centre
in Great Britain in 1974, where a one-year Graduate program for students was implemented. In the early eighties, a center was opened in Australia, and various programs and institutes for Music Therapy were founded in
Germany and other countries. In the United States, the
Nordo-Robbins Center for Music Therapy was established at New York University in 1989.

CHILDREN

dren. Gertrude Or was asked to develop a form of therapy based on the Or Schulwerk approach to support the
emotional development of patients. Elements found in
both the music therapy and education approaches include
the understanding of holistic music presentation as involving word, sound and movement; the use of both music and play improvisation as providing a creative stimulus for the child to investigate and explore; Or instrumentation, including keyboard instruments and percussion instruments as a means of participation and interaction in a therapeutic setting; and lastly, the multisensory
aspects of music used by the therapist to meet the particular needs of the child, such as both feeling and hearing
sound.[12]
Corresponding with the attitudes of Humanistic psychology, the developmental potential of the child- as in the
acknowledgement of their strengths as well as their handicaps, and the importance of the therapist- child relationship are central factors in Or Music Therapy. Theoretical foundations are also inuenced by the strong emphasis
on social integration and the involvement of parents in the
therapeutic process found in social paediatrics. Knowledge of developmental psychology puts into perspective
how developmental disabilities inuence the child, as do
their social and familial environments. The basis for interaction in this method is known as responsive interaction, in which the therapist meets the child at their level
and responds according to their initiatives, combining
both humanistic and developmental psychology philosophies. Involving the parents in this type of interaction,
by having them participate directly or observe the therapists techniques, equips the parents with ideas of how
to interact appropriately with their child, thus fostering a
positive parent-child relationship.[12]

The Nordo-Robbins approach, based on the belief that

everyone is capable of nding meaning in and benetting
from musical experience, is now practiced by hundreds of
therapists internationally. It focuses on treatment through
the creation of music by both therapist and client together.
Various techniques are used to accommodate all capabilities so that even the most low functioning individuals are 2.1.3 Bonny Method of Guided Imagery in Music
(GIM)
able to participate actively.[11]
Further information: Guided imagery
2.1.2

Or Music Therapy
Further information: Or Schulwerk

Developed by Gertrude Or at the Kindezentrum

Mnchen, is another approach known as Or Music
Therapy. Both the clinical setting of social pediatrics
as well as the Or Schulwerk (Schoolwork) approach in
music education (developed by German composer Carl
Or) inuence this method, which is used with children
with developmental problems, delays and disabilities.[12]
The area of social pediatrics was developed after the Second World War in Germany by Theodor Hellbrgge, who
understood that medicine alone could not meet the complex needs of developmentally disabled children. He consulted psychologists, occupational therapists and other
mental healthcare professionals whose knowledge and
skills could aid in the diagnostics and treatment of chil-

Music educator and therapist Helen Lindquist Bonny

(1921 - May 25, 2010) developed an approach inuenced
by humanistic and transpersonal psychological views,
known as the Bonny Method of Guided Imagery in Music, or GIM. Guided imagery refers to a technique used in
natural and alternative medicine that involves using mental imagery to help with the physiological and psychological ailments of patients.[13] The practitioner often suggests a relaxing and focusing image and through the use
of imagination and discussion, aims to nd constructive
solutions to manage their problems. Bonny applied this
psychotherapeutic method to the eld of music therapy
by using music as the means of guiding the patient to a
higher state of consciousness where healing and constructive self- awareness can take place. Music is considered a
co-therapist because of its importance. GIM with children can be used in one-on-one or group settings, and in-

2.2

Assessment and interventions

volves relaxation techniques, identication and sharing of

personal feeling states, and improvisation to discover the
self, and foster growth. The choice of music is carefully
selected for the client based on their musical preferences
and the goals of the session. Usually a classical piece, it
must reect the age and attentional abilities of the child in
length and genre, and a full explanation of the exercises
must be oered at their level of understanding.[13]
The use of guided imagery with autistic children has been
found to decrease stereotypical behaviours and hyperactivity, increase attention and the ability to follow instructions, as well as increase self-initiated communication,
both verbal and non-verbal.[14]

2.2

Assessment and interventions

As with any type of therapy, the practice of Music Therapy with children must uphold standards of conduct and
ethics, agreed upon by national and provincial associations such as the Canadian Association for Music Therapy. In part with this, formal assessment is crucial for understanding the child their background, limitations and
needs, as well as to create appropriate goals for the process and select the means of achieving them. This serves
as the starting point from which to measure the clients
progression throughout the therapeutic process and to
make adjustments later, if necessary. Similarly to how
assessments are conducted with adults, the music therapist obtains extensive data on the client including their full
medical history, musical (ability to duplicate a melody or
identify changes in rhythm, etc.) and nonmusical functioning (social, physical/motor, emotional, etc.).[15] The
assessment process is then carried out in formal, informal, and standardized ways.
The following are the most common methods of
assessment:[16]
Interviews with Clients and/or Family Members
Structured or Unstructured Observation
Reviewing of Client Records
Standardized Assessment Tests
Information gathered at the music therapy assessment is
then used to determine if music therapy is indicated for
the child. The therapist then formulates a music therapy treatment plan, which includes specic short-term objectives, long-term goals, and an expected timeline for
therapy.[17]
Music therapy interventions used with children can fall
into two categories. The rst, Supportive active therapy, is
product- oriented and can included rhythm activities such
as body percussion (stomping feet, clapping hands, etc.),
singing songs which re-inforce nonmusical skills, awareness and expression, or movement to music (as simple as

3
marching to the beat, as complex as structured dances).
The second area is called Insight music therapy which is
process-oriented. Activities could include song-writing,
active listening and reacting, or auditory discrimination
activities for sensory skill development.[18] Music therapy
for children is conducted either in a one-on-one session
or in a group session.[19] The therapist typically plays either a piano or a guitar, which allows for a wide variety of
musical styles to suit the clients preferences. The child is
usually encouraged to play an instrument adapted to his
or her unique abilities and needs.[20] These elements are
designed to improve the experience and outcome of the
therapy.
2.2.1 Prenatal music therapy
Music Therapy can play an important role during pregnancy. At just 16 weeks, a fetus is able to hear their
mothers speech as well as singing. Through technologies, such as ultrasound, health care professionals are able
to observe the movements of the unborn child responding
to musical stimuli. Through these fetal observations, we
see that the baby is capable of expressing its needs, preferences, and interests through movements in the womb.
At the beginning of the second trimester, the ear structure is fully matured. By this time, the fetus will begin
to hear not only maternal sounds, but also vibrations of
instruments.[21]
Prenatal music therapy has three main benets.[22]
1. Prenatal Stress Relief: Pregnant women may experience high levels of stress which can negatively
aect the baby. This will cause the body will release
Norepinephrine and Cortisol hormones which will
increase blood pressure and weaken the immune system of both mother and child.[23] High levels of cortisol exposure in early development can increase the
likelihood of the child later having anxiety, mental
retardation, autism, and depression.[24] Music therapists use music to elevate the stress threshold of
an expectant mother which helps her to maintain a
relaxed state during labour and birthing process.[25]
During a music therapy session, the mother is guided
to listen to her internal rhythms, as well as listing to
the movements and reactions of the fetus in response
to her voice and music. This technique is useful in
helping reduce the mothers level of stress, and prepare her for the birth of her child.[26]
2. Maternal-Fetal Bonding: Communication between the mother and fetus is essential during pregnancy. One way of strengthening the bond between
the two is through music therapy. Music stimulation
helps to develop the fetuss nervous system, structurally and functionally. The unborn child especially
prefers the voice of their mother. The most eective
way to enhance communication is through singing.

