Flare and vent disposal systems

A flare or vent disposal system collects and discharges gas from atmospheric or pressurized process
components to the atmosphere to safe locations for final release during normal operations and abnormal
conditions (emergency relief). In vent systems, the gas exiting the system is dispersed in the atmosphere. Flare
systems generally have a pilot or ignition device that ignites the gas exiting the system because the discharge
may be either continuous or intermittent. Gas-disposal systems for tanks operating near atmospheric pressure
are often called atmospheric vents or flares, and gas-disposal systems for pressure vessels are called pressure
vents or flares. A flare or vent system from a pressurized source may include a control valve, collection piping,
flashback protection, and a gas outlet. A scrubbing vessel should be provided to remove liquid hydrocarbons.

Contents
[hide]

Possible components

Hazard assessments

Knockout drums

Flashback protection
o

4.1 Seal drums

4.2 Molecular seals

4.3 Fluidic seals

4.4 Flame arrestors

Flare Stacks
5.1 Elevated-flare-stack designs

5.1.1 Self supported stacks

5.1.2 Guy wire supported stacks

5.1.3 Derrick supported stacks

5.2 Offshore flare support structures

5.2.1 Flare booms

5.2.2 Derrick supported flares

5.2.3 Bridge supported flares

5.2.4 Remote flares

5.3 Flare stack design criteria

5.3.1 Flare tip diameter and exit gas velocity

5.3.2 Pressure drop considerations

5.3.3 Flare stack height

5.3.4 Gas dispersion limitations

5.3.5 Flame distortion caused by lateral wind

5.3.6 Radiation considerations

5.4 Purge gas

5.5 Burn pits

5.6 Vent design

5.6.1 Radiation

5.6.2 Velocity

5.6.3 Dispersion

Nomenclature

References

Noteworthy papers in OnePetro

External links

0 See also

Possible components
A flare or vent system from an atmospheric source may include:

Pressure-vacuum valve

Collection piping

Flashback protection

Gas outlet

Hazard assessments
The actual configuration of the flare or vent system depends on the hazards assessment for the specific
installation.
RP 520, Part 1, Sec. 8,[1] and RP 521, Secs. 4 and 5,[2] cover disposal and depressuring system design. RP 521,
Appendix C, provides sample calculations for sizing a flare stack. RP 521, Appendix D[2], shows:

Flare-stack seal drum

Quench drum

Typical flare installation.

Knockout drums
RP 521, paragraph 5.4.2, provides detailed guidance for the design of knockout drums (also called relief drums
or flare or vent scrubbers).[2] All flare, vent, and relief systems must include a liquid knockout drum. The
knockout drum removes any liquid droplets that carry over with the gas relief sent to the flare. Most flares
require that the particle size be reduced to a minimum of less than 300 m. RP 14J suggests sizing for liquid
droplets between 400 and 500 m.[3] Most knockout drums are horizontal with a slenderness ratio (length-todiameter ratio) between 2 and 4. A horizontal knockout drum must have a diameter large enough to keep the
vapor velocity low enough to allow entrained liquids to settle or drop out.

Knockout drums operated at atmospheric pressure should be sized to handle the greatest liquid volume
expected at the maximum rates of liquid buildup and pump out. RP 521suggests 20 to 30 minutes of liquid
holdup.[2] This is not practical in upstream operations. In onshore operations, it is recommended to take 20% of
the maximum potential liquid stream and provide a 10-minute liquid holdup. For offshore operations, it is
recommended to provide normal separation-retention times (1 to 3 minutes on the basis of API gravity) and an
emergency dump design to handle the maximum liquid flow with no valves. An emergency sump (disposal) pile
is recommended to dispose of the liquid, and a seal in the pile is recommended to contain the backpressure in
the drum.
Knockout drums normally are operated at atmospheric pressure. To maintain an explosion, the MAWP of the
knockout drum usually is set at 50 psig. Stoichiometric hydrocarbon/air explosions produce peak pressures
seven to eight times the normal pressure.

