DC Machines

Chapter-4
Term-151
1

Direct Current (DC) Machines Fundamentals

Generator action: An emf (voltage) is induced in a

conductor if it moves through a magnetic field.

Motor action: A force is induced in a conductor that
has a current going through it and placed in a
magnetic field.
Any DC machine can act either as a generator or as a
motor.

DC Machines- Direction of Power Flow and Losses

DC Machines- Direction of Power Flow and Losses

DC Machines Analysis
Symbols that will be used.
= flux per pole
p = no. of poles
z = total number of active conductors on the armature
a = no. of parallel paths in the armature winding
n = speed of rotation of the armature in rpm
wm = speed in radians per second

The Internal Generated Voltage Equations

Of Real Machines
The induced voltage in any given machine depends on
three factors:
The flux in the machine
The speed of the machine's rotor
A constant depending on the construction of the machine
The voltage out of a real machine = the number of conductors per current
path x the voltage on each conductor

EMF Equation
When the rotor rotates in the field a voltage is developed in the
armature.
The flux cut by one conductor
in one rotation
Therefore in n rotations, the
flux cut by one conductor

np

The flux cut per second by one

conductor

The number of conductors in

series

np
60

z
a

EMF Equation

EMF induced in the

armature windings

The Induce Torque Equations Of Real

Machines
The torque in any dc machine depends on three factors:
The flux in the machine
The armature (or rotor) current IA in the machine
A constant depending on the construction of the machine

The torque on the armature of a real machine =the

number of conductors Z x the torque on each conductor

TORQUE EQUATION
EaIa=Tem

- In the DC machine losses are

expressed as rotational losses
due to friction and windage (F&W).

- The torque equation can then be

rewritten as:-

SHAFT OUTPUT TORQUE = (Te TF&W)

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Construction of DC Machines

11

Features of DC Machine
Field Winding

12

Construction of DC
Machines

13

Construction of DC Machines

Field system

Armature core

14

Armature
winding

Commutator

Brushes

Field System

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Field system
It is for uniform magnetic field within which
the armature rotates.
Electromagnets are preferred in comparison
with permanent magnets
They are cheap , smaller in size , produce
greater magnetic effect and field strength
can be varied

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Field system consists of the

following parts
Yoke

Pole cores
Pole shoes
Field coils

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Armature core
The armature core is cylindrical.
High permeability silicon steel stampings.
Lamination is to reduce the eddy current.

loss

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Armature winding

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Armature winding
There are 2 types of winding
Lap and Wave winding

A=P

A=2

It is meant for high

current and low voltages.

It is meant for low

current output
and high voltages.

The armature windings

are divided into number
of sections equal to the
number of poles.

2 brushes

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Commutator

Connect with external circuit.

Converts ac into unidirectional current.

Cylindrical in shape .

Made of wedge shaped copper segments.

Segments are insulated from each other.

Each commutator segment is connected to armature

conductors by means of a copper strip called riser.

Number of segments equal to number of coils.

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Carbon brush

Carbon brushes are used in DC

machines because they are soft
materials.

It does not generate spikes when

they contact commutator.

To deliver the current through

armature.

Carbon is used for brushes

because
it
has
negative
temperature
coefficient
of
resistance.

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DC Machine Equivalent
Circuits
1. Magnetic equivalent

circuit
2. Electrical equivalent
23

circuit

1. Magnetic equivalent circuit

Flux-mmf relation in
a dc machine

DC machine Crosssectional view

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DC machine Magnetic
equivalent circuit

Electrical equivalent
circuit
DC Generator

25

DC Generator Equivalent circuit

The magnetic field produced by the stator poles induces a

voltage in the rotor (or armature) coils when the generator is

rotated.
This induced voltage is represented by a voltage source.
The stator coil has resistance, which is connected in series.
The pole flux is produced by the DC excitation/field current,

which is magnetically coupled to the rotor

The field circuit has resistance and a source
The voltage drop on the brushes represented by a battery
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DC Generator Equivalent circuit

Vbrush
Rf

Ra

Load

Iag

Vf If

Eag

Mechanical
power in

VT

Electrical
power out

Equivalent circuit of a separately excited dc generator.

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DC Generator Equivalent circuit

The magnetic field produced by the stator poles

induces a voltage in the rotor (or armature) coils

when the generator is rotated.
The dc field current of the poles generates a magnetic
flux
The flux is proportional with the field current if the
iron core is not saturated:

K1 I f
The rotor conductors cut the field lines that generate

voltage in the coils.

Eag Ka m
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DC Generator Equivalent circuit

When the generator is loaded, the load current produces a

voltage drop on the rotor winding resistance.

In addition, there is a more or less constant 1 to 3 V voltage

drop on the brushes.

