TABLE OF CONTENTS

Table of contents
I.
The objectives of instrumentations
II.
Scopes of the instrumentation work
III.
Inclinometer
1. What is inclinometer?
2. Inclinometer components
3. How can inclinometer be installed?
4. Commissioning and Base reading
5. Installation Records
6. Data Reduction
7. Reducing Data Manually
8. The accuracy of measurement
IV.
Piezometer
1. Applications
2. Types of Piezometers
V.
Magnet extensometers
1. Overview
2. Instrument Description
3. Installation
4. How can the data of equipment be read?
References

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INSTRUMENTS FOR FIELD MONITORING OF

DEEP EXCAVATION
I.

THE OBJECTIVES OF INSTRUMENTATIONS

To verify the design assumptions including the geotechnical parameters and modeling
techniques by providing a means of comparing measured and predicted ground movements so
that the ground model may be modified accordingly.
To early identify and prevent the detrimental environmental impacts when they occur.
To identify early the potential construction hazards.
Provide the data for objectively access the feasibility for adjustment of construction methods.
II.

SCOPES OF THE INSTRUMENTATION WORK

i)
ii)
iii)

III.

Settlement markers measure the vertical movement of ground surface close to the
works.
Inclinometers in the sub-soil and diaphragm wall to monitor their respective lateral
displacements as works progress.
Piezometers to monitor the pore water pressure regime in the sub-soil.
INCLINOMETER

1. What is inclinometer?
Inclinometers are defined as devices for monitoring deformation normal to the axis of a
pipe by means of probe passing along the pipe. The probe contains a gravity-sensing transducer
designed to measure inclination with respect to the vertical. The pipe may be installed either in
the borehole or in fill, and in most applications is installed in a near vertical alignment, so that the
inclinometer provides data for defining subsurface horizontal deformation. Inclinometers are also
referred to as slope inclinometers, probe inclinometers, and slope indicators.
Typical applications include the following:
i.
Determining the zone of landslide movement.
ii. Monitoring the extent and rate of horizontal movement of embankment dams,
embankment on soft ground, and alongside open cut excavations or tunnels.
iii. Monitoring the deflection of bulkheads, piles, or retaining walls.
2. Inclinometer components
Most inclinometer systems have four major components:
i.
A permanently installed guide casing, made of plastic, aluminum alloy, fiberglass,
or steel. When horizontal deformation measurements are required, the casing is
installed in a near vertical alignment. The guide casing usually has tracking
grooves for controlling orientation of the probe.
ii. A portable probe containing a gravity-sensing transducer.
iii. A portable readout unit for power supply and indication of probe inclination.
iv.
A graduated electrical cable linking the probe to the readout unit.

2.1. Inclinometer Casing

The inclinometer casing provides access for subsurface measurements,

controls the orientation of the sensors, and moves with the surrounding
ground. In vertical installations, the inclinometer casing is installed in a
borehole that passes through a suspected zone of movement. One set of
grooves is aligned in the expected direction of movement (downhill, for
example).
Inclinometer casing is a special purpose, grooved pipe used in
inclinometer installations. It is typically installed in boreholes, but can also be
embedded in fills, cast into concrete, or attached to structures. Inclinometer
casing provides access for the inclinometer probe, allowing it to obtain
subsurface measurements. Grooves inside the casing control the orientation of
the probe and provide a surface from which repeatable tilt measurements can
be obtained.
Casing Diameter
Casing is designed to deform with movement of the adjacent ground
or structure. The useful life of the casing ends when continued movement of

the ground pinches or shears the casing, preventing passage of the inclinometer probe. Larger
diameter casing generally provides longer life.
Large Diameter Casing (85 mm, 3.34 inch) is suitable for landslides and long term
monitoring. It is also appropriate for monitoring multiple shear zones or very narrow shear zones,
and it is required for the horizontal Digitilt inclinometer probe.
Medium Diameter Casing (70 mm, 2.75 inch) is suitable for construction projects. It can
also be used for slope stability monitoring when only a moderate degree of deformation is
anticipated.
Small Diameter Casing (48 mm, 1.9") is suitable for applications where small
deformations are distributed over broad zones. It is generally not installed in soils.
2.2. Portable Probe
The inclinometer probe consists of a stainless steel body, a
connector for control cable, and two pivoting wheel assemblies. When
properly connected to the control cable, the probe is waterproof and has
been used deeper than 1000 feet. The wheel assemblies consists of a yoke
and two wheels. One of the wheels in each assembly is higher than the
other. This wheel is called the upper wheel and has special significance,
as explained below.
Measurement Planes
The inclinometer probe employs two forcebalanced servoaccelerometers to measure tilt. Oneaccelerometer measures tilt in the plane of the
inclinometer wheels. This is the Aaxis. The
other accelerometer measures tilt in the plane that is perpendicular to
the wheels. This is the B axis. The drawing at left shows the probe
from the top. When the probe is tilted toward the A0 or B0 direction,
readings are positive. When the probe is tilted in the A180 or B180
directions, readings are negative.
Orientation of the Probe
Inclinometer casing is installed so that one set of grooves
is aligned with the expected direction of movement. One groove,
typically the downhill groove should be marked A0. In a
standard inclinometer survey, the probe is drawn from the
bottom to the top of the casing two times. In the first pass, the
upper wheels of the probe should be inserted into the A0 groove.
This ensures that movements are positive values.
2.3. Portable readout unit
Portable readout unit or The
Digitilt DataMate is a recording readout that is used with Digitilt
inclinometer probes (vertical or horizontal), Digitilt tiltmeters, and
the spiral sensor. It works with both metric and English unit versions
of these sensors.
Readings stored in the DataMate are transferred to a PC using
the DMM software supplied with the DataMate.
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2.4. Graduated electrical cable