Flashback protection
Flashback protection (the possibility that the flame will travel upstream into the system) should be considered
for all disposal systems because flashback can result in pressure buildup in upstream piping and vessels.
Flashback is more critical where there are tanks or pressure vessels with a MAWP less than 125 psig and in
flare systems. RP 520 discusses flashback protection for pressure vents and flares, [1] and STD 2000 discusses
atmospheric vents and flares.[4] RP 14C recommends that vents from atmospheric vessels contain a flame
arrestor.[5] Because the flame arrestor can plug, a secondary pressure/vacuum valve without a flame arrestor
should be considered for redundancy. The secondary system should be set at a pressure high enough and
vacuum low enough so that it will not operate unless the flame arrestor on the primary system is plugged.
Pressure vents with vessels rated 125 psig and above normally do not need flashback protection. In naturalgas streams, the possibility of vent ignition followed by flash backpressures above 125 psig is minimal. When
low-pressure vessels are connected to pressure vents, molecular or fluidic seals and purge gas often are used
to prevent flashback. If relief valves are tied into the vent, the surge of flow when a relief valve opens could
destroy a flame arrestor and lead to a hazardous condition. Also, there is a potential for flame arresters to
become plugged. A means of flame snuffing should be considered for vent systems.
Flares have the added consideration of a flame always being present, even when there is a very low flow rate.
They are typically equipped with molecular or fluidic seals and a small amount of purge gas to protect against
flashback.

Seal drums
Knockout drums are sized with the gas-capacity equations referred to in the design of two- and three-phase
separators in Oil and gas separators. Liquid seal drums are vessels that are used to separate the relief gases
and the flare/header stack by a layer of liquid. Water (or water/glycol mixture) is normally the sealing fluid. The
flare gas (or purge gas) is forced to bubble through a layer of water before it reaches the flare stack. This
prevents air or gas from flowing backward beyond the water seal. Seal drums serve as a final knockout drum to
separate liquid from the relief gases.

In a deep seal drum, the depth of the sealing fluid is designed to be equal to the staging pressure of the staged
flare system. The sealing-fluid depth in most staging seal drums is typically in the range of 2 to 5 psig, which is
equivalent to 5 to 12.5 ft of water column. In a shallow seal drum (conventional flashback prevention), the water
seals have only a 6- to 10-in. water-column depth. It is important to design the deep seal drum with a proper
gas velocity at the staging point to ensure that all the sealing fluid is displaced quickly at the staging pressure
(an effect similar to a fast-acting valve actuator). It is also common to design the deep seal drum with a
concentric overflow chamber to collect the displaced sealing fluid. The overflow chamber can be designed to
flow back automatically into the sealing chamber once the gas velocity decreases below the rate required for
closing off the second stage.
The depth of the liquid seal drum must be considered in calculating the relief-header backpressure. This depth
is set by the flare supplier, but it usually can be altered somewhat, with the suppliers concurrence, to suit plant
conditions. Typical seal depths are 2 ft for elevated flares and 6 in. for ground flares. The height of the liquid
seal can be determined by

(Eq. 1)
where h = height of liquid seal, p = maximum allowable header backpressure, and = sealing-liquid density.
The vessel-free area for gas flow above the liquid level should be a minimum of 3 ft or three times the inlet pipe
cross-sectional area to prevent surges of gas flow to the flare and to provide space for disengagement.
RP 521 states that surging in seal drums can be minimized with the use of V-notches on the end of the dip leg.
6 If the water sloshes in the seal drum, it will cause pulsations in the gas flow to the flare, resulting in noise and
light disturbances. Thus, most facilities prefer either a displacement seal or a perforated antislosh baffle. Fig.
1 shows seal-drum configurations.

Fig. 1Seal-drum configuration with (a) displacement seal and (b) perforated antislosh baffle.

