AS Psychology

PSYA1

Research Methods
Information
This booklet belongs to:

MRS ROBSON, HOLLY LODGE GIRLS COLLEGE

INTRODUCTION
Psychologists are scientists. Research Methods are the tools that they use to study the mind and behaviour
scientifically. Because psychologists investigate so many areas of thought and behaviour they need a wide
variety of methods to ensure that there is always one that is appropriate to their needs. That said, no single
method is perfect and as a student of Psychology you must learn to critically consider the choices that
researchers make. You will use your knowledge of the concepts within this topic to help you evaluate research in
the other five AS topics (Cognitive, Developmental, Biological, Social and Individual Differences).
This topic is the area of AS Psychology that gets the closest to what psychologists do in real life it shows you
how a study evolves from an initial idea to a piece of published research which has the power to change the way
society thinks and behaves. It is a terminology-heavy topic which means it can seem like you are learning a
foreign language at times this terminology is however necessary as it allows psychologists to communicate
their meaning to other researchers in a quick and precise way.

THE 9 METHODS
A method is how you go about doing something. It usually means you are carrying out a procedure in a
systematic, ordered and logical way; for example when carrying out a chemistry experiment or baking a cake.
There are nine main research methods that psychologists use which you must learn about.

1. QUESTIONNAIRES
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A questionnaire is a self-report technique which allows participants to directly provide information about
themselves. They consist of a set of pre-written questions which can be printed and given to participants face to
face, or can be posted, filled in by phone, completed over the internet, or simply left in public places.
Questionnaires are useful for surveying attitudes, opinions, beliefs and behaviours; they also offer some
flexibility as questions can be quite broad and invite participants to answer in their own words (open questions)
producing detailed qualitative data, or they can be quite narrow with forced choice responses such as tick boxes
(closed questions) producing easy to analyse quantitative data.
Good questionnaires will avoid vagueness/ambiguity (for example, Do you drink coffee often? can be
interpreted differently by different people whereas How many cups of coffee do you drink every day? is much
clearer), double-barrelled questions (where two questions are asked in one and the participant is left unsure
how to answer if they are only permitted to give one response e.g. Do you think crime is due to bad housing and
poor education?), leading questions (where people are encouraged to give a particular answer creating possible
bias in responses e.g. Many people think abortion is wrong: do you agree?), they will also avoid the use of
overly complex phrases or technical jargon which non-psychologists may not understand. Finally, they will have
the questions arranged in a logical order to avoid extraneous variables such as demand characteristics.

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ADVANTAGES
They are highly replicable because it is easy to ensure
procedures are the same for all participants this
allows researchers to check findings for reliability.
They are time (and therefore cost) efficient, as a large
sample of participants can be reached quickly and
easily; a large amount of data can be gained.
Investigator effects are reduced because researchers
dont need to be present to administer a
questionnaire; this improves the validity of findings.

WEAKNESSES
People may modify their answers to show themselves
in the best light (dishonesty/social desirability bias);
this reduces the validity of any subsequent findings.
Participant samples may be biased towards more
literate people this reduces population validity and
means the sample is unrepresentative.
Because researchers are not always present,
participants are unable to ask for help with unclear
questions and may also miss sections/pages out.

2. INTERVIEWS
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An interview is another form of self-report technique which allows participants to directly provide information
about themselves. Here the researcher asks participants questions verbally about the topic being researched,
usually face to face.
In a structured interview the interviewer has a pre-written set of questions which they do not deviate from; all
participants are asked the same questions in the same order. In an unstructured interview the interviewer may
have a few general questions in mind but there are no set questions; there is instead flexibility to pick up on
issues in the participants comments and for them to expand on their responses.
When designing an interview, researchers must consider the categories of data required by their aim and must
generate an appropriate set of questions, they must also decide whether to use a structured or unstructured
interview. In addition they will consider issues such as social desirability, bias and ethical issues and will decide
how responses are to be gathered during the interview (i.e. whether the interview will be recorded or whether the
interviewer will make notes throughout).

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ADVANTAGES
May be more appropriate than other methods for
dealing with complex/sensitive issues the researcher
can gauge if the participant is distressed or not.
Because the researcher is present, interesting issues
(as well as any misunderstandings) can be followed up
immediately.
Lots of rich data is gathered (especially in unstructured
interviews) compared to e.g. a questionnaire, as there
are far fewer constraints in place.