2
Lullabies are the most popular songs sung by mothers. Singing lullabies is a wonderful way for mothers to express their love and have the baby become
familiarized with their mothers melodies and intonations which will provide them a sense of security
when they are born, because it will feel just like how
they were in the womb.[27] Electronic voice phenomena studies have shown that the fathers voice engages the fetus from feet to the abdomen - which
will lead the baby to start walking at a younger age.
The mothers voice engages the fetus from waist to
head which will strengthen the babys neck and upper limbs. Not only does prenatal singing benet
the fetus, it also help produce endorphins that automatically reduce the perception of pain and help
relax breathing.[28] A fetus can show preference for
music; observations have shown the fetuss movements are gentle when listening to soothing music,
and comparatively, where there are dissonances included in the music, their movements are bigger and
much more rhythmic, such as rolling. The fetus
would be comforted by hearing slow-pace passages
of Baroque music (Vivaldi and Handel) and lullabies
sung by their mother.[29]
3. Prenatal Language Development: Music is said to
be the unborn childs beginning of language learning. It can be consider as a pre-linguistic language
that prepares the Auditory Sensory System to listen,
combine, and produce language sounds. The fetus
learns through the voice of their mother, not only
from speech but songs. The sound is received by
the baby through bone conduction when the mother
speaks. The singing voice is said to have a wider
range of frequencies than speech. Prenatal sounds
are important during the prenatal period because it
forms the basis of future learning and behaviour.[29]

2.2.2

Music therapy for premature infants

Music therapy has been shown to be very benecial

in stimulating growth and development in premature
infants.[30] Premature infants are those born at 37 weeks
or less gestational stage. They are subject to numerous
struggles, such as abnormal breathing patterns, decreased
body fat and muscle tissue, as well as feeding issues. The
coordination for sucking and breathing is often not fully
developed, making feeding a challenge. The improved
developmental activity and behavioural status of premature infants when they are discharged from the NICU, is
directly related to the stimulation programs and interventions they beneted from during hospitalization, such as
music therapy.
Music is typically conducted by a musical therapist in
Neonatal Intensive Care (NICU), with ve main techniques designed to benet premature infants;[31]
1. Live or Recorded Music: Live or recorded music

CHILDREN

has been eective in promoting respiratory regularity and oxygen saturation levels, as well as decreasing signs of neonatal distress. Since premature infants have sensitive and immature sensory modalities, music is often performed in a gentle and control
environment, either in the form of audio recordings
or live vocalization, although live singing has been
shown to have a greater aect. Live music also reduces the physiological responses in parents. Studies have shown that by combining live music, such as
harp music, with the Kangaroo Care, maternal anxiety is reduced. This allows for parents, especially
mothers to spend important time bonding with their
premature infants. Female singing voices are also
more aective at soothing premature infants. Despite being born premature, infants show a preference for the sound of a female singing voice, making
it more benecial than instrumental music.[32]
2. Promote Healthy Sucking Reex: By using a
Pacier-Actived Lullaby Device, music therapists
can help promote stronger sucking reexes, while
also reducing pain perception for the infant. The
Gato Box is a small rectangular instrument that stimulates a prenatal heartbeat sound in a soft and rhythmic manner that has also been eective in aiding sucking behaviours.[33] The music therapist uses
their ngers to tap on the drum, rather than using a
mallet. The rhythm supports movement when feeding and promotes healthy sucking patterns. By increasing sucking patterns, babies are able to coordinate the important dual mechanisms of breathing,
sucking and swallowing needed to feed, thus promoting growth and weight gain. When this treatment proves eective, infants are able to leave the
hospital earlier.
3. Multimodal Stimulation and Music: By combining music, such as lullabies, and multimodal stimulation, premature infants were discharged from the
NICU sooner, than those infants who did not receive therapy. Multimodal stimulation includes the
applications of auditory, tactile, vestibular, and visual stimulation that helps aid in premature infant
development. The combination of music and MMS
helps premature infants sleep and conserve vital energy required to gain weight more rapidly. Studies
have shown that girls respond more positively than
boys during multimodal stimulation.[34] While the
voice is a popular choice for parents looking to bond
with their premature infants, other eective instruments include the Remo Ocean Disk and the Gato
Box. Both are used to stimulate the sounds of the
womb. The Remo Ocean Disk, a round musical instrument that mimics the uid sounds of the womb,
has been shown to benet decreased heart rate after
therapeutic uses, as well as promoting healthy sleep
patterns, lower respiratory rates and improve sucking behavior.[35]

2.2

Assessment and interventions

4. Infant Stimulation: This type of intervention uses

musical stimulation to compensate for the lack of
normal environmental sensory stimulation found in
the NICU. The sound environment the NICU provides can be disruptive; however, music therapy
can mask unwanted auditory stimuli and promote a
calm environment that reduces the complications for
high-risk or failure-to-thrive infants. Parent-infant
bonding can also be aected by the noise of the
NICU, which in turn can delay the interactions between parents and their premature infants. But music therapy creates a relaxed and peaceful environment for parents to speak and spend time with their
babies while incubated.[36]
5. Parent-Infant Bonding: Therapists work with parents so they may perform infant-directed singing
techniques, as well as home care. Singing lullabies
therapeutically can promote relaxation and decrease
heart rate in premature infants. By calming premature babies, it allows for them to preserve their energy, which creates a stable environment for growth.
Lullabies, such as Twinkle Twinkle Little Star, or
other culturally relevant lullabies, have been shown
to greatly soothe babies. These techniques can also
improve overall sleep quality, caloric intake and
feeding behaviours, which aids in development of
the baby while they are still in the NICU. Singing has
also shown greater results on oxygen saturation levels for infants while incubated, more than mothers
speech alone. This technique promoted high levels
of oxygen for longer periods of time.[37]
2.2.3

Music therapy in child rehabilitation

Music therapy has multiple benets which contribute

to the maintenance of health and the drive toward
rehabilitation for children. Advanced technology that
can monitor cortical activity oers a look at how music engages and produces changes in the brain during
the perception and production of musical stimuli. Music therapy, when used with other rehabilitation methods,
has increased the success rate of sensorimotor, cognitive,
and communication rehabilitation.[38] Music therapy intervention programs can include an average of 18 sessions
of treatment. The achievement of a physical rehabilitation goal relies on the childs existing motivation and feelings towards music and their commitment to engage in
meaningful, rewarding eorts. Regaining full functioning also condes in the prognosis of recovery, the condition of the client, and the environmental resources available. Sessions may consist of either active techniques,
where the client creates music, or receptive techniques,
where the client listens to, analyze, move and respond
to music.[39] Both techniques use systematic processes
where the therapists assist the client by using musical experiences and connections that collaborate as a dynamic
force of change toward rehabilitation.[40] The music is at