Molecular seals
Molecular seals cause flow reversal. They normally are located below the flare tip and serve to prevent air entry
into the stack. Molecular seals depend on the density difference between air and hydrocarbon gas. Light gas is

trapped at the top of the U-tube. A continuous stream of purge gas is required for proper functioning of the gas
seal, but the amount of purge gas is much less than would be required without the seal. The main advantages
over liquid seals are that they do not slosh and they produce much less oily water. Gas seal must be drained,
and the drain loop must be sealed. Because a gas seal with an elevated flare is required to keep air out of the
flare stack, the liquid seal usually is omitted from an elevated-only flare system. If a vapor-recovery compressor
is used, a liquid seal is used to provide a minimum header backpressure.

Fluidic seals
Fluidic seals are an alternative to gas seals. Fluidic seals use an open wall-less venturi, which permits flow out
of the flare in one direction with very little resistance but strongly resists counterflow of air back into the stack.
The venturi is a series of baffles, like open-ended cones in appearance, mounted with the flare tip. The main
advantages of fluidic seals are that they are smaller, less expensive, and weigh less, and thus have less
structural load on the flare stack, than molecular seals. However, fluidic seals require more purge gas than
molecular seals.

Flame arrestors
Flame arrestors are used primarily on atmospheric vents and are not recommended on pressurized systems.
Because of the acceleration of the flame, the flame arrestor must be installed approximately 10 pipe diameters
from the exit, which prevents the flame from blowing through the arrestor. The length of the tube and surface
area provided keep the metal cool. The major drawbacks of flame arrestors are that they are easily plugged,
can become coated with liquid, and may not be strong enough for pressure-relief systems.

Flare Stacks
RP 521, Sec. 5.4.3, covers the design of elevated flares.[2] RP 521, Appendix C, provides examples of full
design of a flare stack.[2] Most flares are designed to operate on an elevated flare stack or on angled booms on
offshore platforms.

Elevated-flare-stack designs
Fig. 2 shows an example of an elevated-flare-stack design.

Fig. 2Elevated flare stack configurations: (a) self-supported, (b) guyed supported, and (c) derrick
supported.

Self supported stacks

This is the simplest and most economical design for applications requiring short-stack heights (up to 100 ft
overall height); however, as the flare height and/or wind loading increases, the diameter and wall thickness
required become very large and expensive.

Guy wire supported stacks

This is the most economical design in the 100- to 350-ft height range. The design can be a single-diameter
riser or a cantilevered design. Normally, sets of 3 wires are anchored 120 degrees apart at various elevations
(1 to 6).

Derrick supported stacks

This is the most feasible design for stack heights above 350 ft. They use a single-diameter riser supported by a
bolted framework of supports. Derrick supports can be fabricated from pipe (most common), angle iron, solid
rods, or a combination of these materials. They sometimes are chosen over guy-wire-supported stacks when a
limited footprint is desired.

Offshore flare support structures

Because offshore production platforms process very large quantities of high-pressure gas, the relief systems
and, therefore, the flare systems, must be designed to handle extremely large quantities of gas quickly. By
nature, flares normally have to be located very close to production equipment and platform personnel or
located on remote platforms. Maximum emergency-flare design is based on emergency shut in of the
production manifold and quick depressurization of the system. Maximum continuous-flare design is based on
loss of produced-gas transport, single compression shutdown, gas-turbine shutdown, etc. Typical flare
mountings on an offshore platform are angled boom mounting (most common), vertical towers, or remote flare
platforms. Fig. 3 shows typical offshore flare-support structures.

Fig. 3Typical offshore flare-support structures: (a) angle flare boom and (b) vertical tower.

Selection of the flare structure depends on such factors as:

Water depth

The distance between the flare and the production platform

Relief gas quantity

Toxicity

Allowable loading on the flare structure

Location of personnel

Location of drilling derrick

Locations of adjacent platforms

Whether the flaring is intermittent or continuous

Flare booms
Flare booms extend from the edge of the platform at an angle of 15 to 45 and are usually 100 to 200 ft long.
Sometimes two booms oriented 180 from each other are used to take advantage of prevailing winds. Fig.
4 shows a diagram of an offshore flare boom.

Fig. 4Offshore flare boom.