WEAKNESSES
Like with questionnaires, what people say they will do
is not always what they would actually do in real life
social desirability in answers reduces validity.
There can be low inter-rater reliability between
interviews (of the same participant), due to interviewer
effects of age, gender, ethnicity, personality etc.
Interviews are extremely time consuming to prepare for
and conduct; detailed data sets (particularly from
unstructured interviews) take time to analyse.

3. CASE STUDIES
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A case study is an in-depth study of just one individual (or a particular group of people, an institution or an
event). They are useful as they allow researchers to investigate unique cases in a lot of detail often the
research has a narrow focus on just one aspect of behaviour and is longitudinal (taking place over many years).
The case study method often incorporates the use of other research methods as techniques, for example
researchers may give questionnaires to their participants, they may interview them, they may observe them, they
may conduct experiments with them or they may conduct a content analysis on diaries/letters/school or
employment records etc. The parents, other family members, teachers, managers, colleagues of the main
participant may also take part in the research.

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ADVANTAGES
Case studies allow researchers to investigate topics
that it would be impractical and/or unethical to
investigate experimentally.
Unique cases can challenge existing ideas and
theories and also suggest new areas and/or
hypotheses for future research.
Complex interactions can be studied (using a wide
range of techniques), rather than simple cause-andeffect relationships being found.

WEAKNESSES
Because only a limited number of people are
investigated, it is difficult to confidently generalize the
results to the population and to replicate the research.
There are often significant ethical issues with case
studies due to the nature of the participants e.g. if
they are very young and/or have a significant disorder.
Data and subsequent findings may be unreliable due
to subjective and/or biased recall and/or interpretation
by the researcher, if they become too involved.

4. OBSERVATIONS
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An observation is where behaviour is watched and recorded. In a naturalistic observation the researcher
observes participants in their own environment, without manipulating the situation in any way. In a controlled
observation the researcher actively manipulates variables and the observation would therefore usually take
place in a specially set-up environment e.g. within a research laboratory.
Before any observational study takes place, the researcher has to decide on the particular behavioural
categories or events to be investigated. In an unstructured observation (naturalistic or controlled) the researcher
will not decide in advance exactly which behaviours they will record and will instead attempt to record a
continuous stream of data, focusing on eye-catching or unusual events.
In a structured observation (naturalistic or controlled) the researcher decides in advance exactly which
behaviours they will record; these are operationalized and a behaviour checklist is created. A behaviour checklist
usually takes the form of a tally chart observers count frequencies of the behaviours seen during the
observation and record these in the relevant place on the tally chart, totals are then used to draw conclusions.

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ADVANTAGES
Naturalistic observations have extremely high
ecological validity; if participants are unaware they are
being observed their behaviour is completely natural.
Observations allow researchers to investigate topics
that it would be impractical and/or unethical to
investigate experimentally.
Observations are a useful preliminary research tool;
researchers investigating new areas can use them to
produce hypotheses for future studies.

WEAKNESSES
If participants are aware they are observed their
behaviour can quickly become unnatural, which
massively reduces ecological validity.
There are many ethical issues with observations if
participants are unaware they are being observed
(informed consent, confidentiality, right to withdraw).
Low reliability observed situations are often unique
and therefore difficult to replicate; observers often
disagree on judgements (low inter-rater reliability).

5. CONTENT ANALYSIS
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A content analysis is where a researcher quite literally analyses the content of something, usually in order to
transform complex qualitative data into quantitative data so that conclusions about patterns may be drawn more
easily. This method can be used as a technique when applied to other research methods, for example a content
analysis can be used to transform the qualitative data of an interview transcript into quantitative data.
The process of content analysis is extremely systematic. First the researcher decides what material to sample,
they then decide what type of themes/categories might emerge from these materials and create a coding system
based on these. A sample of material is then collected and analysed using coding units e.g. researchers may
note each time they find a certain word/theme/character. By counting the frequencies of occurrence of each
coding unit numerical (quantitative) data is obtained; statistical analysis can then be carried out.

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ADVANTAGES
Studies can easily be replicated by accessing archived
materials and repeating the analysis; therefore
findings can be tested for reliability.
As a method, content analysis has high ecological
validity because it is based on real communications
which have been gathered in natural settings.
Content analysis is an effective way of presenting
qualitative data in a way that is easy to understand.

WEAKNESSES
Validity can be quite low; in identifying coding units
researchers may be inconsistent or impose their own
meaning on the data (subjective judgements).
Content analysis can be extremely time consuming
both in terms of the preparation needed and the time
spent on analysing large volumes of sample material.
There are ethical issues with content analysis as
participants are often unaware that their materials are
to be used as part of the research.