These two voltage drops reduce the terminal voltage of the

generator. The terminal voltage is;

Eag VT I ag Ra Vbrush
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Electrical equivalent
circuit
DC Motor

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DC Motor Equivalent circuit

Vbrush
Rf

Ra

Electrical
power in

Vf If

Eam

Iam

VT

DC Power
supply

Mechanical
power out
Equivalent circuit of a separately excited dc motor
Equivalent circuit is similar to the generator only the current

directions are different

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DC Motor Equivalent circuit

The operation equations are:
Armature voltage equation

VT Eam I am Ra Vbrush
The induced voltage and motor speed vs angular frequency

Eam K a m

m 2 nm

The output power and torque are:

Pout Eam I am
32

Pout

K a I am

Classification of DC
Machines

33

34

 Separately Excited DC Machine

+

Ra

Ia

+
VT

E
-

a)

+
Field

E
F
35

Armature

b) Separately Excited

 Series & Shunt DC Machine

+
E

Armature

Field
F

F
c) Series

+
E

Armature

Field
F

36

d) Shunt

 Cumulative & Differential DC machine

A

+
e) Cummulative Compound

Field

Armature

A
+

Armature

d) Differential Compound
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Field

 Long Shunt & Short Shunt DC Machine

A
+

Armature

f) Long Shunt
F

Field

A
+

Armature

g) Short Shunt
F

38

Field

Exercise Problems

39

Exercise-1
A four-pole dc machine has an armature of radius 12.5 cm and an
effective length of 25cm. The poles cover 75 % of the armature
periphery. The armature winding consists of 33 coils, each having
seven turns. The coils are accommodated in 33 slots. The average
flux density under each pole is 0.75 T.
A. If the armature is lap wound, then
a) Determine the armature constant Ka.
b) Determine the induced armature voltage when the armature

rotates at 1000 rpm.

c) Determine the current in the coil and the electromagnetic torque
developed when the armature current is 400 A.
d) Determine the power developed by the armature.
B. If the armature is wave-wound, repeat parts (a) to (d) above. The
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current rating of the coils remains the same as in the lap-wound.

Exercise-2
A 12-pole dc generator has a simplex wave-wound armature

containing 144 coils of 10 turns each. The resistance of each turn is

0.011 . Its flux per pole is 0.05 Wb, and the machine is running at a
speed of 200 r/min.
(a) How many current/parallel paths are there in this machine?
(b) What is the induced armature voltage of this machine?
(c) What is the effective armature resistance of this machine?
(d) If a 1 k resistor is connected to the terminals of this generator,

Determine the power output and the induced counter-torque on

the shaft of this generator.
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4.3 DC Generators

42

 Separately Excited DC Generator

The operation equations are:
Stator or field side:

R f R fw R fc
Vf I f Rf
Armature voltage equation:

Ea Vt I a Ra Vbrush
Ea K a m
Load or terminal equation:

Vt I t RL
Current equation:
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Power developed in the armature:

Pa Pg Ea I a
Power delivered to the load:

I a It

PL Pt Vt I t Vt I L

 Characteristics
Performance of the DC generators

are determined by terminal output

parameter IL and VT
By Kirchhoff's voltage law, the
terminal voltage is,

I a It
Since

Vt Ea I a Ra Vbrush

Terminal characteristics of separately

excited DC generator

the internal generated

voltage is independent of armature
current, the generator terminal
characteristics is a straight line.
Due to the armature voltage drop,
the characteristics show drooping
nature.
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 Shunt (Self-Excited) DC Generator

The operation equations are:
Stator or field side:

Vt
I sh
Rsh
Armature voltage equation:

Ea Vt I a Ra Vbrush
Ea K a m
Load or terminal equation:

Vt I t RL
Current equation:
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Power developed in the armature:

Pa Pg Ea I a
Power delivered to the load:

I a I L I sh

PL Pt Vt I t Vt I L

 Characteristics
By Kirchhoff's voltage law, the

terminal voltage is,

I a I t I sh
Vt Ea I a Ra Vbrush
Since the internal generated

voltage is independent of
armature
current,
the
generator
terminal
characteristics is a straight
line.
Due to the armature voltage
drop, the characteristics show
drooping nature.
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Terminal characteristics of shunt DC

generator

 Series (Self-Excited) DC Generator

The operation equations are:
Stator or field side:

I se I a I L I t
Armature voltage equation:

Ea Vt I a ( Ra Rse ) Vbrush
Ea K a m
Load or terminal equation:

Vt I t RL
Current equation:
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I a It I L

Power developed in the armature:

Pa Pg Ea I a
Power delivered to the load:

PL Pt Vt I t Vt I L

 Characteristics
By Kirchhoff's voltage law, the

terminal voltage is,

I a I t I se
Vt Ea I a ( Ra Rse ) Vbrush
As the load increases, the field

current rises, so EA rises rapidly The

IA (RA+Rs) drop goes up too, but
at first the increase in EA goes up
more rapidly than the IA(RA+Rs)
drop rises, so Vr increases.

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Terminal characteristics of series DC

generator
After a while, the machine approaches

saturation, and EA becomes almost

constant. At that point, the resistive
drop is the predominant effect, and VT
starts to fall.