Graduated electrical cable or Control cable is used to
control the depth of the inclinometer probe. It also conducts
power to the probe and returns signals to the readout.
Metric control cables are graduated with yellow marks
at 0.5-meter intervals and red marks at 1-meter intervals. There are numeric marks at 5-meter
intervals.
English control cables are graduated with yellow markers at 2-foot intervals and red
marks at 5-foot intervals. There are numeric marks at 50-foot intervals. In addition, there are
yellow bands of tape at 10-foot intervals. Each band represents 10 feet from the last numeric
mark. For example, four bands represent 40 feet from the last numeric depth mark.
Depth Control
Accurate inclinometer measurements depend on consistent placement of the inclinometer
probe. Always align the depth marks on the control cable with the same reference. Aim for
placement repeatability of 6 mm (1/4 inch) or better. We recommend using a pulley assembly to
assist with depth control. The jam cleat on the pulley assembly holds the cable
and the top edge of the chassis provides a convenient reference for cable depth
marks. The small pulley assembly is used with 48 mm and 70 mm casing (1.9
and 2.75 inch). The large pulley assembly is used with 70 mm and 85 mm
casing (2.75 and 3.34 inch).
Using the Pulley Assembly
1. Remove the pulley from the
chassis.
2. Clamp the chassis to the top
of the casing.
3. Insert the inclinometer probe and control cable.
4. Replace the pulley.
The distance between the top edge of the pulley
chassis and the top of the casing is one foot. Your
data reduction software can automatically adjust for
this, so keep your survey procedure simple: use the
marks on the cable and the top edge of the pulley
chassis for reference. Let the software do any extra
work required. Check that operators consistently
use the pulley assembly. If the pulley is used for
one survey and not for the next, the resulting data
sets will not be directly comparable. Sometimes a
monument case or a protective pipe makes it
impossible to attach the pulley assembly to the
casing. In this case, you can make a removable
adapter for the pulley assembly. If you use an
adapter, be sure to use it consistently.
3. How can inclinometer be installed?
The access tube, which is made from ABS
plastic, is a self-aligning casing. Inside the access,
tube contains four grooves forming two guiding
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paths, perpendicular each other, for a reading probe traveling during measurement. Displacement
of inclinometer access tube shall be monitored by the RST inclinometer system that could report
the displacement, in both graphical and numerical, on site.
Outline of installation procedure of inclinometer is given below as well as illustrated in Fig.1
o Locate the installation position by the survey team.
o Drill or clean the borehole using soil-boring machine.
o After the borehole, preparation is finished, grouting of cement: bentonite mixture
containing sufficient water to achieve a pump able mix shall be carried out.
Grouting mix of cement: bentonite shall be 20:1 and 3:1 for inclinometer installed
in bored pile and in ground, respectively.
o Lower down first length of the access tube with an end cap into the borehole by keeping one
transit path is in direction of movement to be anticipated.
o Connect next length of the access tube with one in borehole by method recommended by
manufacturer.
o Lower down the casing and then connect the next access tube as per the above details.
o Connect and lowering down the access tubes until reaching the designed depth.
o Put the top cap to prevent anything falling down into the access tube.
o Install the protective casing to protect the inclinometer access tube.
o Fill the sand around the access tube exposed above ground (if necessary) in order to reduce
sway of the casing during monitoring.
4. Commissioning and Base reading
After installation, the function of each inclinometer will be checked. Initial reading of
each instrument shall be carried out to form base reading of each one.
For inclinometer, the base reading shall be taken at minimum two days after installation. As a
part of the commissioning, three sets of reading shall be taken and compared. If significant
differences or anomalies are found, then further readings shall be averaged to form the based
readings representing conditions prior to
start
of the filling work.
The
instrumentation records shall contain the
following information:
o Instrument reference number and
type
o Location co-ordinate
o Dates of installation
o Initial reading