6. CORRELATIONAL ANALYSIS
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Correlational analysis is a statistical technique used for investigating the strength of the relationship between
two variables; it usually involves the researcher collecting two sets of secondary data i.e. no hands on research
takes place. The analysis will show either a positive correlation (as one variable increases, the other variable
increases), a negative correlation (as one variable increases, the other variable decreases) or no correlation.
Correlations can be illustrated visually (using scatter graphs), or numerically (through correlation coefficients). A
correlation coefficient is a number which ranges from -1 to +1; it shows the exact direction (sign) and strength
(number) of the relationship.

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ADVANTAGES
They frequently utilise pre-existing or archival data;
because participants/facilities are not required they
are relatively time (and cost) efficient.
Correlational analysis allows researchers to investigate
topics that it would be impractical and/or unethical to
investigate experimentally.
Correlational analysis is a precise method it can tell
researchers the exact strength and direction of the
relationship between two variables.

WEAKNESSES
It is impossible to establish cause and effect between
variables we can say that they are related but we do
not know in which direction the relationship functions.
Inaccurate conclusions are commonplace the media
and/or policy makers may infer something different
than is there (ethical implications re: misuse of data).
Can only measure linear relationships (i.e. clear
positives or negatives) does not detect curvilinear
relationships (e.g. where positive becomes negative).

7. EXPERIMENTAL METHOD (LABORATORY)

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These usually take place in a special facility (laboratory) within a university psychology department. The
independent variable is directly manipulated by the researcher and its effect on the dependent variable is
directly measured. All extraneous variables are controlled as much as possible.

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ADVANTAGES
Isolation of the effect of the independent variable on
the dependent variable means that cause and effect
can be inferred with reasonable confidence.
Strict controls and well-documented procedures mean
other researchers can quite easily replicate laboratory
experiments to check findings for reliability.
As the research takes place in a designated research
facility, specialist equipment can be used to deepen
our understanding of behaviour e.g. MRI scans.

WEAKNESSES
The artificiality of the research context usually means
participants do not demonstrate real-life behaviour
this dramatically reduces ecological validity.
Demand characteristics are likely participants will
look to both the researcher and the research situation
for clues about how they are predicted to behave.
Laboratory experiments are impossible to use in
situations where it would be inappropriate to
manipulate the IV for practical or ethical reasons.

8. EXPERIMENTAL METHOD (FIELD)

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Field experiments are the same as laboratory experiments in terms of the treatment of the IV/DV/EVs, except
the laboratory environment is swapped for a real-life setting such as a school, town centre or hospital.

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ADVANTAGES
Ecological validity is higher than in a laboratory
experiment, due to the real world setting. This means
findings relate better to real life for generalisation.
Demand characteristics are greatly reduced compared
to a laboratory experiment if participants are
unaware they are taking part they act more naturally.
As the effect of the independent variable on the
dependent variable is still isolated we can still
determine cause and effect in most situations.

WEAKNESSES
The researchers control over the environment reduces
in the real world; more extraneous (later confounding)
variables greatly reduce the validity of results.
If participants are unaware they are taking part they
may become distressed by manipulations of the
independent variable - it is impossible to debrief them.
Because the researcher has no real control over the
participants who take part samples may be biased (e.g.
on age/gender) so population validity is reduced.

9. EXPERIMENTAL METHOD (NATURAL)

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In a natural experiment the researcher does not manipulate the independent variable at all it is naturally
occurring. They act only to measure the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable (so this
method is not truly experimental, more quasi-experimental). Examples include studies of the effects of child
abuse on adult relationships, or the effects of anorexia nervosa on cognitive development.

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ADVANTAGES
Natural experiments allow researchers to investigate
topics that it would be impractical and/or unethical to
investigate using other experimental methods.
Ecological validity is extremely high compared to e.g. a
laboratory experiment. The researcher is able to study
completely real problems and situations.
Demand characteristics are greatly reduced compared
to a laboratory experiment if participants are
unaware they are taking part they act more naturally.

WEAKNESSES
The researcher has no control over the environment;
extraneous (later confounding) variables greatly reduce
the validity of results they cannot be eliminated.
Ethical guidelines of informed consent, confidentiality
and right to withdraw are breached if participants are
unaware they are taking part in the research.
As the natural events psychologists wish to study are
rare (even one-offs) it is often impossible to replicate
the research to test findings for reliability.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
Once a researcher has decided that they will use an experimental method and they have written a hypothesis,
they have to decide which experimental design to use.
An experimental design is a decision about how to allocate participants to different experimental conditions.
Every experiment has two conditions: an experimental condition (where participants are exposed to the
independent variable in order to see its effect on their behaviour) and a control condition (where participants
are not exposed to the independent variable but otherwise have exactly the same experience as the participants
in the experimental condition, in order to gain a baseline measurement of behaviour so the researcher can
assess if anything has in fact happened in the experimental condition).