5
times chosen by the client, or by the music therapist based
on the clients reciprocation to the music.[41]
Music has many calming and soothing properties that can
be used as a sedative in rehabilitation. For example, a
patient with chronic pain may decrease the physiological
result of stress, and draw attention away from the pain by
focusing on music.[42] Music has the ability to associate
physiological changes in the body and elicit physiological responses such as pulse rate, respiration rate, blood
pressure, and muscle tension. Music may also stimulate
a calming eect of the cardiovascular system.[40]
Music therapy used in child rehabilitation has had a substantial emphasis on sensorimotor development including; balance and position, locomotion, agility, mobility,
range of motion, strength, laterality and directionality.[42]
By using music during senorimotor rehabilitation, it allows clients to express themselves and motivates them to
learn the active joint range of motion and motor coordination in which they are aiming to acquire. For example,
clients with a brain injury may lack the ability to initiate
movement. The intensely captivating and attention enhancing quality of music motivates clients to participate
in physical activity or exercise by easing the discomfort
and strenuousness of the physical rehabilitation and helps
the client persevere without being conscious of the difculty. Music can be an element of distraction, allowing the client to transcend into a positive, aestheticallypleasing state that is benecial to achieving their goals.[40]
Research suggests a strong connection between motor activation and the cueing of musical rhythm. Rhythmic
stimuli has been found to help balance training for those
with a brain injury. Repetition of procient rhythmic
qualities will stimulate participants so that the abrasive
beats will synchronize with neural activity during a rhythmic motor task. For example, clients with hemiplegia
gain improvement of posture stability, and consistency of
symmetrical strides and regularity in step lengths when
listening to music with strong rhythmic beats.[40]
Music therapy rehabilitation sessions that incorporate active techniques involve the client producing the music
themselves. This may include the client making a musical
composition, or performing by singing or chanting, playing instruments, or musically improvising.[39] Singing is
a form of rehabilitation for neurological impairments.
Neurological impairments following a brain injury can
be in the form of apraxia loss to perform purposeful
movements, dysarthria muscle control disturbances due
to damage of the central nervous system), aphasia (defect
in expression causing distorted speech), or language comprehension. Singing training has been found to improve
lung, speech clarity, and coordination of speech muscles,
thus, accelerating rehabilitation of such neurological impairments. For example, melodic intonation therapy is
the practice of communicating with others by singing to
enhance speech or increase speech production by promoting socialization, and emotional expression.[40]

When having the child actively participate with an instrument, it is especially important for the therapist to provide
them with an instrument that they can readily and easily
use. Clients with limited physical abilities may express
frustration when they are not able to control their environment. The ability to employ and operate a musical instrument provides them a sense of relaxation and accomplishment. Instruments must be selected to provide immediately successful experiences. Certain adaptions of the instruments may be required in order for the people to manipulate them. For example, a drumsticks handle should
be manipulated to be more prominent for those clients
that may have a weak grip.[40] Electric music-making devices have been adapted to t the clients limited but existing movements, strength, and abilities. Electronic devices, such as the Sound Beam and the Wave Rider- read a
variety of small movements made by the clients and converts the movements into electronic musical information.
The devices are programmed to create easy, yet pleasing notes and sounds in coordination to the participants
movements. It is also crucial for the client to be aware
that music making is simply a modality for rehabilitation
and that their wellness is not dependent on their existing
musical skills. It provides children with an outlet of expression that they may have lacked in the past or due to
present circumstances. By accomplishing the production
of musical sounds despite their weaknesses and disabilities, it encourages the client and relieves their anxiety that
they may acquire at the thought of playing musical instrument without experience. By using such adaptive music
devices, it grants clients the ability to create sounds that
are originally expressive and allows them to experience
armation a feeling of capability to control ones own
environment- an ability they may not be familiar with.[40]
2.2.4

Music therapy and children with autism

CHILDREN

to also increase communication attempts, increase focus

and attention, reduce anxiety, and improve body awareness and coordination.[45]
Since up to 30 per cent of children with autism are
nonverbal and many have diculty understanding verbal commands music therapy becomes very useful as it
has been found that music can improve the mapping of
sounds to actions. So by pairing music with actions,
and with many hours of training the neural pathways
for speech can be improved.[46] Child-appropriate action
songs would be like playing the game peek-ka-boo or
eeny meeny miney mo with a musical accompaniment,
usually a piano or guitar.
Children with autism are also prone to more bouts of anxiety than the average child. Short sessions (15 20 mins)
of listening to percussive music or classical music with
a steady rhythm have been shown to alleviate symptoms
of anxiety and temporarily decrease anxiety-related behaviour. Music with a steady 4/4 beat is thought to work
best due to the predictability of the beat.
Target behaviours such as restlessness, aggression and
noisiness can also be aected by the use of music therapy. Weekly sessions ranging for hour to 1 hour during which a therapist plays child-preferred melodies such
as Twinkle Twinkle Little Star and engages the child in
quiet singing increases socially acceptable behaviour such
as using an appropriate volume when speaking. Studies
also suggest that playing one of the childs favorite songs
while the child and therapist both play the piano or strum
chords on a guitar can increase a childs ability to hold eye
contact and share in an experience due to their enjoyment
of the therapy.[47]
Musical improvisation during a one on one session has
also been shown to be highly eective with increasing
joint attention. Some noted improvisation techniques
are using a welcome song that includes the childs name,
which allows the child to get used to their surroundings;
an adult-led song followed by a child led song and then
conclude with a goodbye song.[48] During such sessions
the child would most likely sit across from the therapist
on the oor or beside the therapist on the piano bench.
Composing original music that incorporates the childs
day-to-day life with actions and words is also a part of
improvisation. The shared music making experience allows for spontaneous interpersonal responses from the
child and may motivate the child to increase positive social behaviour and initiate further interaction with the
therapist.[49]

Music therapy can be a particularly useful when working with children with autism due to the nonverbal, nonthreatening nature of the medium.[43] Studies have shown
that children with autism have diculty with joint attention, symbolic communication and sharing of positive affect. Use of music therapy has demonstrated improvements of socially acceptable behaviors. Wan, Demaine,
Zipse, Norton, & Schlaug (2010) found singing and music making may engage areas of the brain related to language abilities, and that music facilitated the language,
social, and motor skills.[44] Successful therapy involves
long-term individual intervention tailored to each childs
needs. Passing and sharing instruments, music and moveSome common instruments in music therapy for children
ment games, learning to listen and singing greetings and
are:
improvised stories are just a few ways music therapy can
improve a childs social interaction. For example, passing
Upright piano, Guitar, Xylophone, Small guiro,
a ball back and forth to percussive music or playing sticks
Paddle drums, Egg shakers, Finger cymbals, Birdand cymbals with another person might help foster the
calls, Whistles, & Toy hand bells.
childs ability to follow directions when passing the ball
and learn to share the cymbals and sticks. In addition to
improved social behaviors music therapy has been shown Music therapy has also been recognized as a method

