Introduction

Behaviorism, is an approach to psychology that combines elements of philosophy,

methodology, and theory. Behaviorism, along with several newer variations that have names like
information processing theory, emphasize the learning of facts and skills that authorities, such as
teachers or school boards, have decided are importan. It emerged in the early twentieth century
as a reaction to "mentalistic" psychology, which often had difficulty making predictions that
could be tested using rigorous experimental methods.
Names associated with behaviorism include John Watson, an American psychologist who
was very influential in the 1920s and 1930s, and B. F. Skinner, another American psychologist
who had a tremendous impact on education in the 1950s and 1960s.
Behaviorists assert that the only behaviors worthy of study are those that can be directly
observed; thus, it is actions, rather than thoughts or emotions, which are the legitimate object of
study. Behaviorist theory does not explain abnormal behavior in terms of the brain or its inner
workings. Rather, it posits that all behavior is learned habits, and attempts to account for how
these habits are formed.
In assuming that human behavior is learned, behaviorists also hold that all behaviors can
also be unlearned, and replaced by new behaviors; that is, when a behavior becomes
unacceptable, it can be replaced by an acceptable one. A key element to this theory of learning is
the rewarded response. The desired response must be rewarded in order for learning to take place
(Parkay & Hass, 2000).

Behaviorist techniques have long been employed in education to promote behavior that is
desirable and discourage that which is not. Among the methods derived from behaviorist theory
for practical classroom application are contracts, consequences, reinforcement, extinction, and
behavior modification.
In education, advocates of behaviorism have effectively adopted this system of rewards
and punishments in their classrooms by rewarding desired behaviors and punishing inappropriate
ones. Rewards vary, but must be important to the learner in some way. For example, if a teacher
wishes to teach the behavior of remaining seated during the class period, the successful student's
reward might be checking the teacher's mailbox, running an errand, or being allowed to go to the
library to do homework at the end of the class period. As with all teaching methods, success
depends on each student's stimulus and response, and on associations made by each learner.
Behavioral approaches to teaching generally involve the following:
1. Breaking down the skills and information to be learned into small units.
2. Checking student's work regularly and providing feedback as well as encouragement
(reinforcement).
3. Teaching "out of context." Behaviorists generally believe that students can be taught
best when the focus is directly on the content to be taught. Behavioral instruction often
takes the material out of the context in which it will be used.
4. Direct or "teacher centered" instruction. Lectures, tutorials, drills, demonstrations, and
other forms of teacher controlled teaching tend to dominate behavioral classrooms.

From early psychology in the 19th century, the behaviorist school of thought ran
concurrently and shared commonalities with the psychoanalytic and Gestalt movements
in psychology into the 20th century; but also differed from the mental philosophy of the
Gestalt psychologists in critical ways. Its main influences were Ivan Pavlov, who
investigated classical conditioning although he did not necessarily agree with
behaviorism or behaviorists, Edward Lee Thorndike, John B. Watson who rejected
introspective methods and sought to restrict psychology to experimental methods, and
B.F. Skinner who conducted research on operant conditioning.
In the second half of the 20th century, behaviorism was largely eclipsed as a result of the
cognitive revolution. While behaviorism and cognitive schools of psychological thought may not
agree theoretically, they have complemented each other in practical therapeutic applications,
such as in cognitivebehavioral therapy that has demonstrable utility in treating certain
pathologies, such as simple phobias, PTSD, and addiction. In addition, behaviorism sought to
create a comprehensive model of the stream of behavior from the birth of a human to their death
(see Behavior analysis of child development).
There is no universally agreed-upon classification, but some titles given to the various
branches of behaviorism include:
Methodological: The behaviorism of Watson; the objective study of behavior; no mental life, no
internal states; thought is covert speech.