DESIGN A: INDEPENDENT GROUPS

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Different participants are placed in each condition i.e. there are two separate and different groups:
EXPERIMENTAL CONDITION
Vitamin drink consumed while revising
P1
P2
P3

CONTROL CONDITION
Nothing drunk while revising
P4
P5
P6

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ADVANTAGES
Because each participant only takes part once,
researchers only need to produce one set of stimulus
materials e.g. word lists. This makes for a fairer test.
Order effects such as boredom, tiredness and/or
learning are reduced because participants only
experience one condition this increases validity.

WEAKNESSES
More participants are required than in other designs,
as the sample size is halved when the participants are
split. This makes the design expensive to use.
Because results from different participants are
compared, individual differences may negatively affect
the results and therefore any subsequent conclusions.

DESIGN B: REPEATED MEASURES

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The same participants are used in both conditions, i.e. each person takes part twice:
EXPERIMENTAL CONDITION
Vitamin drink consumed while revising
P1
P2
P3

CONTROL CONDITION
Nothing drunk while revising
P1
P2
P3

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ADVANTAGES
Far fewer participants are required than in other
designs, as the same sample is used twice. The design
is cost-effective; only one set of participant expenses.
Because results from the same participants are
compared, individual differences do not affect the
results or any subsequent conclusions.

WEAKNESSES
Participants experience both conditions, so order
effects such as boredom, tiredness and/or learning
negatively impact on results and conclusion validity.
At least two sets of stimulus materials are needed
this can create extraneous (even confounding
variables) e.g. if word lists differ in difficultly.

NOTE order effects are a significant issue with the use of repeated measures design.
One technique used to overcome order effects is counterbalancing this is where the order of the conditions is
mixed up, so that 50% of participants experience the experimental condition followed by the control condition,
whereas the other 50% of participants experience the control condition followed by the experimental condition.
Although this does not eliminate order effects (as all participants are still experiencing both conditions), it does
mean that any order effects are now equal across both conditions, so their negative effect is greatly reduced.

DESIGN C: MATCHED PAIRS

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Different participants are used in each condition (like independent groups), but they are matched on key
variables to form pairs (to imitate repeated measures):
EXPERIMENTAL CONDITION
Vitamin drink consumed while revising
P1a
P2b
P3c

CONTROL CONDITION
Nothing drunk while revising
P4a
P5b
P6c

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ADVANTAGES
Because each participant only takes part once,
researchers only need to produce one set of stimulus
materials e.g. word lists. This makes for a fairer test.
Order effects such as boredom, tiredness and/or
learning are reduced because participants only
experience one condition this increases validity.

WEAKNESSES
The process of matching participants is difficult, time
consuming and may be inaccurate/incomplete;
participant variables are never fully eliminated.
If this design is used, attrition by just one participant
will mean the loss of valuable data from the whole pair
from the research; this is not cost or time effective.

FURTHER INVESTIGATION DESIGN: AIMS

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All studies have an aim; an aim is the purpose of the study. Having a written aim makes research more focused
it clarifies what it is that the researcher is trying to discover.

FURTHER INVESTIGATION DESIGN: HYPOTHESES

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A hypothesis is a precise, testable statement about the expected outcome of a piece of research i.e. a prediction.
There are three types of hypothesis that are possible.
1. DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESES when a researcher has a good idea what is going to happen in a study they
will predict a specific outcome i.e. they will be specific about the direction of any differences in the way
people behave
2. NON-DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESES when a researcher is less sure what is going to happen in a study (i.e.
findings could go either way) they will predict a more general outcome i.e. that there will be a difference
in the way people behave, but not which direction this will be in
3. NULL HYPOTHESIS when a researcher is confident that the independent variable will have no effect at all
on the dependent variable they select a null hypothesis

FURTHER INVESTIGATION DESIGN: VARIABLES

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A variable is something that can change (or vary) within a study e.g. a score on a memory test.
1. An INDEPENDENT VARIABLE (IV) is the variable that is changed/manipulated by the researcher (cause)
2. A DEPENDENT VARIABLE (DV) is the variable which is measured by the researcher (effect)
Operationalising variables helps other researchers to replicate your research, as you detail as clearly and
precisely as you can how each variable is measured.
Both the IV and DV must always be stated in a written hypothesis for it to be a complete statement.
3. An EXTRANEOUS VARIABLE is anything other than the IV that may have an influence on the DV it is an
uncontrolled variable that should really be eliminated. If the researcher fails to control for an extraneous
variable and it negatively affects the research findings it is then known as a confounding variable.
Extraneous variable
PARTICIPANT VARIABLES

Details
These are variables which the participants bring into the research with them,
which complicate the relationship between the IV and the DV, as they result in
different participants performing differently within a study. For example: age,
gender, intelligence, mood, level of motivation, personality.