 Short Shunt DC Generator

The operation equations are:
Series field side:

I se I L I t

Shunt field current

Vt I se Rse
I sh
Rsh

Armature voltage equation:

Ea Vt I a Ra I se Rse Vbrush
Ea K a m

Power developed in the armature:

Pa Pg Ea I a

Load or terminal equation:

Vt I t RL
Current equation:

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Power delivered to the load:

I a I L I sh

PL Pt Vt I t Vt I L

 Long Shunt DC Generator

The operation equations are:
Series field side:

I se I a

Shunt field current

Vt
I sh
Rsh

Armature voltage equation:

Ea Vt I a ( Ra Rse ) Vbrush
Ea K a m

Power developed in the armature:

Pa Pg Ea I a

Load or terminal equation:

Vt I t RL
Current equation:

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Power delivered to the load:

I a I L I sh

PL Pt Vt I t Vt I L

 Characteristics

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4.4 DC Motors

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HW-3
Draw the equivalent circuits of
various DC motors & derive
their voltage, current and
power equations. Draw their
performance characteristics.
Due Date: Monday, November 16, 2015
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Performance of DC
Machines

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 DC Generator
A DC generator is a machine that takes in mechanical input

power to produce electrical power output.

The performance of a dc generator is assessed by means of the
following:
Generator Efficiency:

Pout
Pin Losses
Pout

100
100
100
Pin
Pin
Pout Losses
Voltage Regulation:

VR
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Vt , NL Vt , FL
Vt , FL

100

 DC Motor:
A DC motor is a machine that produces mechanical output

power from the applied electrical input.

The performance of a dc motor is assessed by means of the
following:
Motor Efficiency:

Pout
Pin Losses
Pout

100
100
100
Pin
Pin
Pout Losses
Speed Regulation:

SR
56

nm , NL nm , FL
nm , FL

100

Efficiency Calculations
Power Flow & Losses in
a DC Machine

57

Losses in DC Machines
Variable Losses

Constant Losses

All these losses appear as heat and thus raise the temperature of the machine. They
also lower the efficiency of the machine.
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Electrical or Copper Losses (I2R Losses)

These losses occur due to currents in the armature and

field windings of the dc machine.

Armature copper loss:

PA I a 2 Ra

Shunt field copper loss:

Psh I sh 2 Rsh

Series field copper loss:

Pse I se 2 Rse

Brush Losses:
There is also brush contact loss due to brush contact resistance (i.e.,

resistance between the surface of brush and surface of commutator). This

loss is generally included in armature copper loss.
It can also be calculated explicitly by the following relation.

PBD VBD I a
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Core or Iron Losses

As iron core of the armature is continuously rotating in a magnetic field,

there are some losses taking place in the core. This loss consists of Hysteresis
loss and Eddy current loss.
Hysteresis loss:

Hysteresis loss is due to reversal of magnetization of the armature core. When

the core passes under one pair of poles, it undergoes one complete cycle of
magnetic reversal. The frequency of magnetic reversal if given by, f=PN/120.
The loss that takes place due to repeated magnetization & demagnetization
of the iron core contributes to the hysteresis loss.
Eddy current loss:

When the armature core rotates in the magnetic field, an emf is also induced
in the core (just like it induces in armature conductors), according to
the Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. Though this induced emf is
small, it causes a large current to flow in the body due to low resistance of the
core. This current is known as eddy current. The power loss due to this
current is known as eddy current loss.
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Mechanical Losses
The mechanical losses in a dc machine are the losses associated with

mechanical effects.
These

(i)

(ii)

losses

friction

windage

are

loss

loss

due

e.g.,

i.e.,

bearing

air

to

friction
friction,

friction

of

and

brush

windage.

friction

rotating

etc.

armature.

These losses depend upon the speed of the machine. But for a given speed,

they are practically constant.

Mechanical and core losses are together considered as rotational losses .

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The Power-Flow Diagram of DC Generator

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The Power-Flow Diagram of DC Motor

63

Exercise Problems

64

Exercise-1
A separately excited dc generator running at 1200 rpm & delivers
12kW at 240 V as terminal voltage. The armature resistance is 0.3
ohms. Each brush takes 1 V drop. Pmech=600 W, Pcore=300 W and
Pstray=200 W. The field circuit resistance is 200 ohms and DC field
voltage is 250 V.
a) Draw the equivalent circuit and the corresponding power

flow diagram.
b) Find the induced voltage.
c) Determine the converted or developed power and the
induced torque.
d) Find the efficiency of the machine.

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Exercise-2
A 220 V shunt DC motor has an armature resistance of 0.2 ohms and
a field resistance of 110 ohms. At no-load the motor runs at 1000
rpm and it draws a line current of 7 A. At full-load, the input to the
motor is 11 kW.
a) Draw the equivalent circuit.
b) Find the rotational losses.
c) Find the speed, speed regulation and developed torque at full

load.
d) Find the efficiency of the motor.

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HW-4
Questions #:
4.2, 4.16, 4.17, 4.18, 4.25, 4.26,4.39,
4.40 found on pages 192-198 of the
text book.

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