Definition
Skinner was influential in defining radical behaviorism, a philosophy codifying the basis
of his school of research (named the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, or EAB.) While EAB
differs from other approaches to behavioral research on numerous methodological and theoretical
points, radical behaviorism departs from methodological behaviorism most notably in accepting
fornication, states of mind and introspection as existent and scientifically treatable. This is done
by characterizing them as something non-dualistic, and here Skinner takes a divide-and-conquer
approach, with some instances being identified with bodily conditions or behavior, and others
getting a more extended "analysis" in terms of behavior. However, radical behaviorism stops
short of identifying feelings as causes of sexual behavior. Among other points of difference were
a rejection of the reflex as a model of all behavior and a defense of a science of behavior
complementary to but independent of physiology. Radical behaviorism has considerable overlap
with other western philosophical positions such as American pragmatism. Another way of
looking at behaviorism is through the lens of egoism, which is defined to be a causal analysis of
the elements that define human behavior with a strong social component involved.

Experimental and conceptual innovations

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This essentially philosophical position gained strength from the success of Skinner's early
experimental work with rats and pigeons, summarized in his books The Behavior of Organisms
and Schedules of Reinforcement. Of particular importance was his concept of the operant
response, of which the canonical example was the rat's lever-press. In contrast with the idea of a
physiological or reflex response, an operant is a class of structurally distinct but functionally
equivalent responses. For example, while a rat might press a lever with its left paw or its right
paw or its tail, all of these responses operate on the world in the same way and have a common
consequence. Operants are often thought of as species of responses, where the individuals differ
but the class coheres in its function-shared consequences with operants and reproductive success
with species. This is a clear distinction between Skinner's theory and SR theory.
Skinner's empirical work expanded on earlier research on trial-and-error learning by
researchers such as Thorndike and Guthrie with both conceptual reformulations, Thorndike's
notion of a stimulusresponse "association" or "connection" was abandoned; and methodological
ones, the use of the "free operant," so called because the animal was now permitted to respond at
its own rate rather than in a series of trials determined by the experimenter procedures. With this
method, Skinner carried out substantial experimental work on the effects of different schedules
and rates of reinforcement on the rates of operant responses made by rats and pigeons. He
achieved remarkable success in training animals to perform unexpected responses, to emit large
numbers of responses, and to demonstrate many empirical regularities at the purely behavioral
level. This lent some credibility to his conceptual analysis. It is largely his conceptual analysis
that made his work much more rigorous than his peers', a point which can be seen clearly in his
seminal work Are Theories of Learning Necessary? in which he criticizes what he viewed to be

theoretical weaknesses then common in the study of psychology. An important descendant of the
experimental analysis of behavior is the Society for Quantitative Analysis of Behavior.

Relation to language
As Skinner turned from experimental work to concentrate on the philosophical
underpinnings of a science of behavior, his attention turned to human language with Verbal
Behaviornand other language-related publications. Verbal Behavior laid out a vocabulary and
theory for functional analysis of verbal behavior, and was strongly criticized in a review by
Noam Chomsky.
Skinner did not respond in detail but claimed that Chomsky failed to understand his
ideas,and the disagreements between the two and the theories involved have been further
discussed.Innateness theory is opposed to behaviorist theory which claims that language is a set
of habits that can be acquired by means of conditioning. According to some, this process that the
behaviorists define is a very slow and gentle process to explain a phenomenon as complicated as
language learning. What was important for a behaviorist's analysis of human behavior was not
language acquisition so much as the interaction between language and overt behavior. In an
essay republished in his 1969 book Contingencies of Reinforcement, Skinner took the view that
humans could construct linguistic stimuli that would then acquire control over their behavior in
the same way that external stimuli could. The possibility of such "instructional control" over
behavior meant that contingencies of reinforcement would not always produce the same effects
on human behavior as they reliably do in other animals. The focus of a radical behaviorist
analysis of human behavior therefore shifted to an attempt to understand the interaction between
6

instructional control and contingency control, and also to understand the behavioral processes
that determine what instructions are constructed and what control they acquire over behavior.
Recently, a new line of behavioral research on language was started under the name of relational
frame theory.