SITUATIONAL VARIABLES

Choosing an appropriate design, such as repeated measures or matched pairs,

reduces individual differences. In independent groups design, randomly
assigning participants to the different conditions should statistically reduce bias.
These are features of the research environment which complicate the
relationship between the IV and the DV, as they result in different participants
having different experiences during a study. For example: temperature, time of
day, lighting, noise, stimulus material used.

DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS

Making sure conditions and materials are the same for all participants is
effective (known as standardisation); using standardised instructions with all
participants so that everyone undergoes the same procedure also helps.
These are clues in the research environment/tasks/instructions which help the
participants to work out what the research hypothesis is this can make them
alter their behaviour (to avoid appearing disruptive or psychologically abnormal)
so that it becomes artificial and therefore less useful for research.

INVESTIGATOR EFFECTS

A single blind technique is often used this is where researchers ensure

participants have no way of knowing which condition they are participating in,
often via the use of deception. This ensures behaviour is as natural as possible.
These are characteristics of the researcher that might affect participants
responses e.g. age/gender/ethnicity/attractiveness; participants dont act in the
same way as they would with a different researcher, thus reducing both the
reliability and validity of their data. Investigator effects can also occur when, at
an unconscious level, the investigator behaves in such a way as to influence the
outcome of the study in favour of their own predictions.
A double blind technique is often used this is where neither the researcher or
the participant knows what the research hypothesis is (research assistants are
used in order to achieve this).

FURTHER INVESTIGATION DESIGN: PILOT STUDIES

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No research is perfect. To help foresee any costly problems a small scale pilot study may be carried out as a
trial run before the researchers commit to conducting their full scale main study.
Pilot studies allow researchers to identify any potential problems in the method/design chosen, instructions
given to participants, procedures, materials and measurements. These problems can then be rectified (or the
decision can be made to scrap the study entirely), without an entire participant sample and a set of stimulus
materials being wasted. This can save a lot of time and money.
Pilot studies are possible with most research methods, apart from natural experiments and case studies. This is
because the events/participants are so rare that it would be too wasteful to sacrifice a sample for a pilot study.

FURTHER INVESTIGATION DESIGN:

THE BRITISH PSYCHOLOGICAL SOCIETY (BPS) CODE OF ETHICS
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Ethics are a consideration of what is right or acceptable in the pursuit of a scientific goal. An ethical issue is
something that arises when there is conflict between the goals of scientific research and the rights of
participants.
The BPS is the professional organisation responsible for promoting ethical behaviour within psychological
research in the United Kingdom. It has developed a set of ethical principles to protect the public from harm and
also to help maintain the integrity of British psychologists.
These ethical guidelines help researchers to decide whether their proposed research is acceptable or not. Even
when ethical guidelines are followed it is still difficult however to predict exactly what will happen in a study.
Psychology Is Dead Cool Really = Protection from Harm / Informed Consent / Deception / Confidentiality / Right to Withdraw

A. PROTECTION FROM HARM

Psychologists have a responsibility to protect their participants from physical and emotional harm (e.g.
embarrassment/humiliation, stress or loss of self-esteem/dignity). Participants should not be exposed to more
risk than they would expect to experience in everyday life.
B. INFORMED CONSENT
Giving consent means agreeing to something a participant should always agree to take part in a study. When a
participant is told the aims of research, as well as the nature of the procedure and the purpose of their role and
agrees to it, this is known as informed consent i.e. the participant is fully informed before consenting.
C. DECEPTION
Researchers should not withhold any information from participants or actively mislead them about the true
nature of the study they are to be involved in, either to encourage them to give consent or to get more valid
results. Exceptions include when the deception is minor, deemed scientifically justified by an ethics committee
and/or if participants are unlikely to object/show unease when the deception is revealed.
D. CONFIDENTIALITY
Confidentiality means keeping information private. Participants should feel confident that the studys report
wont reveal information or data which makes it possible for individual participants to be identified, or for their
data to be linked to them i.e. they should remain anonymous.
E. RIGHT TO WITHDRAW
Participants should be allowed to leave at any point during the study if they decide they no longer want to take
part, including retrospectively after the study has finished (their data would be removed from the research and
destroyed).