Derrick supported flares

Derrick-supported flares (see Fig. 5) are the most common flare towers used offshore. They provide the
minimum footprint (four-legged design) and dead load, which are critical design parameters for offshore flares
and normally are used when space is limited and relief quantities moderate. Disadvantages of derricksupported flares include possible crude-oil spill onto the platform, interference with helicopter landing, and
higher radiation intensities.

Fig. 5Derrick-supported flare.

Bridge supported flares

In the bridge-supported flare (see Fig. 6), the production platform is connected to a separate platform that is
devoted to the flare structure. Bridges can be as much as 600 ft long, and bridge supports usually are spaced
approximately every 350 ft.

Fig. 6Bridge-supported flare.

Remote flares
Remote flares (see Fig. 7) are located on a separate platform connected to the main platform by a subsea
relief line. The main disadvantage of remote flares is that any liquid carryover or subsea condensation will be
trapped in pockets in the connecting line.

Fig. 7Remote flare with subsea relief line.

Flare stack design criteria

Important design criteria that determine the size and cost of flare stacks include flare-tip diameter and exit gas
velocity, pressure-drop considerations, flare-stack height, gas dispersion limitations, flame distortion caused by
lateral wind, and radiation considerations.

Flare tip diameter and exit gas velocity

The flare-tip diameter should provide a large enough exit velocity so that the flame lifts off the flare tip but not
so large as to blowout the flare. The flare diameter and gas velocity normally are determined by the flare
supplier. They are sized on the basis of gas velocity, although pressure drop should be checked.
Flare-Tip Diameter. Low-pressure flare tips are sized for 0.5 Mach for a peak, short-term, infrequent flow
(emergency release) and 0.2 Mach for normal conditions, where Mach equals the ratio of vapor velocity to
sonic velocity in that vapor at the same temperature and pressure and is dimensionless. These API 521
recommendations are conservative.[2] Some suppliers are designing "utility-type" tips for rates up to 0.8 Mach
for emergency releases. For high-pressure flare tips, most manufacturers offer "sonic" flares that are very
stable and clean burning; however, they do introduce a higher backpressure into the flare system. Smokeless
flares should be sized for the conditions under which they are to operate smokelessly.
Velocity Determination. The sonic velocity of a gas can be calculated with

(Eq. 2)
Gas velocity can be determined from

(Eq. 3)
and the critical flow pressure at the end of the relief system can be calculated with

(Eq. 4)
where

di

pipe inside diameter, in.;

ratio of specific heats, CP/CV;

PCL

critical pressure at flare tip, always 14.7, psia;

Qg

gas-flow rate, MMscf/D;

specific gravity, ratio;

temperature, R;

gas velocity, ft/s;

VS

sonic velocity, ft/s;

gas compressibility at standard conditions, where air = 1, psi 1 .

and
Z

Pressure drop considerations

Pressure drops as large as 2 psi have been used satisfactorily. If the tip velocity is too small, it can cause heat
and corrosion damage. Furthermore, the burning of the gases becomes quite slow and the flame is influenced
greatly by the wind. The low-pressure area on the downwind side of the stack may cause the burning gases to
be drawn down along the stack for 10 ft or more. Under these conditions, corrosive materials in the stack gases
may attack the stack metal at an accelerated rate, even though the top 8 to 10 ft of the flare is usually made of
corrosion-resistant material.
For conventional (open-pipe) flares, an estimate of the total flare pressure drop is 1.5 velocity heads, which is
based on nominal flare-tip diameter. The pressure drop is determined by

(Eq. 5)
where g = acceleration due to gravity, 32.3 ft/s2; V = gas velocity, ft/s; PW = pressure drop at the tip, inches of
water; and g = density of gas, lbm/ft3. Fig. 8 shows a "quick-look" nomograph to determine the flare-tip
diameter.

Fig. 8Nomograph to determine flare-tip diameter.