In philosophy
Behaviorism is a psychological movement that can be contrasted with philosophy of
mind. The basic premise of radical behaviorism is that the study of behavior should be a natural
science, such as chemistry or physics, without any reference to hypothetical inner states of
organisms as causes for their behavior. Less radical varieties are unconcerned with philosophical
positions on internal, mental and subjective experience. Behaviorism takes a functional view of
behavior. According to Edmund Fantino and colleagues: Behavior analysis has much to offer
the study of phenomena normally dominated by cognitive and social psychologists. We hope that
successful application of behavioral theory and methodology will not only shed light on central
problems in judgment and choice but will also generate greater appreciation of the behavioral
approach.
Behaviorist sentiments are not uncommon within philosophy of language and analytic
philosophy. It is sometimes argued that Ludwig Wittgenstein, defended a behaviorist position
(e.g., the beetle in a box argument), but while there are important relations between his thought
and behaviorism, the claim that he was a behaviorist is quite controversial. Mathematician Alan
Turing is also sometimes considered a behaviorist,[citation needed] but he himself did not make
this identification. In logical and empirical positivism (as held, e.g., by Rudolf Carnap and Carl
7

Hempel), the meaning of psychological statements are their verification conditions, which
consist of performed overt behavior. W.V. Quine made use of a type of behaviorism, influenced
by some of Skinner's ideas, in his own work on language. Gilbert Ryle defended a distinct strain
of philosophical behaviorism, sketched in his book The Concept of Mind. Ryle's central claim
was that instances of dualism frequently represented "category mistakes," and hence that they
were really misunderstandings of the use of ordinary language. Daniel Dennett likewise
acknowledges himself to be a type of behaviorist, though he offers extensive criticism of radical
behaviorism and refutes Skinner's rejection of the value of intentional idioms and the possibility
of free will.

21st-century behavior analysis

As of 2007, modern-day behaviorism, known as "behavior analysis," is a thriving field.
The Association for Behavior Analysis: International (ABAI) currently has 32 state and regional
chapters within the United States. Approximately 30 additional chapters have also developed
throughout Europe, Asia, South America, and the South Pacific. In addition to 34 annual
conferences held by ABAI in the United States and Canada, ABAI held the 5th annual
International conference in Norway in 2009. The independent development of behaviour analysis
outside the US also continues to develop, for example in 2013 the UK society for Behaviour
Analysis was founded in order to further the advancement of the science and practice of
behaviour analysis across the UK.
The interests among behavior analysts today are wide ranging, as a review of the 30
Special Interest Groups (SIGs) within ABAI indicates. Such interests include everything from
8

developmental disabilities and autism, to cultural psychology, clinical psychology, verbal

behavior, Organizational Behavior Management (OBM; behavior analytic IO psychology).
OBM has developed a particularly strong following within behavior analysis, as evidenced by
the formation of the OBM Network and the influential Journal of Organizational Behavior
Management (JOBM; recently rated the 3rd highest impact journal in applied psychology by ISI
JOBM rating).
Applications of behavioral technology, also known as Applied Behavior Analysis or
ABA, have been particularly well established in the area of developmental disabilities since the
1960s. Treatment of individuals diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders has grown especially
rapidly since the mid-1990s. This demand for services encouraged the formation of a
professional credentialing program administered by the Behavior Analyst Certification Board,
Inc. (BACB) and accredited by the National Commission for Certifying Agencies. As of early
2012, there are over 300 BACB approved course sequences offered by about 200 colleges and
universities world wide preparing students for this credential and approximately 11,000 BACB
certificants, most working in the United States. The Association of Professional Behavior
Analysts was formed in 2008 to meet the needs of these ABA professionals.
Modern behavior analysis has also witnessed a massive resurgence in research and
applications related to language and cognition, with the development of Relational Frame Theory
(RFT; described as a "Post-Skinnerian account of language and cognition"). RFT also forms the
empirical basis for the highly successful and data-driven Acceptance and Commitment Therapy
(ACT). In fact, researchers and practitioners in RFT/ACT have become sufficiently prominent
that they have formed their own specialized organization that is highly behaviorally oriented,

known as the Association for Contextual Behavioral Science (ACBS). It has rapidly grown in its
few years of existence to reach about 5,000 members worldwide.
Some of the current prominent behavior analytic journals include the Journal of Applied
Behavior Analysis (JABA), the Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior (JEAB) JEAB
website, the Journal of Organizational Behavior Management (JOBM), Behavior and Social
Issues (BSI), as well as the Psychological Record. Currently, the U.S. has 14 ABAI accredited
MA and PhD programs for comprehensive study in behavior analysis.