the

recorded:
o
o
o
o

5. Installation Records
Records shall be presented as required by
inspection, comprising drilling logs, and
installation data sheet provided in the
attachments. The following items shall be
Existing ground level at time of installation
Weather conditions
Sketch of instrument location reference to the site layout
Instrument details such as length, diameter, orientation and depth
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o Soil boring details such as equipment used, borehole size, type of drilling mud, and
any casing used
o Simplified log of ground conditions (in each drill hole)
o Type of back fill used
o Problem encountered, delays, unusual features of installation, and any events that may
be have a bearing on the instrument behavior.
o Commissioning information and readings.
o Photographs showing installation activities of each instrument.
6. Data Reduction
Inclinometer Measurements
The inclinometer probe measures tilt, rather than lateral movement. How does
tilt provide information about lateral movement? The basic principle involves the
sine function, an angle, and the hypotenuse of a right triangle. We are interested in
the length of the side opposite the angle .
side opposite
sin
hypotenuse
side opposite = hypotenuse sin
Deviation
In the drawing at right, the hypotenuse of the right triangle is the
measurement interval. The measurement interval is typically 0.5 m with
metric-unit inclinometers or 2 feet with English-unit inclinometers.
The side opposite the angle of tilt is deviation. It is calculated by
multiplying the sine of the angle of tilt by the measurement interval. This
calculation translates the angular measurement into a lateral distance and is
the first step to calculating lateral movement.
Cumulative Deviation
By summing and plotting the deviation values obtained at each
measurement interval, we can see the profile of the casing. The black squares
at each measurement interval represent cumulative deviation values that
would be plotted to show the profile of the casing.
Displacements
Changes in deviation are called displacements, since the change
indicates that the casing has moved away from its original position. When
displacements are summed and plotted, the result is a high-resolution
representation of movement.
7. Reducing Data Manually
Normally, computer software is used to reduce inclinometer data. Here,
we show only a simple overview.

Displayed Readings
Slope Indicators readouts display reading units rather than angles or deviation.
Reading units are defined below:
Displayed Reading = sin Instrument Constant
Reading English = sin 20,000
Reading Metric = sin 25,000
Combining Readings
The standard two-pass survey provides two readings per axis for each interval. The probe
is oriented in the 0 direction for the first reading and in the 180 direction for the second
reading. This two-pass system has several advantages. First, it eliminates the sensor offset, which
can change from survey to survey. Second, it provides a means of detecting error through
checksums and other routines. Third, it tends to smooth the effect of random errors. At some
point during data reduction, the two readings are combined and averaged. For example:
A0 Reading = 359
A180 Reading = 339
359 - (-339)
Averaged Reading
349
2
Calculating Deviation
To calculate lateral deviation, we average the A0 and A180 readings, divide by the
instrument constant, and multiply by the measurement interval. In the example below, we show
an English-unit calculation:
Combine the A0 & 180 readings and
Lateral Deviation = Measurement Interval x sin
divide by 2 to average them
359 (339)
24 inches
2 20,000
Divide reading unit by instrument
= 0.4188 inches
constant to obtain sine of angle.
Calculating Displacement
Displacement, the change in lateral deviation, indicates movement of the casing. To
calculate displacement, we find the change in (combined and averaged) reading units, divide by
the instrument constant, and multiply by the length of the measurement interval.
Combined Reading current = 700
Combined Reading initial = 698
Displacement = Measurement Interval sin
700 698
24 inches
2 20,000
= 0.0012 inches
Calculating Checksums
A checksum is the sum of a 0 reading and a 180 reading at the same depth.
A0 reading = 359
A180 reading = -339
Checksum = 359 + (-339)
= 20
Bias (zero offset)
If you hold your inclinometer probe absolutely vertical and check the reading, you will
typically see a non-zero value for each axis. The non-zero value is the result of a slight bias in the
output of the accelerometers. The bias (or zero offset) may be negative or positive and will
change over the life of the probe. This is not normally a matter for concern, because the zero
offset is effectively eliminated by the standard two-pass survey and the data reduction procedure.
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Below, we show an readings that have a zero offset of 10. During the first pass, the probe
measures a tilt of 1 degree. During the second pass, the probe measures a tilt of -1 degree,
because it has been rotated 180 degrees. See how the offset increases the positive reading and
decreases the negative reading, even though the measured angle has not changed. However, when
the two readings are combined, as discussed in
Combining Readings above, the offset is
eliminated and the correct value emerges.
Tilt angle = 1 degree.
Theoretical reading unit = 349 (20,000 x sin (1))
Offset = 10
Displayed A0 reading = 359
(349 + 10)
Displayed A180 reading = -339
(-349 + 10)
Combined reading = 698
(359 - (-339))
Averaged reading = 349
8. The accuracy of measurement
Inclinometer gives the horizontal movement determined from differential displacement
relative to its toes. Wood (1984) reported that the accuracy of the inclinometer based on the
manufacturers specification, check on repeatability and calibration is of order of 0.1 mm over a
500 mm gauge length. Although this does not include the indeterminate effects of wear and
corrosion of the duct, it is comparable
with published data (Dunnicliff, 1971).
Hence, for a duct 20 m an error bound
of 4.0 mm for the location of the top
relative to the toe may occur.
Although such error bounds are large
in comparison with the recorded wall
movements, the frequency of the
readings together with precautions
taken to minimize the build-up of error
should have ensured lower actual
errors than those of obtained from
these considerations. Moreover, the
joints in the ducts and damage of tube
during excavation also can ruin the
result.
Strut should install thermistor
for temperature measurement. The
perturbations in the axial loads may be
almost wholly attributed to the
changes in ambient temperature and
clearly demonstrate the inability of the
strut to expand and relieve the induced
stress.
The other method for measuring wall
movement apart from inclinometer is
sliding micrometer.
Figure 3. Measurable/ Immeasurable deflection
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Figure 4. Justification of inclinometer reading