3.2

Referrals and assessments

for children with autism. Music therapy helps stabilize

moods, increase frustration tolerance, identify a range of
emotions, and improve self-expression along with much
more.[50] The visual and auditory sensory system is responsible for interpreting sounds and images. With autistic children, if a sound or image is unpleasant the child
may not have the ability to express itself, which makes it
dicult for a therapist, parent, etc. to interpret.[51] Music engages the brain in both sub-coritcal and neo-cortical
levels, which means it is not critical to think while listening to music when hearing the notes and sounds. Music
therapy, in the topic of austisms sensory interpretation,
provides repetitive stimuli which aim to teach the brain
other possible ways to respond that might be more useful
as they grow older.[52]

3.2 Referrals and assessments

On average, American adolescents listen to approximately 4.5 hours of music per day and are responsible
for 70% of pop music sales. Now, with the invention of
new technologies such as the iPod and digital downloads,
access to music has become easier than ever. As children make the transition into adolescence they become
less likely to sit and watch TV, an activity associated with
family, and spend more of their leisure time listening to
music, an activity associated with friends.[53]

with adolescents. The music therapy model is based on

various theoretical backgrounds such as psychodynamic,
behavioral, and humanistic approaches. Techniques can
be classied as active vs. receptive and improvisational
vs. structured.[57] The most common techniques in use
with adolescents are musical improvisation, the use of
precomposed songs or music, receptive listening to music, verbal discussion about the music, and incorporating creative media outlets into the therapy. Research
also showed that improvisation and the use of other media were the two techniques most often used by the music therapists. The overall research showed that adolescents in music therapy change more when disciplinespecic music therapy techniques, such as improvisation
and verbal reection of the music, are used. The results
of this study showed that music therapists should put careful thought into their choice of technique with each individual client. In the end, those choices can aect the
outcome of the treatment.

While many adolescents may listen to music for its therapeutic qualities, it does not mean every adolescent needs
music therapy. Many adolescents go through a period of
teenage angst characterized by intense feelings of strife
that are caused by the development of their brains and
bodies. Some adolescents develop more serious mood
disorders such as major clinical depression and bipolar
disorder. Adolescents diagnosed with a mood disorder
may be referred to a music therapist by a physician, therapist, or school counselor/teacher. When a music therapist gets a referral, he or she must rst assess the patient and then create goals and objectives before beginning the actual therapy. According to the American Music Therapy Association Standards of Clinical Practice[55]
assessments should include the general categories of psychological, cognitive, communicative, social, and phys3 Adolescents
iological functioning focusing on the clients needs and
strengthsand will also determine the clients response
3.1 Mood disorders
to music, music skills, and musical preferences[56] The
result of the assessment is used to create an individualized
According to the Mayo Health Clinic, two to three thou- music therapy intervention plan.
sand out of every 100,000 adolescents will have mood
disorders, and out of those two to three thousand, eight
to ten will commit suicide. Two prevalent mood disor- 3.3 Treatment techniques
ders in the adolescent population are clinical depression
and bipolar disorder.
There are many dierent music therapy techniques used

Adolescents obtain many benets from listening to music, including emotional, social, and daily life benets,
along with help in forming their identity. Music can provide a sense of independence and individuality, which
in turn contributes to an adolescents self-discovery and
sense of identity. Music also oers adolescents relatable
messages that allow them to take comfort in knowing that
others feel the same way they do. It can also serve as
a creative outlet to release or control emotions and nd
ways of coping with dicult situations. Music can improve an adolescents mood by reducing stress and lowering anxiety levels, which can help counteract or prevent depression.[54] Music education programs provide
adolescents with a safe place to express themselves and
learn life skills such as self-discipline, diligence, and patience. These programs also promote condence and selfesteem. Ethnomusicologist Alan Merriam (1964) once
stated that music is a universal behavior it is something
with which everyone can identify. Among adolescents,
music is a unifying force, bringing people of dierent
backgrounds, age groups, and social groups together.

To those unfamiliar with music therapy the idea may

seem a little strange, but music therapy has been found
to be as eective as traditional forms of therapy. In a
meta-analysis of the eects of music therapy for children
and adolescents with psychopathology, Gold, Voracek,
and Wigram (2004) looked at ten studies conducted between 1970 and 1998 to examine the overall ecacy of
music therapy on children and adolescents with behavioral, emotional, and developmental disorders. The results of the meta-analysis found that music therapy with
these clients has a highly signicant, medium to large ef-

4 MEDICAL DISORDERS

fect on clinically relevant outcomes. More specically,

music therapy was most eective on subjects with mixed
diagnoses. Another important result was that the eects
of music therapy are more enduring when more sessions
are provided.[57]
One example of clinical work is that done by music therapists who work with adolescents to increase their emotional and cognitive stability, identify factors contributing
to distress and initiate changes to alleviate that distress.
Music therapy may also focus on improving quality of life
and building self-esteem, a sense self-worth, and condence. Improvements in these areas can be measured
by a number of tests, including qualitative questionnaires
like Becks Depression Inventory, State and Trait Anxiety Inventory, and Relationship Change Scale.[58] Eects
of music therapy can also be observed in the patients
demeanor, body language, and changes in awareness of
mood.

4.1 Heart disease

According to a 2009 Cochrane review some music may
reduce heart rate, respiratory rate, and blood pressure in
those with coronary heart disease.[64] Music does not appear to have much eect on psychological distress. The
quality of the evidence is not strong and the clinical significance unclear. Research indicates that listening to music, whether a Mozart concerto or a song from the popular
music charts, has been found to lower blood pressure, improve heart rate variability and can help to de-stress. [65]