FURTHER INVESTIGATION DESIGN:

HOW PSYCHOLOGISTS DEAL WITH ETHICAL ISSUES
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> PROTECTION FROM HARM
Psychologists can ask their research colleagues as well as ethics committees to check their research proposals,
to help spot any potential problems. At the start of their study they can ask their participants about any preexisting physical/mental conditions. During the study they can stop the research at the first sign of any harm
occurring. After the study they can debrief all participants in full and offer aftercare.
> INFORMED CONSENT
Psychologists will ask adult participants to read and sign a consent form, and will ask the parents of children
under 16 years of age to give consent on their behalf. The carers/specialists of an adult with communication/
understanding difficulties will be consulted if it is felt they are unable to make an informed decision on their own.
> DECEPTION
Debriefing should be used after the study to explain the real aim and rationale for the deception, as well as to
reassure the participant and allow them to ask any questions they might have. The right to withdraw should be
emphasised throughout, and the retrospective right to withdraw via destruction of data should also be offered.
> CONFIDENTIALITY
Psychologists should allocate numbers, letters or codes to participant data in place of names to ensure it is
anonymous, as well as keeping the location of the research as general as possible i.e. not naming a specific
institution/organisation. Consent must be gained from participants for their data to be used in situations where
it is impossible to offer confidentiality e.g. if a specific place must be referred to.
> RIGHT TO WITHDRAW
Participants should be informed of their right at the beginning of the research, and should be reminded of this
right at suitable points during and after the research. If they choose to exercise their right, pressure should not
be put on them to stay and payment should not be used to coerce participants. Task avoidance should be taken
as a wish to withdraw in child participants. If participants withdraw retrospectively their data must be destroyed.
Many institutions have ethics committees who approve or reject research proposals using a cost-benefit
analysis (weighing up potential costs to participants with potential benefits to society/science).
If psychologists deliberately ignore ethical guidelines or ethics committees they cannot be banned from
research, but they may be expelled from their university/professional society, they may have their research
licences revoked and they may face legal action from participants.

FURTHER INVESTIGATION DESIGN:

PARTICIPANT SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
A target population is a group of people (who share a given set of characteristics) about who the researcher
wishes to draw a conclusion. As the target population is normally too large to allow all of the people in it to be
tested, due to reasons of cost and practicality; the researcher obtains just a sample instead.
Because the researcher intends to generalise any conclusions generated using their sample to the entire target
population, the sample should be representative of the target population i.e. they should share the same
characteristics. If the sample is not representative it is said to have low population validity.
No method of sampling participants can guarantee a representative sample, but some are better than others...

TECHNIQUE A: RANDOM SAMPLING

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With this technique, every person in the target population has an equal chance of being selected.
The researcher first obtains a list of everyone in the target population, and then uses a computerised random
generator or the names out of a hat technique to select the required amount of participants.

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ADVANTAGES
The chances of selecting a biased sample are relatively
slim, because everyone has a chance of being
selected. This improves population validity greatly.
-

WEAKNESSES
It can be difficult to obtain a list of the entire target
population; even if you can, not everyone you select
will be available and/or willing to participate.
Even though this is a random method, a representative
sample is not guaranteed there is a chance some
subgroups may be overrepresented or not selected.

TECHNIQUE B: OPPORTUNITY SAMPLING

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With this technique, the researcher selects anyone who is readily available and willing to take part.
The researcher simply asks the people who it is most convenient for them to ask e.g. a researcher who also
works as a university lecturer may ask students in their seminar group to participate.

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ADVANTAGES
This is a time (and therefore cost) efficient technique,
as participants are readily available sample sizes can
be larger as the expenses per individual are smaller.
-

WEAKNESSES
Samples are likely to be skewed in terms of participant
backgrounds; an unrepresentative sample lacks
population validity and findings cannot be generalised.
There may be ethical issues with this technique
regarding consent and right to withdraw if participants
feel obliged to take part (e.g. students of a lecturer).

TECHNIQUE C: VOLUNTEER SAMPLING

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With this technique, participants put themselves forwards for inclusion i.e. they self-select.
The researcher places an initial advertisement in a magazine/newspaper, on the radio, on the internet/via email,
or on a public noticeboard (e.g. a workplace/gym), asking for volunteers to take part in research. They may also
place questionnaires somewhere public and ask people to return their answers.