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Figure 5. Back-calculated bending moment from field measurement

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Figure 6. First step of install the inclinometer

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Figure 7. Second step of install the inclinometer

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Figure 8. Third step of install the inclinometer

Figure 8. Inclinometer in in-situ.

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Figure 9. Installation of inclinometer on steel sheet pile wall.

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Figure 9. Installation of inclinometer on diaphragm wall.

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IV.

PIEZOMETER
4.1. Applications
There are some typical applications of piezometers:

Monitoring pore water pressures to determine safe rates of fill

or excavation.

Monitoring pore water pressures to evaluate slope stability.

Monitoring dewatering systems used for excavations.

Monitoring ground improvement systems, such as vertical

drains and sand drains.

Monitoring pore pressures to check the performance of

earthfill dams and embankments.

Monitoring pore pressures to check containment systems at

landfills and tailings dams.

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4.2. Types of Piezometers

4.2.1 Standpipe Piezometers
a) Applications

Standpipe piezometers are used to monitor piezometric water

levels. Observation wells are used to monitor ground water levels.
Readings are obtained with a water level indicator.
Typical applications include:
Monitoring pore-water pressure to determine the stability of
slopes, embankments, and landfill dikes.
Monitoring ground improvement techniques such as vertical
drains, sand drains, and dynamic compaction.
Monitoring dewatering schemes for excavations and
underground openings.
Monitoring seepage and ground water movement in
embankments, landfill dikes, and dams.
Monitoring water drawdown during pumping tests.
b) Installation
The standpipe piezometer, which is installed in a borehole, consists of a filter tip joined to
a riser pipe. The filter tip is placed in a sand zone and a bentonite seal is placed above the sand to
isolate the pore water pressure at the tip. The annular space between the riser pipe and the
borehole is backfilled to the surface with a bentonite grout to prevent unwanted vertical migration
of water. The riser pipe is terminated above ground level with a vented cap.
The observation well uses the same components as the standpipe piezometer, but is installed
differently. No bentonite seals are placed and the borehole is backfilled with gravel or sand rather
than a bentonite grout. The top of the borehole is sealed to prevent the entry of surface runoff,
and the riser pipe is terminated above ground level.
c) Operation
Water levels in either the standpipe piezometer or the observation well are measured with
a water level indicator. The water level indicator consists of a probe, a graduated cable or tape,
and a cable reel with built-in electronics. The probe is lowered down the standpipe until it makes
contact with water. This is signaled by a light and a buzzer built into the cable reel. The depth-towater reading is taken from the cable or tape. The Water Level Indicator features a sensitivity
adjustment which helps the user obtain consistent measurements and eliminates false triggering
in different well and water conditions.
d) Advantages

Economical components.

Simple to read.

Very good long-term reliability.

No electrical, no calibrated components.