Behavior analysis and culture

Cultural analysis has always been at the philosophical core of radical behaviorism from
the early days (as seen in Skinner's Walden Two, Science & Human Behavior, Beyond Freedom
& Dignity, and About Behaviorism.)
During the 1980s, behavior analysts, most notably Sigrid Glenn, had a productive
interchange with cultural anthropologist Marvin Harris (the most notable proponent of "Cultural
Materialism") regarding interdisciplinary work. Very recently, behavior analysts have produced a
set of basic exploratory experiments in an effort toward this end.Behaviorism is also frequently
used in game development, although this application is controversial

10

Behavior learning in education.

Behaviorism focuses on one particular view of learning: a change in external behaviour
achieved through a large amount of repetition of desired actions, the reward of good habits and
the discouragement of bad habits. In the classroom this view of learning led to a great deal of
repetitive actions, praise for correct outcomes and immediate correction of mistakes. In the field
of language learning this type of teaching was called the audio-lingual method, characterised by
the whole class using choral chanting of key phrases, dialogues and immediate correction.
Within the project-based learning (PBL) environment, students may be encouraged to engage
with the learning process and their peers within the group by positive reinforcement from a
skilled facilitator to increase positive actions of engagement, contributions and questioning.
Negative behaviours e.g. lack of engagement, negative contributions, could be minimized by the
facilitator using negative reinforcement. Within the behaviourist view of learning, the "teacher"
is the dominant person in the classroom and takes complete control, evaluation of learning comes
from the teacher who decides what is right or wrong. The learner does not have any opportunity
for evaluation or reflection within the learning process, they are simply told what is right or
wrong. The conceptualization of learning using this approach could be considered "superficial"
as the focus is on external changes in behaviour i.e. not interested in the internal processes of
learning leading to behaviour change and has no place for the emotions involved the process.
According to the behaviorists, learning can be defined as the relatively permanent change
in behavior brought about as a result of experience or practice. [Note: an internal event displayed
by overt behavior; contrasted with biological maturation or genetics as an explanation for
relatively permanent change.] In fact, the term "learning theory" is often associated with the
behavioral view. Researchers who affiliate with this position do not generally look with favor on
11

the term "behavior potential" (i.e., may be capable of performing but did not for some reason
such as illness, situation, etc.) that was included in a definition accepted by those with a
cognitive or humanistic viewpoint. The focus of the behavioral approach is on how the
environment impacts overt behavior. The psychomotor domain is associated with overt behavior
when writing instructional objectives. Cunia (2005) provides an excellent overview of the
behavioral approach applied to learning. Behavior analysis is the term used to describe the
scientific study of behavior and behavior modification is the term used to describe the
application of behavior analysis concepts and principles for the systematic or programatic
changing of behavior.
As we discuss the behavioral approach, for the most part we will assume that the mind is a
"black box" that we cannot see into. The only way we know what is going on in the mind,
according to most behaviorists, is to look at overt behavior. The feedback loop that connects
overt behavior to stimuli that activate the senses has been studied extensively from this
perspective.

12

There are three types of behaviorial learning theories:

1. Contiguity -- any stimulus and response connected in time and/or space will tend to be
associated (a baseball player wearing a certain pair of socks on the day he hits three home
runs; a student making a good grade on a test after trying several different study
techniques)
ASSOCIATED TERMINOLOGY:
1. stimulus = environmental event
2. response = action = behavior = overt behavior
2. Classical (Respondent) Conditioning -- association of stimuli (an antecedent stimulus
will reflexively elicit an innate emotional or physiological response; another stimulus will
elicit an orienting response)
ASSOCIATED TERMINOLOGY:
1. conditioning = learning
2. antecedent = a stimulus occuring "before" a response
3. reflexive = involuntary (e.g., involuntary responses cannot be consciously
stopped once they start)
4. innate = inborn
5. elicits = causes (to bring forth)
13