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ADVANTAGES
This technique can sometimes be the only way of
locating a particularly niche group of participants who
are difficult to identify using the available information.
-

WEAKNESSES
Only atypical members of the target population
respond i.e. the most co-operative and motivated. This
reduces population validity and generalizability.
Only people who see the advertisement have a chance
of being selected this may reduce the overall size of
the sample which reduces the significance of findings.

FURTHER INVESTIGATION DESIGN: RELIABILITY

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Reliability is how consistent something is, how dependable something is, or how much you can rely on it.
In psychological research, reliability refers to whether a study can be repeated (replicated) without any
differences being seen in the findings of the new and old research when compared, unless something significant
has changed in the participants you are studying in the meantime.
For example, if your bathroom scales are reliable as a measurement instrument they will always show the same
weight when you stand on them, unless your weight has actually changed since you last weighed yourself.
If psychologists replicate a study using the same methods and types of measurement and obtain the same
results then both the method and their data are seen as reliable.
Researchers can only trust results if they are reliable, however reliability doesnt mean that findings are valid!
The test-retest method is used in psychological research to check for reliability; in simplest terms the study that
is being tested is replicated hours/days/months/years later and participants scores from both the original test
and the retest are compared a positive correlation indicates high reliability.

FURTHER INVESTIGATION DESIGN: VALIDITY

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Validity refers to whether a piece of research measures what is claims to measure, or whether it measures
something else completely i.e. whether its findings are legitimate, real and/or true.
For example, bathroom scales are a valid way to measure your weight; a thermometer is not a valid way.
1. INTERNAL VALIDITY a study has internal validity if the outcome is the result of the independent variable,
rather than of extraneous variables (eliminating extraneous variables helps to improve validity, as does
improving the realism of research contexts so that participants show real-life behaviour)
2. EXTERNAL VALIDITY a study has external validity if its findings can be generalised outside the immediate
research context
- ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY: can findings be generalised to other settings
- POPULATION VALIDITY: can findings be generalised to other people
- TEMPORAL VALIDITY: can findings be generalised to other times
Improving the realism of research contexts so that participants show real-life behaviour, ensuring your
sample is representative of your target population and attempting to apply research only to the time it
was conducted improves each type of validity respectively.

DATA ANALYSIS & PRESENTATION: TYPES OF DATA

Depending which research method a psychologist decides to use, and the specific sort of tasks/activities
participants complete, they will generate either quantitative or qualitative data.

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QUANTITATIVE DATA is information that can be analysed numerically (quantitative/quantity); it is behaviour
measured in numbers/quantities and arises from questions such as How often?, How much? How long?

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ADVANTAGES
This form of data is very easy to analyse using a range
of descriptive and inferential statistics, tables and
graphs. Patterns are easy to see.

WEAKNESSES
Reducing complex human behaviour to numbers
oversimplifies reality lots of rich, useful data is simply
lost.

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QUALITATIVE DATA is information that is in narrative form (qualitative/qualities); it is behaviour measured in
words and arises from questions about ideas and/or feelings e.g. Tell me about or Describe

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ADVANTAGES
Capturing the complexity of ideas/feelings in detailed
responses means that lots of rich, useful data is
retained. We get a good overview of human behaviour.

WEAKNESSES
This form of data is very difficult to analyse using any
descriptive or inferential statistics, tables or graphs.
Patterns are tricky to see.

ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF QUANTITATIVE DATA:

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
Measures of central tendency analyse how close scores are to the average participant response.
1. THE MEAN

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This is the arithmetic average; it is calculated by first adding all of the data scores together and then dividing this
total by the actual number of scores:
E.g. 2 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 10 = 30
30/5 = 6

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ADVANTAGES
Uses all of the data i.e. takes all scores into account

WEAKNESSES
Is not always an actual score (e.g. 2.4 children)

Is the numerical centre point of all actual values in

the data

Is easily skewed by one anomaly

2. THE MEDIAN

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This is the middle score or value, found when the data is turned into an ordered list:
E.g. 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 9, 11
=6

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ADVANTAGES
Unaffected by extreme scores
Relatively quick and easy to calculate

WEAKNESSES
May not be an actual score if theres an even number
of scores
Not good for small data sets where there are large
differences e.g. 1, 2, 1000, 1001 = 501

3. THE MODE

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This is the most commonly occurring/most frequent score:
E.g.