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e) Limitations
Accuracy depends on skill of operator; reading requires a man on site; remote reading not
possible; slower to show changes in pore-water pressure.
4.2.2. Pneumatic Piezometers
The pneumatic piezometer consists of a pneumatic pressure
transducer and pneumatic tubing. It can be installed in a borehole,
embedded in fill, or suspended in a standpipe. Readings are
obtained with a pneumatic indicator.
a) Applications
Pneumatic piezometers are used to measure pore water
pressure in saturated soils. Applications include:

Monitoring pore pressures to determine safe rates of fill or excavation.

Monitoring pore water pressures to determine slope stability.

Monitoring the effects of dewatering systems used for excavations.

Monitoring the effects of ground improvement systems such as vertical drains and
sand drains.

Monitoring pore water pressures to check the performance of earth fill dams and
embankments.

Monitoring pore water pressures to check containment

systems at land fills and tailings dams.
b) Advantages
Pneumatic piezometers employ a simple and reliable
transducer that is free from zero drift. Long term performance is
enhanced by corrosion-resistant plastic construction, polyethylene
tubing, and in-line filters in all connectors. Compatible with both
flow and no-flow reading techniques.
c) Operating Principle
In a typical installation, the piezometer is sealed in a borehole,
embedded in fill, or suspended in a standpipe. Twin pneumatic tubes
run from the piezometer to a terminal at the surface. Readings are
obtained with a pneumatic indicator.
The piezometer contains a flexible diaphragm. Water pressure acts on one side of the diaphragm
and gas pressure acts on the other. When a reading is required, a pneumatic indicator is connected
to the terminal or directly to the tubing. Compressed nitrogen gas from the indicator flows down
the input tube to increase gas pressure on the diaphragm.

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When gas pressure exceeds water pressure, the diaphragm is forced away from the vent tube,
allowing excess gas to escape via the vent tube. When the return flow of gas is detected at the
surface, the gas supply is shut off.
d) Advantages
Reliable, remote reading possible, not electrical, indicator can be calibrated at any time.
e) Limitations
Accuracy depends on skill of operator; difficult and expensive to automate, so reading
requires man on site; reading time increases with length of tubing; pneumatic tubing can be
blocked by condensation if not frequently charged with dry nitrogen gas.
Gas pressure in the piezometer decreases until water pressure forces the diaphragm to its original
position, preventing further escape of gas through the vent tube. At this point, gas pressure equals
water pressure, and the pneumatic indicator shows the reading on its pressure gauge.
4.2.3. Vibrating Wire Piezometers
The vibrating wire piezometer consists of a vibrating wire
pressure transducer and signal cable. It can be installed in a
borehole, embedded in fill, or suspended in a standpipe. Readings
are obtained with a portable readout or a data logger.
a) Applications
Typical applications for the VW piezometer are:
Monitoring pore water pressures to determine safe rates of
fill or excavation.
Monitoring pore water pressures to determine slope stability.
Monitoring the effects of dewatering systems used for excavations.
Monitoring the effects of ground improvement systems such as vertical drains and sand
drains.
Monitoring pore pressures to check the performance of earth fill dams and embankments.
Monitoring pore pressures to check containment systems at land fills and tailings dams.
b) Operation
The VW piezometer converts water pressure to a frequency signal via a diaphragm, a
tensioned steel wire, and an electromagnetic coil. The piezometer is designed so that a change in
pressure on the diaphragm causes a change in tension of the wire. When excited by the
electromagnetic coil, the wire vibrates at its natural frequency. The vibration of the wire in the
proximity of the coil generates a frequency signal that is transmitted to the readout device. The
readout device processes the signal, applies calibration factors, and displays a reading in the
required engineering unit.
c) Installation Overview

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Grout-In Method: The piezometer is lowered, filter-end up, to the specified depth in the
borehole. Then the borehole is filled with a bentonite-cement grout.
Sand Filter Method: The borehole is flushed with water or biodegradable drilling mud. A
sand filter is placed around the piezometer which is positioned at the specified depth. A bentonite
plug is formed at the top of the sand filter. Then the remainder of the borehole is filled with a
bentonite-cement grout.
Push-In: The special-body, push-in piezometer is pushed into soft, cohesive soil at the
bottom of a borehole. The piezometer must be monitored to ensure that it is not overpressured as
it is pushed in. The borehole is then filled with a bentonite-cement grout.
Embankments: The piezometer is embedded in sand and then covered with handcompacted select fill. Signal cables are routed though trenches and covered with compacted fill.
Bentonite water stops are placed at appropriate locations. Readings become available when the
surrounding soil becomes saturated.
d) Advantages
High Resolution: VW piezometers provide a resolution of 0.025% of full scale.
High Accuracy: Slope Indicator's automated, precision calibration system ensures that all
VW piezometers meet or exceed their accuracy specifications.
Groutable: The VW piezometer can be installed without a sand filter or a bentonite seal.
This greatly simplifies same-hole installation of multiple piezometers or piezometers with
inclinometer casing.
Rapid Response: VW piezometers offer rapid response to changes in pore water pressure,
whether they are grouted in, pushed into cohesive soils, or embedded in a sand filter zone.
Reliable Signal Transmission: With properly shielded cable, signals from the VW
piezometer can be transmitted long distances.
Temperature Measurement: All VW piezometers are equipped with a temperature sensor.
e) Advantages and Limitations
It is easy to read, very accurate; good response time in all soils; easy to automate; reliable
remote readings. But, it must be protected from electrical transients.
4.2.4. Multi-Level Vibrating Wire Piezometer
The multi-level VW piezometer system is used to monitor pore-water pressure at multiple
zones in a borehole. It consists of a number of VW piezometers in special housings, signal cable,
a grout fitting, and some user supplied components (mainly PVC pipe). The system is grouted
into a borehole. Readings are obtained with a portable readout or a data logger.
a) Application