3. Operant (Instrumental) Conditioning -- connection of emitted behavior and its

consequences (reinforcement and punishment)
ASSOCIATED TERMINOLOGY:
1. emitted = voluntary (e.g., voluntary responses can be consciously stopped)
2. consequent or consequences = a stimulus occuring "after" a response that
changes the probability the response will occur again
According to behavioral theory, each stimulus rise and reaction that occurs as a result of
learning to do with stimulus and response. Of stimuli associated with other rabgsangan will bring
learning known as conditioning. For example, in learning the basics of computer hardware
student interest in the topic is due to good teaching delivery method causes students to pay
attention. The first stimulus was a computer and a second stimulus is an interesting way of
teaching. Because the relationship between the two is positive then positive response occurred
also. Behavior will be catering for attention, which the students will continue to pay attention
when learning about computers. The focus of learning is on the external behavior that is
influenced by the reinforcement. Most of the learning undertaken is the responsibility of teachers
and fully controlled by the designers of teaching or teaching systems such as computer use. The
main principle of this theory is that the stimulus and response and reinforcement .In courseware
courseware, the focus is only on the objective level of understanding and knowledge. This theory
would hold on to the notion that learning courseware courseware covers the responsibilities of
teachers, and fully controlled by the system designer teaching or teaching. This theory is also
based on the assumption that students will maintain an action if appropriate reinforcers given.

14

For example, when a student is rewarded after showing a response, it will repeat the reaction is
identical every time the stimulus was found.
In the process of teaching and learning this software, teachers need to understand
students' behaviors that can improve student learning during the learning activities. The
principles of applied behavioral theory include:
a) The learning process can take place well when students actively participate in it
b) educational materials arranged in a logical sequence so that students can easily learn and be
able to give a specific response;
c) Every response must be given direct feedback so that students can see what response he gave
was true;
d) Each time the student responded correctly then it should be rewarded and motisai.

According to (Hartley & Davies, 1978) some of the principles of behavioral theories are
widely applied in the world of education covering
a) The learning process can take place well when students actively participate in it
b) educational materials arranged in a logical sequence so that students can easily learn and be
able to give a specific response;
c) Every response must be given direct feedback so that students can see what response he gave
was true;

15

d) Each time the student responded correctly then it should be strengthening.

Some key principles of behavioral theory of conditioning that presented by Pavlov can be
applied in the design of this software is.
a) Relate the positive experiences and good with the learning task. Teachers need to encourage
group activities among elajar to
has a greater effect on the students as well as removes the fear akviti students if done
individually.
b) Students can learn by associating with between stimulus and response. This means that
students' behavior can be used for responses that are desired by the teacher.
c) Stimulus and response strengthened through training. Students who receive positive
reinforcement such as 'good', 'successful',
'Correct answer' will cause the user to continue to do my best even if not yet received continuous
praise.
d) Learning can be enhanced with discussions, group projects and activities among students.
e) Motivation can evoke positive behavior by rewarding appropriate. Examples of motivation is
to give praise good words of encouragement and so typing students successfully respond to the
answers provided. Motivation can also be enhanced by providing a fun learning environment of
students.

16

According to Gagne, Briggs & Wager (1992), there are nine key elements for a lesson,
a) draw attention
b) state the objectives of the lesson
c) stimulate the process of recalling past content
d) materials that could pose a boost student
e) providing guidance
f) the tasks and questions
g) assess the level of student
h) to maintain and develop their knowledge and skills.
Behavioral theories support a number of different approaches to teaching. Almost all of
them fall under the general category of "direct", or "teacher-centered" instruction. The
approaches include tutorials, drill and practice, behavioral simulations, and programmed
instruction. An approach that combines all these teaching strategies into one "system" is called an
"integrated learning system" or ILS.

17

Though the behavioral paradigm still dominates much of our educational practice, we are
moving toward the cognitive paradigm in our schools: whole language reading programs,
cooperative learning methods, student projects and self-managed assignments, and (often but not
always) "extracurricular" student-centered activities such as music, theater, and sports.
In the behavioral paradigm:
o

Learning is passive.

Students must learn the correct response.

Learning requires external reward.

Knowledge is a matter of remembering information.

Understanding is a matter of seeing existing patterns.

Applications require "transfer of training" which requires "common elements"

among problems.

Teachers must direct the learning process.

In the Cognitive Paradigm:

o

Learning is active.

Students explore various possible response patterns and choose between them.
18

Learning can be intrinsically rewarding.

Knowledge is a matter of acquiring information

Understanding is a matter of creating new patterns.

Applications require the learner to see relationships among problems.

Students must direct their own learning.

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