4.2 Neurological disorders

The use of music therapy in treating mental and neurological disorders is on the rise. Music therapy has
shown eectiveness in treating symptoms of many disorders, including schizophrenia, amnesia, dementia and
Two main methods for music therapy are group meetings Alzheimers, Parkinsons disease, mood disorders such
and one-one sessions. Group music therapy can include as depression, aphasia and similar speech disorders, and
group discussions concerning moods and emotions in or Tourettes syndrome, among others.[66]
toward music, songwriting, and musical improvisation. While music therapy has been used for many years, up
Groups emphasizing mood recognition and awareness, until the mid-1980s little empirical research had been
group cohesion, and improvement in self-esteem can be done to support the ecacy of the treatment. Since
eective in working with adolescents.[59][60] Group ther- then, more research has focused on determining both
apy, however, is not always the best choice for the client. the eectiveness and the underlying physiological mechOngoing one-on-one music therapy has also been shown anisms leading to symptom improvement. For example,
to be eective. One-on-one music therapy provides a one meta-study covering 177 patients (over 9 studies)
non-invasive, non-judgmental environment, encouraging showed a signicant eect on many negative symptoms
clients to show capacities that may be hidden in group of psychopathologies, particularly in developmental and
situations.
behavioral disorders. Music therapy was especially eecMusic Therapy in which clients play musical instruments directly, show very promising results. Specically, playing wind instruments strengthens oral and respiratory muscles, sound vocalization, articulation, and
improves breath support.[61] Symbolic Communication
Training Through Musicis also an important technique in
playing instruments in music therapy, because this makes
communication (verbally and non verbally) improved in
social situations. Most importantly, is that music provides a time cue for the body to remain regulated.[62]
Making music is also important for people of all ages
because it causes motivation, increases psychomotor
activity, causes an individual to identify with a group
(in group music), regulates breathing, improves organizational skills, and increases coordination.[63]

tive in improving focus and attention, and in decreasing

negative symptoms like anxiety and isolation.[67]

More recent research suggests that music can increase a

patients motivation and positive emotions.[68][70][71] Current research also suggests that when music therapy is

The following sections will discuss the uses and eectiveness of music therapy in the treatment of specic pathologies.
4.2.1 Stroke

Music has been shown to aect portions of the brain.

One reason for the eectiveness of music therapy for
stroke victims is the capacity of music to aect emotions and social interactions. Research by Nayak et al.
showed that music therapy is associated with a decrease
in depression, improved mood, and a reduction in state
anxiety.[68] Both descriptive and experimental studies
Though more research needs to be done to ascertain the
have documented eects of music on quality of life, ineect of music therapy on adolescents with mood disorvolvement with the environment, expression of feelings,
ders, most research has shown positive eects.
awareness and responsiveness, positive associations, and
socialization.[69] Additionally, Nayak et al. found that
music therapy had a positive eect on social and behavioral outcomes and showed some encouraging trends with
respect to mood.[68]

Medical disorders

4.2

Neurological disorders

used in conjunction with traditional therapy it improves

success rates signicantly.[72][73][74] Therefore, it is hypothesized that music therapy helps a victim of stroke
recover faster and with more success by increasing the
patients positive emotions and motivation, allowing him
or her to be more successful and feel more driven to participate in traditional therapies.
Recent studies have examined the eect of music therapy
on stroke patients when combined with traditional therapy. One study found the incorporation of music with
therapeutic upper extremity exercises gave patients more
positive emotional eects than exercise alone.[72] In another study, Nayak et al. found that rehabilitation sta
rated participants in the music therapy group more actively involved and cooperative in therapy than those in
the control group.[68] Their ndings gave preliminary support to the ecacy of music therapy as a complementary
therapy for social functioning and participation in rehabilitation with a trend toward improvement in mood during
acute rehabilitation.
Current research shows that when music therapy is used in
conjunction with traditional therapy, it improves rates of
recovery and emotional and social decits resulting from
stroke.[68][72][73][74][75][76] A study by Jeong & Kim examined the impact of music therapy when combined with
traditional stroke therapy in a community-based rehabilitation program.[75] Thirty-three stroke survivors were
randomized into one of two groups: the experimental
group, which combined rhythmic music and specialized
rehabilitation movement for eight weeks; and a control
group that sought and received traditional therapy. The
results of this study showed that participants in the experimental group gained not only more exibility and wider
range of motion, but an increased frequency and quality
of social interactions and positive mood.[75]

9
ing program that occurred fteen times over three weeks,
in addition to traditional treatment. These participants
were trained to use both ne and gross motor movements
by learning how to use the piano and drums. The other
half of the patients received only traditional treatment
over the course of the three weeks. Three-dimensional
movement analysis and clinical motor tests showed participants who received the additional music therapy had
signicantly better speed, precision, and smoothness of
movement as compared to the control subjects. Participants who received music therapy also showed a signicant improvement in every-day motor activities as
compared to the control group.[74] Wilson, Parsons, &
Reutens looked at the eect of melodic intonation therapy (MIT) on speech production in a male singer with severe Brocas aphasia.[76] In this study, thirty novel phrases
were taught in three conditions: unrehearsed, rehearsed
verbal production (repetition), or rehearsed verbal production with melody (MIT). Results showed that phrases
taught in the MIT condition had superior production, and
that compared to rehearsal, eects of MIT lasted longer.
Another study examined the incorporation of music with
therapeutic upper extremity exercises on pain perception in stroke victims.[72] Over the course of eight weeks,
stroke victims participated in upper extremity exercises
(of the hand, wrist, and shoulder joints) in conjunction
with one of the three conditions: song, karaoke accompaniment, and no music. Patients participated in each condition once, according to a randomized order, and rated
their perceived pain immediately after the session. Results showed that although there was no signicant dierence in pain rating across the conditions, video observations revealed more positive aect and verbal responses
while performing upper extremity exercises with both
music and karaoke accompaniment.[72] Nayak et al.[68]
examined the combination of music therapy with traditional stroke rehabilitation and also found that the addition of music therapy improved mood and social interaction. Participants who had suered traumatic brain injury or stroke were placed in one of two conditions: standard rehabilitation or standard rehabilitation along with
music therapy. Participants received three treatments per
week for up to ten treatments. Therapists found that participants who received music therapy in conjunction with
traditional methods had improved social interaction and
mood.

Music has proven useful in the recovery of motor skills.

Rhythmical auditory stimulation in a musical context
in combination with traditional gait therapy improved
the ability of stroke patients to walk.[73] The study consisted of two treatment conditions, one which received
traditional gait therapy and another which received the
gait therapy in combination with the rhythmical auditory
stimulation. During the rhythmical auditory stimulation,
stimulation was played back measure by measure, and
was initiated by the patients heel-strikes. Each condition
received fteen sessions of therapy. The results revealed
that the rhythmical auditory stimulation group showed
more improvement in stride length, symmetry deviation, 4.2.2 Dementia
walking speed and rollover path length (all indicators for
improved walking gait) than the group that received tra- Alzheimers disease and other types of dementia are
ditional therapy alone.[73]
among the disorders most commonly treated with music
Schneider et al. also studied the eects of combin- therapy. Like many of the other disorders mentioned,
ing music therapy with standard motor rehabilitation some of the most common signicant eects are seen
methods.[74] In this experiment, researchers recruited in social behaviors, leading to improvements in interacstroke patients without prior musical experience and tion, conversation, and other such skills. A meta-study of
trained half of them in an intensive step by step train- over 330 subjects showed music therapy produces highly
signicant improvements to social behaviors, overt be-