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Multi-Level VW Piezometers are used to monitor porewater pressure at different zones in the borehole.
b) Operation
The multi-level system consists of VW piezometers in
multi-level housings, as shown in the photograph at right, and
PVC placement pipe. The piezometers are assembled in-line
with the PVC pipe and installed downhole. Signal cables are
brought to the surface through the PVC placement pipe. The
borehole is then backfilled with a bentonite-cement grout,
using the placement pipe to deliver the grout. When the grout
cures, each piezometer is isolated from the zones above and
below it, but is highly responsive to changes in pore-water
pressures at its own elevation.
c) Advantages
Slope Indicator's multilevel system solves or avoids the
problems associated with traditional multi-level piezometer
installations:

In the traditional method, placing sensors at their

intended depth is difficult, and the difficulty increases with
the number of sensors. With the multi-level system,
piezometers are installed in-line with PVC pipe. The pipe
controls the elevation and relative spacing of the
piezometers.

In the traditional method, placement of sand intake

zones and bentonite seals is time-consuming and uncertain.
The multi-level system entirely eliminates sand intake zones
and bentonite seals. Instead, the entire borehole is filled with
a bentonite-cement grout.

In the traditional method, signal cables from the

piezometers pass through the seals that isolate the various
intake zones. The cables can form channels for migration of
water between zones. With the multi-level system, signal
cables from each piezometer run to the surface through the
PVC placement pipe. The pipe itself is watertight and is later
filled with grout. This completely eliminates communication
between zones.

In the traditional method, cables can be twisted and permanently damaged in the process
of withdrawing drill casing or auger sections. With the multi-level system, cables are encased
in the PVC pipe and are much less likely to be twisted or damaged.

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But its limitations are same as VW piezometers.

4.2.5. Vented Vibrating Wire Pressure Transducers
The vibrating wire piezometer consists of a vibrating
wire pressure transducer, a vented signal cable, and a
desiccant chamber. It is designed for monitoring water levels
in wells, stilling basins, and wiers. Readings are obtained
with a portable readout or a data logger.
a) Applications
The vented pressure transducer is designed specifically for monitoring changes in water
levels in wells and stilling basins.
b) Operation
The VW pressure transducer converts water pressure to a frequency signal via a patented*
arrangement of diaphragm, a tensioned steel wire, and an electromagnetic coil. The pressure
transducer is designed so that a change in pressure on the diaphragm causes a change in tension
of the wire. An electromagnetic coil is used to excite the wire, which then vibrates at its natural
frequency. The vibration of the wire in the proximity of the coil generates a frequency signal that
is transmitted to the readout device. The readout or data logger stores the reading in Hz.
Calibration factors are then applied to the reading to arrive at a pressure in engineering units.
c) Advantages
Two Ranges: The vented pressure transducer is available in 22 and 50 psi ranges.
Large Diameter Vent Tube: The large diameter vent tube provides quick response to
changes in atmospheric pressure and cannot be blocked by droplets of condensation.
Oversize Desiccant Chamber: The large capacity, low maintenance desiccant chamber
keeps the vent tube dry for 3 to 6 months.
It is easy to read, accurate, and can be connected to data loggers and requires no barometric
pressure compensation.
Its Limitation is electrical noise from a pump in the same well can interfere with operation.
4.2.6. Titanium Pressure Transducer
The titanium pressure transducer is a 4-20mA device
that is compatible with industrial data loggers. It is use for
monitoring water levels in pumping wells and for monitoring
pore-water pressure in environments that would corrode
stainless steel.

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a) Applications
Designed for compatibility with industrial data loggers, the titanium pressure transducer is used
to monitor pore-water pressure and water levels. Typical applications include:

Monitoring pore-water pressures in corrosive environments such as salt water and

landfills.