2, 2, 2, 5, 6, 9, 11 = 2

If there are two scores which are most common the data set is bi-modal
If there are three or more scores which are most common the data is multi-modal

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ADVANTAGES
Is always an actual score
Is not distorted by an extreme value

WEAKNESSES
Sometimes a data set doesnt have a mode, or has
many
Doesnt use all the data

ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF QUANTITATIVE DATA:

MEASURES OF DISPERSION
Measures of dispersion analyse how far away scores are from the average participant response i.e. their spread.
1. THE RANGE

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This is difference between the highest and lowest score in a set of data; it is calculated by subtracting the lowest
score from the highest score:
E.g.
6, 10, 35, 50 = 50 6
= 44

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ADVANTAGES
Easy to calculate
Takes into account extreme values

WEAKNESSES
Ignores most of the data doesnt reflect the true
distribution around the mean
Easily distorted by extreme values

2. STANDARD DEVIATION

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This is the result of a calculation which measures (collectively) how much individual scores deviate from the
mean, and presents this finding as a single number. It tells us how much data is spread (dispersed) around a
central value (the mean).
A large SD score tells us there was lots of variation around the mean/scores were spread widely i.e. that
participants in the sample were all responding very differently.
A small SD score tells us that scores were closely clustered around the mean i.e. that participants in the sample
were all responding in very similar ways.

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ADVANTAGES
Precise, as all values are taken into account

WEAKNESSES
Not easy or quick to calculate

Detailed conclusions can be made

PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION OF QUANTITATIVE DATA

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TABLES
Tables can be used to present data in a clear and simple way, for example to show patterns in scores.
Categories from the research are usually used as columns headings within a table, with the rows within the table
containing individual participant scores, or frequency counts in summary.
Some tables may show results from descriptive statistics e.g. measures of central tendency/dispersion.
GRAPHS
Visual displays summarising measures of central tendency are also useful ways of describing data.
BAR CHARTS are used when data falls into categories;
the X axis is labelled with the categories, the Y axis
with frequencies. The height of bars represents the
number of times a category was recorded. Columns are
equal widths, and do not touch each other.

HISTOGRAMS are use when results can be put in a

continuous order; the X axis shows all of the possible
scores in order, the Y axis shows how many Ps got this
score. The column heights show the frequencies. All
columns are equal widths, and there are no spaces
between columns.

LINE GRAPHS work in exactly the same way as a

histogram, except lines are used to show where the top
of each column would reach. They are particularly
useful for comparing two distributions because they
can be drawn on the same graph.

SCATTER GRAPHS are useful if you want to see how

two variables compare with each other. The X axis
shows data from one variable, the Y axis shows data
from the second variable. Each participant is
represented by a single point, where their x/y values
meet. When all participant scores have been plotted a
line of best fit can be drawn, which highlights the
overall trend of the results.

DATA ANALYSIS & PRESENTATION:

QUALITATIVE DATA
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Qualitative data is sometimes seen to be of limited use because its difficult to analyse and open to bias during
interpretation (e.g. data from an observation, open questions from a questionnaire or an interview). For this
reason its often converted into quantitative data via content analysis.
As a reminder:
First the researcher decides what material to sample, they then decide what type of themes/categories might
emerge from these materials and create a coding system based on these. A sample of material is then collected
and analysed using coding units e.g. researchers may note each time they find a certain word/theme/character.
By counting the frequencies of occurrence of each coding unit numerical (quantitative) data is obtained;
statistical analysis can then be carried out.
If a psychologist is attempting to analyse the data gathered from an observation, or to present the data in
quantitative form there must be a good amount of data to begin with, definitions of behaviours must be
operationalized and observer bias must have been avoided.
With questionnaires, the selection of data items must be unbiased, and interpretation of ambiguous answers
must be attempted with caution.
With interviews, the interview context must be taken into account, and bias in the interpretation of participant
responses must be avoided.

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ADVANTAGES of transforming data
Patterns are easier to see; statistical analysis can be
carried out
Data is easier to summarise and present

WEAKNESSES of transforming data

Detail is lost when data is converted into numbers
Care is needed to avoid bias in defining coding units,
or deciding which behaviours fit particular units

CONCLUSIONS
and finally!
Once the research process is over, the researcher can make conclusions about what they have learnt about the
mind and/or behaviour (note here they refer to people, not participants as they are at that point attempting
to apply their findings to their target population).
Often their findings will be formatted as an academic report, which may be submitted to a journal for peer
review. If published, other researchers can then read about and debate their findings and/or replicate their
research eventually their study might get to you as part of a psychology course!