10
haviors like wandering and restlessness, reductions in agitated behaviors, and improvements to cognitive defects,
measured with reality orientation and face recognition
tests.[77] As with many studies of MTs eectiveness,
these positive eects on Alzheimers and other dementias are not homogeneous among all studies. The eectiveness of the treatment seems to be strongly dependent
on the patient, the quality and length of treatment, and
other similar factors.[78]
Another meta-study examined the proposed neurological
mechanisms behind music therapys eects on these patients. Many authors suspect that music has a soothing
eect on the patient by aecting how noise is perceived:
music renders noise familiar, or buers the patient from
overwhelming or extraneous noise in their environment.
Others suggest that music serves as a sort of mediator
for social interactions, providing a vessel through which
to interact with others without requiring much cognitive
load.[78] Because Music has the ability to access multiple parts of the brain, music therapy is highly eective
in providing therapeutic support for individuals with all
types of dementia. Research indicates that the sections
of the brain weakened by dementia can be supported and
in some cases strengthened by other areas of the brain
through musical activities. Musical ability and awareness
is also one of the last functions to be compromised in an
individual with dementia, which makes it an especially
eective intervention, even in people with very late stage
forms of the disease.[79] Music therapy is more than simply listening to or playing music. Through the use of evidence based interventions and clinical assessments, a music therapist works to improve the lives and abilities of individuals. These interventions can decrease anxiety, improve speech and self- expression, and a decrease in negative behaviors and isolation which are commonly found
in individuals with dementia.[80]

5 PSYCHIATRIC DISORDERS
tion, amnesiacs with damage to this area can show a loss
of episodic memory accompanied by (partially) intact semantic memory.[82]
4.2.4 Aphasia
Melodic intonation therapy (MIT) is a commonly used
method of treating aphasias, particularly those involving
speech decits (as opposed to reading or writing). MIT
is a multi-stage treatment that involves committing words
and speech rhythm to memory by incorporating them into
song. The musical and rhythmic aspects are then separated from the speech and phased out, until the patient
can speak normally. This method has slight variations
between adult patients and child patients, but both follow
the same basic structure.
While MIT is a commonly used therapy, research supporting its eectiveness is lacking. Some recent research
suggests that the therapys ecacy may stem more from
the rhythmic components of the treatment rather than the
melodic aspects.[83]

5 Psychiatric disorders
5.1 Schizophrenia
Music therapy is used with schizophrenic patients to ameliorate many of the symptoms of the disorder. Individual studies of patients undergoing music therapy showed
diminished negative symptoms such as attened aect,
speech issues, and anhedonia and improved social symptoms such as increased conversation ability, reduced social isolation, and increased interest in external events.[84]

Meta-studies have conrmed many of these results, showing that music therapy in conjunction with standard care
4.2.3 Amnesia
to be superior to standard care alone. Improvements
were seen in negative symptoms, general mental state, deSome symptoms of amnesia have been shown to be alpression, anxiety, and even cognitive functioning. These
leviated through various interactions with music, includmeta-studies have also shown, however, that these results
ing playing and listening. One such case is that of Clive
can be inconsistent and that they depend heavily on both
Wearing, whose severe retrograde and anterograde amthe quality and number of therapy sessions.[85]
nesia have been detailed in the documentaries Prisoner
of Consciousness and The Man with the 7 Second Memory. Though unable to recall past memories or form new 5.2 Depression
ones, Wearing is still able to play, conduct, and sing along
with music learned prior to the onset of his amnesia, and Music therapy has been found to have numerous signifeven add improvisations and ourishes.[81]
icant outcomes for patients with major depressive disWearings case reinforces the theory that episodic memory fundamentally diers from procedural or semantic
memory. Sacks suggests that while Wearing is completely
unable to recall events or episodes, musical performance
(and the muscle memory involved) are a form of procedural memory that is not typically hindered in amnesia cases [Sacks]. Indeed, there is evidence that while
episodic memory is reliant on the hippocampal forma-

order. A systematic review of ve randomized trials

found that people with depression generally accepted music therapy and was found to produce improvements in
mood when compared to standard therapy.[86] Another
study showed that MDD patients were better able to express their emotional states while listening to sad music than while listening to no music or to happy, angry, or scary music. The authors found that this ther-

6.4

United States

11

apy helped patients overcome verbal barriers to express- in Bergen includes 3 professors and 2 associate profesing emotion, which can assist therapists in successfully sors, as well as lecturers and PhD students. The centre in
guiding treatment.[87]
Bergen has 18 sta, including 2 professors and 4 associate
Other studies have provided insight into the physiological professors, as well as lecturers and PhD students. Two
are
interactions between music therapy and depression. Mu- of the elds major international research journals [92]
based
in
Bergen:
Nordic
Journal
for
Music
Therapy
sic has been shown to decrease signicantly the levels of
[93]
the stress hormone cortisol, leading to improved aect, and Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy. Normood and cognitive functioning. A study also found that ways main contribution to the eld is mostly in the area of
community music therapy, which tends to be as much
music led to a shift in frontal lobe activity (as measured
by EEG) in depressed adolescents. Music was shown to oriented toward social work as individual psychotherapy,
and music therapy research from this country uses a wide
shift activity from the right frontal lobe to the left, a phevariety of methods to examine diverse methods across
[88]
nomenon associated with positive aect and mood.
an array of social contexts, including community centres,
medical clinics, retirement homes, and prisons.

6
6.1

Usage by region
Africa

6.4 United States

Music therapy has existed in its current form in the United
States since 1944 when the rst undergraduate degree
program in the world was begun at Michigan State University and the rst graduate degree program was established at the University of Kansas. The American Music
Therapy Association (AMTA) was founded in 1998 as a
merger between the National Association for Music Therapy (NAMT, founded in 1950) and the American Association for Music Therapy (AAMT, founded in 1971).
Numerous other national organizations exist, such as the
Institute for Music and Neurologic Function, NordoRobbins Center For Music Therapy, and the Association for Music and Imagery. Music therapists use ideas
from dierent disciplines such as speech and language,
physical therapy, medicine, nursing, and education.

Research has shown that in many parts of Africa during male and female circumcision, bone setting, or traditional surgery and bloodletting, lyrical music related to
endurance has been used to reduce anticipated pain, therapeutically. In 1999, the rst program for music therapy
in Africa opened in Pretoria, South Africa. Research has
shown that in Tanzania patients can receive palliative care
for life-threatening illnesses directly after the diagnosis
of these illnesses. This is dierent from many Western
countries, because they reserve palliative care for patients
who have an incurable illness. Music is also viewed differently between Africa and Western countries. In Western countries and a majority of other countries throughout the world, music is traditionally seen as entertainment whereas in many African cultures, music is used A music therapy degree candidate can earn an underin recounting stories, celebrating life events, or sending graduate, masters or doctoral degree in music therapy.
Many AMTA approved programs oer equivalency and
messages.[89]
certicate degrees in music therapy for students that have
completed a degree in a related eld. Some practicing music therapists have held PhDs in elds other than,
6.2 Australia
but usually related to, music therapy. Recently, Temple
In Australia in 1949, music therapy (not clinical music University established a PhD program in music therapy.
therapy as understood today) was started through con- A music therapist typically incorporates music therapy
certs organized by the Australian Red Cross along with techniques with broader clinical practices such as psya Red Cross Music Therapy Committee. The key Aus- chotherapy, rehabilitation, and other practices depending
tralian body, AMTA, the Australian Music Therapy As- on client needs. Music therapy services rendered within
the context of a social service, educational, or health care
sociation, was founded in 1975.
agency are often reimbursable by insurance and sources
of funding for individuals with certain needs. Music therapy services have been identied as reimbursable under
6.3 Norway
Medicaid, Medicare, private insurance plans and federal
Norway is widely recognised as an important country and state government programs.
for music therapy research. Its two major research centres are the Center for Music and Health[90] with the
Norwegian Academy of Music in Oslo, and the Grieg
Academy Centre for Music Therapy (GAMUT),[91] at
University of Bergen. The former was mostly developed
by professor Even Ruud, while professor Brynjulf Stige
is largely responsible for cultivating the latter. The centre