Flare stack height

The height is generally based on the radiant-heat intensity generated by the flame. The stack should be located
so that radiation releases from both emergency and long-term releases are acceptable and so that
hydrocarbon and H2S dispersion is adequate if the flame is extinguished. The stack also should be structurally
sound and withstand wind, earthquake, and other miscellaneous loadings. RP 521, Appendix C, provides
guidance on sizing a flare stack.[2]
The Hajek and Ludwig equation (see RP 521) may be used to determine the minimum distance from a flare to
an object whose exposure to thermal radiation must be limited.

(Eq. 6)
where

minimum distance from the midpoint of the flame to the object being considered, ft;

fraction of heat radiated;

allowable radiation level, BTU/hr-ft2;

heat release (lower heating value), BTU/hr; and

fraction of heat intensity transmitted, defined by Eq. 7.

Table 1 shows component emissivity, and Table 2 shows allowable radiation levels. Humidity reduces the
emissivity values in Table 1 by a factor of , which is defined by

(Eq. 7)

where

relative humidity, fraction;

distance from flare center, ft;

fraction of heat transmitted, in range of 0.7 to 0.9.

and

Table 1

Table 2

Gas dispersion limitations

In some cases, it may be desirable to check the stack height on the basis of atmospheric dispersion of
pollutants. Where this is required, the authorities with jurisdiction normally will have a preferred calculation
method.

Flame distortion caused by lateral wind

Another factor to be considered is the effect of wind tilting the flame, which varies the distance from the center
of the flame. The center of the flame is considered to be the origin of the total radiant-heat release with respect
to the plant location under consideration. API RP 521[2] gives a generalized curve for approximating the effect of
wind.

Radiation considerations
There are many parameters that affect the amount of radiation given off by a flare including the type of flare tip,
whether sonic or subsonic (HP or LP) or assisted or nonassisted; emissivity of flame produced or flame length
produced; amount of gas flow; heating value of gas; exit velocity of flare gas; orientation of flare tip; wind
velocity; and humidity level in air.
Several design methods are used for radiation calculations. The most common methods are the API simple
method and the Bruztowski and Sommers method. Both methods are listed in RP 521, Appendix C.[2] These
methods are reasonably accurate for simple low-pressure pipe flares (utility flare) but do not accurately model
high-efficiency sonic-flare tips, which produce short, stiff flames. The fourth edition of RP 521 suggests that
manufacturers proprietary calculations should be used for high-efficiency sonic-flare tips. [2]

Purge gas
Purge gas is injected into the relief header at the upstream end and at the major branches to maintain a
hydrocarbon-rich atmosphere in each branch, into the off-plot relief system, and into the flare stack. The gas
volume typically is enough to maintain the following velocities: ft/s for density seals, 0.4 ft/s for fluidic seals, and
0.4 to 3 ft/s for open-ended flares. RP 521states that the oxygen concentration must not be greater than 6% at
25 ft inside the tip.[2] When there is enough PSV leakage or process venting to maintain the desired
backpressure, no purge gas is injected.

Burn pits
Burn pits can handle volatile liquids. They must be large enough to contain the maximum emergency flame
length and must have a drain valve and pump (if required) to dispose of trapped water. The flare should be
pointed down, and the pilot should be reliable. Because of the uncertainty regarding the effects of wind on the
center of the flame, it is recommended that the greater of either 50 ft or 25% be added to the calculated
required distance behind the tip. Burn pits should be at least 200 ft from property lines. A fence or some other
positive means for keeping animals and personnel away from a potential radiation of 1,200 BTU/hr-ft 2 should be
installed.

Vent design
The size of a vent stack must consider radiation, velocity, and dispersion.

Radiation
The vent should be located so that radiation levels from ignition are acceptable.

Velocity

The vent must have sufficient velocity to mix air with gas to maintain the mixed concentration below the
flammable limit within the jet-dominated portion of the release. The vent should be sized for an exit velocity of
at least 500 ft/s (100 ft/s minimum). Studies indicate that gases with velocities of 500 ft/s or more have
sufficient energy in the jet to cause turbulent mixing with air and will disburse gas in accordance with the
following equation.