Monitoring rapid changes in pore-water pressure such as those produced by earthquakes.

Monitoring water levels in pumping tests.

b) Operation
The pressure transducer may be sealed in a borehole or suspended in a well. Signal cable from
the transducer is terminated at a readout station, where it can be connected to a data logger or
readout device. Water pressure acts on diaphragm of the transducer. Semiconductor strain gauges
bonded to the inside of the diaphragm sense the pressure and output a signal that is proportional
to the pressure on the diaphragm. The signal is transmitted to the data logger or readout device
via a 4-20mA loop circuit.
c) Advantages
High Resistance to Corrosion: All metal parts, including the diaphragm, are made from titanium.
High Resistance to Noise: The electronics of the transducer are highly resistant to electrical noise,
such as that generated by pumps.
Compatible with PLCs: The titanium pressure transducer incorporates a 4-20mA transmitter to
provide compatibility with standard industrial data acquisition systems.
Suitable for Dynamic Monitoring: The transducer can be read continously.
Excess of pore water pressure versus time
This equipment is suitable for dynamic measurements, easy to read, highly resistant to electrical
noise.
Its Limitation are a 4-20mA circuits require more power so are less suitable for battery-operation
and long term stability may not be good enough for some applications.
V.

MAGNET EXTENSOMETERS

5.1. Overview
The magnet extensometer is a multipoint extensometer
that can be installed with inclinometer casing or with 1-inch
access pipe. The system consists of a probe, a steel measuringtape, a tape reel with built-in light and buzzer, and a number of
magnets positioned along the length of an access pipe.
The magnet extensometer is used to monitor settlement
and heave in excavations, foundations, dams, and embankments.
It can also be installed behind retaining structures, such as sheet
piles and slurry walls, and above underground openings, such as
tunnels and shafts. Data from the extensometer indicate the

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depths at which settlement has occurred as well as the total amount of settlement.
Magnet extensometers have been used to monitor settlement and heave in various
geotechnical applications. A test embankment was constructed to failure in Rio de Janeiro with
observation by two magnet extensometer columns (Ramalho-Ortigao, 1983).
Magnet extensometers were fitted to vertical inclinometer casing along a portion of the
Central Artery/Tunnel for monitoring of a tied-back deep excavation (ORourke and ODonnell,
1997). The performance verification of lime-cement columns at this same I-15 Project was based
on magnet extensometer observations (Saye, et al., 2001). Magnet plates were installed in the
bedding sand below the 100 South geofoam embankments at alternate block layer intervals. The
plates were sequenced along a central riser PVC access pipe and move with the surrounding fill.
5.2. Instrument Description
The magnet extensometer system consists of settlement plates and permanent magnets,
PVC riser pipe segments and a sensing probe and measuring tape. Each settlement plate is a
square of 305 mm sides and 12.5 mm thickness with an annular permanent magnet collar, of 60
mm outside diameter, fitted at the center. The magnet collar opening is about 34 mm in diameter
to accept a schedule 40 PVC pipe of nominal 25 mm inside diameter. The plate and magnet collar
assembly slide freely along the stem of the PVC riser pipe to position at the desired level.
Access Pipe: Inclinometer casing or one-inch access pipe can be used. After pipe and
magnets are installed, the borehole is backfilled with grout.
Datum Magnet: The datum magnet is fixed directly to the bottom section of access pipe
to serve as a reference. A datum magnet is used when the bottom of the pipe is anchored in stable
ground.

.
Figure 9. Magnet extensometer probe inserted in the PVC riser
pipe. The spider magnet, named for its spring-steel legs, is used in boreholes.
Spider Magnet:
The legs are compressed for installation and are released when the magnet is positioned at the