A degree in music therapy requires prociency in guitar, piano, voice, music theory, music history, reading
music, improvisation, as well as varying levels of skill
in assessment, documentation, and other counseling and
health care skills depending on the focus of the particular universitys program. A music therapist may hold the
designations CMT (Certied Music Therapist), ACMT

12

8 SEE ALSO

(Advanced Certied Music Therapist), or RMT (Registered Music Therapist) credentials previously conferred
by the former national organizations AAMT and NAMT
; these credentials remain in force through 2020 and have
not been available since 1998. The current credential
available is MT-BC. To become board certied, a music
therapist must complete a music therapy degree from an
accredited AMTA program at a college or university, successfully complete a music therapy internship, and pass
the Board Certication Examination in Music Therapy,
administered through The Certication Board for Music
Therapists. To maintain the credential, either 100 units of
continuing education must be completed every ve years,
or the board exam must be retaken near the end of the
ve-year cycle. The units claimed for credit fall under
the purview of The Certication Board for Music Therapists. North Dakota, Nevada and Georgia have established licenses for music therapists. In the State of New
York, the License for Creative Arts Therapies (LCAT)
incorporates the music therapy credentials within their licensure.

6.5

United Kingdom

Live music was used in hospitals after both World Wars

as part of the treatment program for recovering soldiers.
Clinical music therapy in Britain as it is understood today
was pioneered in the 1960s and 1970s by French cellist
Juliette Alvin whose inuence on the current generation
of British music therapy lecturers remains strong. Mary
Priestley, one of Juliette Alvins students, created analytical music therapy. The Nordo-Robbins approach
to music therapy developed from the work of Paul Nordo and Clive Robbins in the 1950/60s.
Practitioners are registered with the Health Professions Council and, starting from 2007, new registrants
must normally hold a masters degree in music therapy. There are masters level programs in music therapy in Manchester, Bristol, Cambridge, South Wales,
Edinburgh and London, and there are therapists throughout the UK. The professional body in the UK is the British
Association for Music Therapy[94] In 2002, the World
Congress of Music Therapy, coordinated and promoted
by the World Federation of Music Therapy, was held
in Oxford on the theme of Dialogue and Debate.[95] In
November 2006, Dr. Michael J. Crawford and his colleagues again found that music therapy helped the outcomes of schizophrenic patients.[96][97]

the Indian context.

Her books NadalayasindhuRagachikilsamrutam (2008), Music Therapy in Management Education and Administration (2008) and
Ragachikitsa (2008) are accepted textbooks on music
therapy and Indian arts.[99][100][101][102][103][104]
The Music Therapy Trust of India is yet another venture
in the country. It was started by Margaret Lobo[105]

7 History
Music has been used as a healing implement for
centuries.[54] Apollo is the ancient Greek god of music
and of medicine. Aesculapius was said to cure diseases of
the mind by using song and music, and music therapy was
used in Egyptian temples. Plato said that music aected
the emotions and could inuence the character of an individual. Aristotle taught that music aects the soul and described music as a force that puried the emotions. Aulus
Cornelius Celsus advocated the sound of cymbals and
running water for the treatment of mental disorders. Music therapy was practiced in biblical times, when David
played the harp to rid King Saul of a bad spirit.[106] As
early as 400 B.C., Hippocrates played music for mental
patients. In the thirteenth century, Arab hospitals contained music-rooms for the benet of the patients.[107]
In the United States, Native American medicine men often employed chants and dances as a method of healing
patients.[108] The Turco-Persian psychologist and music
theorist al-Farabi (872950), known as Alpharabius in
Europe, dealt with music therapy in his treatise Meanings of the Intellect, in which he discussed the therapeutic eects of music on the soul.[109] Robert Burton wrote
in the 17th century in his classic work, The Anatomy of
Melancholy, that music and dance were critical in treating
mental illness, especially melancholia.[110][111][112] Music
therapy as we know it began in the aftermath of World
Wars I and II, when, particularly in the United Kingdom,
musicians would travel to hospitals and play music for soldiers suering from war-related emotional and physical
trauma.[113]

8 See also
Aective neuroscience
Biomusicology
Chronobiology

6.6

India

The roots of musical therapy in India, can be traced back

to ancient Hindu mythology, Vedic texts, and local folk
traditions.[98] It is very possible that music therapy has
been used for hundreds of years in the Indian culture.
Suvarna Nalapat has studied music therapy in

Eloise (psychiatric hospital)

Embodied music cognition
Melodic intonation therapy
Music as a coping strategy
Musical analysis

13
Music cognition
Music theory
Music Therapy in Canada
Music psychology
Psychoacoustics
Psychoanalysis and music
Psychoneuroimmunology

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16

10 FURTHER READING

[88] Field, T.; A. Martinez; T. Nawrocki; J. Pickens; N.A. Fox; [108] Antrim, Doron K. (2006). Music Therapy. The Musical
S. Schanberg (1998). Music shifts frontal EEG in deQuarterly 30 (4): 410. doi:10.1093/mq/xxx.4.409.
pressed adolescents. Adolescence 33 (129): 109116.
[109] Haque, Amber (2004).
Psychology from Islamic
[89] Stone, Ruth (2005). Music in West Africa : Experiencing
Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars
Music, Expressing Culture. New York: Oxford University.
and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists.
Journal of Religion and Health 43 (4): 357377 [363].
[90] http://nmh.no/en/research/centre_for_music_and_
doi:10.1007/s10943-004-4302-z.
health
[91] http://uni.no/nb/uni-helse/gamut/
[92] http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/rnjm20/current
[93] https://voices.no/index.php/voices
[94] http://www.bamt.org
[95] Proceedings from the WFMT World Conference in Oxford, UK, 23-28 July 2002

[110] cf. The Anatomy of Melancholy, Robert Burton, subsection 3, on and after line 3480, Music a Remedy": But to
leave all declamatory speeches in praise [3481]of divine
music, I will conne myself to my proper subject: besides
that excellent power it hath to expel many other diseases, it
is a sovereign remedy against [3482] despair and melancholy, and will drive away the devil himself. Canus, a
Rhodian ddler, in [3483] Philostratus, when Apollonius
was inquisitive to know what he could do with his pipe,
told him, 'That he would make a melancholy man merry,
and him that was merry much merrier than before, a lover
more enamoured, a religious man more devout.' Ismenias the Theban, [3484] Chiron the centaur, is said to have
cured this and many other diseases by music alone: as now
they do those, saith [3485] Bodine, that are troubled with
St. Vituss Bedlam dance.