(Eq. 8)
where

weight flow rate of the vapor/air mixture at distance Y from the end of the tailpipe;

Wo

weight flow rate of the relief-device discharge, in the same units as W ;

distance along the tailpipe axis at which W is calculated;

tailpipe diameter, in the same units as Y.

and
Dt

Eq. 8 indicates that the distance Y from the exit point at which typical hydrocarbon relief streams are diluted to
their lower flammable limit occurs approximately 120 diameters from the end of the discharge pipe. As long as
a jet is formed, there is no fear of large clouds of flammable gases existing below the level of the stack. The
distance to the lean flammability concentration limits can be determined from API RP 521[2] and API RP 14C.
[5]

The horizontal limit is approximately 30 times the tailpipe diameter.

Industry practice is to locate vent stacks 50 ft horizontally from any structure running to a higher elevation than
the discharge point. The stacks must vent at least 10 ft above any equipment or structure within 25 to 50 ft
above a potential ignition source. Because the flame can be ignited, the height of the stack must be designed
or the pit located so that the radiation levels do not violate emergency conditions.

Dispersion
The vent must be located so that dispersion is adequate to avoid potential ignition sources. The dispersion
calculation of low-velocity vents is much more difficult and should be modeled by experts familiar with the latest
computer programs. Location of these vents is very critical if the gas contains H 2S because even low
concentrations at levels accessible by personnel could be hazardous. The location of low-velocity vents should
be checked for radiation in the event of accidental ignition.

Nomenclature
Cp/C

specific heats at constant pressure and temperature, dimensionless

nominal tip diameter, L, in.

di

pipe inside diameter, L, in.

minimum distance from the midpoint of the flame to the object being considered,
L, ft

Dt

tailpipe diameter, L, in the same units as Y

fraction of heat radiated

acceleration due to gravity, 32.3 ft/sec2

height of liquid seal, L, ft

ratio of specific heats, CP/CV

allowable radiation level, BTU/hr-ft2

flame length, L, ft

maximum allowable header backpressure, m/Lt2, psi

PCL

critical pressure at flare tip, m/Lt2, psia

heat release (lower heating value), BTU/hr

Qg

gas-flow rate, MMscf/D

relative humidity, fraction

distance from flare center

specific gravity, fraction

temperature, T, F

temperature, T, R

Ux

lateral-wind velocity, L

Uj

exit gas velocity from stack, L

gas velocity, L/t, ft/sec

VS

sonic velocity, L/t, ft/sec

weight flow rate of the vapor/air mixture at distance Y from the end of the
tailpipe, mL/t

Wf

gas-flow rate, lbm/hr

Wo

weight flow rate of the relief device discharge in the same units as W, mL/t

xc

horizontal distance from flare tip to flame center, L

yc

vertical distance from flare tip to flame center, L

distance along the tailpipe axis at which W is calculated, L

gas compressibility at standard conditions, Lt2/m, psi1

PW

pressure drop at the tip in inches of water

horizontal flame distortion caused by lateral wind, L, ft

vertical flame distortion caused by lateral wind, L, ft

sealing-liquid density, lbm/ft3

density of gas, lbm/ft3

fraction of heat intensity transmitted

References
1. 1.0 1.1 API RP 520, Design and Installation of Pressure Relieving Systems in Refineries, Part I, seventh
edition. 2000. Washington, DC: API.
2. 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 2.10 2.11 2.12 API RP 521, Guide for Pressure-Relieving and Depressuring
Systems, fourth edition. 1999. Washington, DC: API.
3. API RP 14J, Design and Hazards Analysis for Offshore Production Facilities. 1993. Washington, DC:
API.
4. API STD 2000, Venting Atmosphere and Low-Pressure Storage TanksNonrefrigerated and
Refrigerated, fifth edition. 1999. Washington, DC: API.
5. 5.0 5.1 API RP 14C, Analysis Design, Installation and Testing of Basic Surface Safety Systems for
Offshore Production Platforms. 1998. Washington, DC: API.