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specified depth. The spider magnet is typically attached to the access pipe prior to installation,
but can also be pushed into place after the pipe is installed.
Plate Magnet: The plate magnet is used in fill. It is positioned at the specified elevation
and then covered with fill material that is compacted to the same specifications as the
surrounding fill.
Telescoping Sections: Telescoping sections are installed when settlement or heave is
expected to exceed 3%.
The dead zone between the north and south poles of the permanent magnet is a narrow
section and is fixed relative to the position of the plate. A magnet probe suspended by a
graduated tape with conductors is lowered from surface through the PVC pipe to detect the
location of the dead zone and thus the position of the attached plate. The depth location from
surface to each magnet plate can be read to the 1 mm graduation on the measuring tape, and
readings are repeatable to 3 mm. Figure 7 shows the depth measuring tape and the magnet
probe inserted within a PVC riser pipe. A gas-powered post-hole augur was used to bore through
the geofoam blocks at selected locations to accommodate the PVC riser pipe (Figure 8). The
geofoam block was then raised and lowered passing the riser pipe through the augured hole
(Figure 9). Several settlement plates were nested vertically over the height of one PVC riser pipe
and at different elevations within the fill. Plastic sheeting was placed over the final or top magnet
plate to provide a bond free interface between the load distribution slab and the underlying
geofoam. As the fill settles, the plate positions adjust accordingly. Successive changes in depth of
magnet plate positions in reference to an initial baseline survey represent the rate and amount of
movement over a depth profile.
5.3. Installation
Access pipe, magnets, and grout backfill must all move with the
surrounding ground in order for the magnet extensometer to work. Access
pipe must be installed with telescoping sections in zones where settlement
is expected to occur. Spider magnets are coupled to the soil by the grout
that surrounds the pipe and the magnets. Thus, grout must be fairly weak,
so that it can deform or crumble as settlement occurs.
1. Number magnets and sections of access pipe with their intended
depth. Prepare release cords for spider magnets. Release cord must be
of sufficient length to extend between intended magnet depth and
surface. Allow a minimum of 3m (10ft) of extra cord for surface
handling
2. Fix the datum magnet to the bottom section of access pipe. The
datum magnet is usually installed at least 0.5 meter or 2 feet above the
bottom of the pipe.
3. Compress and attach spider magnets to pipe. Spider magnets must
be securely attached to the pipe so that they reach their required
locations as the pipe is installed.

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4. Check that pipe sections are marked for order of installation, magnets are fixed to each
section of pipe, and release cords are labeled, coiled and taped to pipe sections.
5. Install pipe with magnets attached. As each section of pipe is installed with its magnet,
uncoil release cord and lay out in straight line. Check that cord will not be snagged, since
this could release legs prematurely. Plan to lay out release cords from other magnets as well
and take care to avoid tangling cords. If possible, assign someone to feed cords down hole as
pipe is lowered.
6. Check depth of each magnet using magnet extensometer probe. Pull drill casing, if used,
to an elevation that is above the upper legs of the deepest magnet. If legs are released into
drill casing, the entire installation will have to be replaced.
7. Release legs of the magnet, pulling upwards on release cord. If necessary, pull drill casing
above next magnet. Then pull release cord to release the legs. Repeat this step until all spider
magnets are anchored.
8. Backfill borehole with a weak bentonite-cement grout as specified by project engineer.
5.4. How can the data of equipment be read?
The system consists of a probe, a steel measuring-tape, a tape reel with built-in light and
buzzer, and a number of magnets positioned along the length of an access pipe. The magnets are
coupled to the surrounding soil and move up or down as heave or settlement occurs. Readings are
obtained by drawing the probe through the access pipe to find the depth of the magnets. When the
probe enters a magnetic field, a reed switch closes, activating the light and buzzer. The operator
then refers to the 1 millimeter or 0.01 foot graduations on the tape and notes the depth of the
magnet.
When the access pipe is anchored in stable ground, the depth of each magnet is referenced to a
datum magnet that is fixed to the bottom of the access pipe. If the bottom of the access pipe is not
in stable ground, the depths of the magnets must be referenced to the top of the pipe, which is
optically surveyed before readings are taken.
It needs a reedswitch probe on a tape that is long enough to achieve the full depth of the
installation.
After installation, base readings can be taken using the reedswitch probe. The probe is passed
inside the access tube to the base of the installation. Make a note of the base depth.
Raise the probe up the access tube until an audible tone is heard. Pull the probe up slowly
until the tone stops. Take a reading on the tape, against the lip/top of the access tube. Slowly pull
the probe up again until another tone is heard. Take this reading. The difference between the two
readings should be 10-15 mm. There will be two tones heard for each magnet, you should note
down the reading at the "end" of the first tone and the reading at the "start" of the second tone.
Continue to pull the probe up the access tubes, repeating the reading procedure for each
magnetic target.
To determine the exact location of the spider magnet, take the mean reading for each magnet.
The mean is taken from the two readings taken for each magnet as above.
As the datum magnet is fixed to the tube, this will not move. To determine any movement of
any spider magnet, deduct each magnet reading from the datum magnet reading.

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References
Dunnicliff, John. (1988). Geotechnical instrumentations for monitoring field performance. A
Wiley-Interscience Publication, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., USA.
Tamrakar, S.B. (2001). Design parameters for elasto-plastic FE analysis of soft clay ground.
Ph.D. thesis.
Thirapong P. Application of FEM to Excavation of Soft Clay, Master thesis.
Website www.slopeindicator.com

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