[96] Crawford, Mike J.; Talwar, Nakul et al. (November

2006). Music therapy for in-patients with schizophrenia: Exploratory randomised controlled trial. British
Journal of Psychiatry (2006) 189 (5): 405409.
doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.105.015073. PMID 17077429. Music therapy may provide a means of improving mental
health among people with schizophrenia, but its eects
[111] Humanities are the Hormones: A Tarantella Comes to
in acute psychoses have not been explored
Newfoundland. What should we do about it?" by Dr.
[97] Music therapy may improve schizophrenia symptoms,
John Crellin, MUNMED, newsletter of the Faculty of
Faculty of Medicine News, Imperial College, London.
Medicine, Memorial University of Newfoundland, 1996.

[98] Cook, Patricia; Cook, Pat (1997). Sacred Music Therapy [112] Aung, Steven K.H.; Lee, Mathew H.M. (2004). Muin North India (Vol. 39 ed.). VWB. pp. 6183. ISBN
sic, Sounds, Medicine, and Meditation: An Inte9783861357049. Retrieved 2014-06-14.
grative Approach to the Healing Arts.
Alternative & Complementary Therapies 10 (5): 266270.
[99] http://www.drsuvarnanalapattrust.org/naadalayasindhu.
doi:10.1089/act.2004.10.266.
php
[100] Nadalayasindhu (Ragachikitsamritham) . D C Books Kot- [113] Degmei, Dunja; Pogain, Ivan; Filakovi, Pavo (2005).
Music as Therapy. International Review of the Aesthetics
tayam .2008. Dr Suvarna Nalapat. ISBN 978-81-264and Sociology of Music 36 (2): 290.
1962-3
[101] http://www.scribd.com/doc/100084522/
Grand-Unification-for-World-Peace-Music-THerapy-for-Integrating-Healthcare-PDF

10 Further reading

[102] Music Therapy in Healthcare. The popular Publications

Chennai Apollo 2007. Dr Mythili Thirumalachary http:
//www.emusictherapy.com
[103] Music Therapy in management, Education and Administration. Readworthy Publications New Delhi 2008. Suvarna Nalapat ISBN 978-81-89973-72-8
[104] Ragachikitsa (Music Therapy). Readworthy Publication.
New Delhi. 2008. Dr Mythili Thirumalachary. In Indian
Context. ISBN 978-81-89973-69-8
[105] http://www.themusictherapytrust.com/history.htm
[106] Howells, John G.; Osborn, M. Livia (1984). A reference
companion to the history of abnormal psychology. Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-24261-8. Retrieved 21
April 2013.
[107] Antrim, Doron K. (2006). Music Therapy. The Musical
Quarterly 30 (4): 409420. doi:10.1093/mq/xxx.4.409.

Aldridge, David, Music Therapy in Dementia Care,

London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers, November
2000. ISBN 1-85302-776-6
Boso M, Politi P, Barale F, Enzo E (2006). Neurophysiology and neurobiology of the musical experience. Funct Neurol 21 (4): 18791. PMID
17367577.
Boynton, Dori, compiler (1991). Lady Boyntons
New Age Dossiers: a Serendipitous Digest of News
and Articles on Trends in Modern Day Mysticism and
Decadence. New Port Richey, Flor.: Lady D. Boynton. 2 vol. N.B.: Anthology of reprinted articles,
pamphlets, etc. on New Age aspects of speculation
in psychology, philosophy, music (especially music
therapy), religion, sexuality, etc. (Without ISBN.)

17
Bruscia, Kenneth E. Frequently Asked Questions
About Music Therapy. Boyer College of Music
and Dance, Music Therapy Program, Temple University, 1993. July 6, 2009.

Wigram, Tony. (July 2000) A Method of Music

Therapy Assessment for the Diagnosis of Autism and
Communication Disorders in Children., Music Therapy Perspectives, Volume 18, Issue 1, pp. 1322.

Bunt, Leslie Stige, Brynjulf: Music Therapy: An

Art Beyond Words. (Second edition.) London:
Routledge, 2014. ISBN 978-0-415-45068-3.

Vladimir Simosko. Is Rock Music Harmful? Winnipeg, Man., The Author, 1987.

Erlmann, Veit (ed.) Hearing Cultures. Essays on

Sound, Listening, and Modernity, New York: Berg
Publishers, 2004. Cf. especially Chapter 5, Raising Spirits and Restoring Souls.
Gold, C., Heldal, T.O., Dahle, T., Wigram,
T. (2006) Music therapy for schizophrenia or
schizophrenia-like illnesses, Cochrane Database of
Systematic Reviews, Issue 4.
Goodman, K.D. (2011). Music Therapy Education
and Training: From Theory to Practice. Springeld,
Illinois: Charles C. Thomas. ISBN 0-398-08609-5.
Hart, Hugh. (March 23, 2008) New York Times A
Season of Song, Dance and Autism. Section: AR;
page 20.
La Musicothrapie: thmathque. Montral, Bibliothque du personnel, Hpital Rivire-des-Prairies,
1978.
Levinge, Alison: The Music of Being: Music Therapy, Winnicott and the School of Object Relations.
London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers, 2015. ISBN
978-1-84905-576-5.
Marcello Sorce Keller, Some Ethnomusicological
Considerations about Magic and the Therapeutic
Uses of Music, International Journal of Music Education, 8/2(1986), 1316.
Pellizzari, Patricia y colaboradores: Flavia Kinisberg, Germn Tuon, Candela Brusco, Diego Patles, Vanesa Menendez, Julieta Villegas, y Emmanuel Barrenechea. Crear Salud, aportes de la
Musicoterapia preventiva-comunitaria. Patricia Pellizzari Ediciones. Buenos Aires, 2011.
Owens, Melissa (December 2014). Remembering
through Music: Music Therapy and Dementia. Age
in Action 29 (3): 15.
Tuet, R.W.K.; Lam, L.C.W. (September 2006) A
preliminary study of the eects of music therapy on
agitation in Chinese patients with dementia, Hong
Kong Journal of Psychiatry, Volume 16, Number 3
Whipple, Jennifer (July 2004). Music in Intervention for Children and Adolescents with Autism:
a Meta-Analysis. Journal of Music Therapy 41
(2): 90106. doi:10.1093/jmt/41.2.90. PMID
15307805.

Vladimir Simosko. Jung, Music, and Music Therapy: Prepared on the Occasion of the C.G. Jung
and the Humanities Colloquium, 1987 . Winnipeg,
Man., The Author, 1987.
Vomberg, Elizabeth. Music for the Physically Disabled Child: a Bibliography. Toronto, Ont., The Author, 1978.

18

11

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