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THE USE OF NATURAL ESTER FLUIDS IN TRANSFORMERS

Alan DARWIN, AREVA T&D (UK), alan.darwin@areva-td.com


Christophe PERRIER, AREVA T&D (France), christophe.perrier@areva-td.com
Philippe FOLLIOT, AREVA T&D (France), philippe.folliot@areva-td.com

ABSTRACT
In this paper, the use of natural esters is discussed for both
power transformers and distribution transformers.
A comparison is given between fundamental characteristics
(breakdown voltage, viscosity and ageing stability) of
different vegetable oils and other types of oil. This
comparison is established using experimental results. Next,
issues related to technical, manufacturing and monitoring
aspects are described based on the experience from two
recent power transformer projects involving natural ester
fluid, one rated at 132kV, 90MVA for the UK, the other
rated at 242kV for Brazil (a shunt reactor). Finally,
temperature rise tests are presented that have been carried
out on distribution transformers filled with either mineral or
vegetable oil.

differences in characteristic that affect both the design and


manufacturing processes. To go forward it is necessary to
understand these differences that principally occur with
respect to the following topics: dielectric issues; thermal
issues; processing issues; diagnostic issues; cost issues.

KEYWORDS

This paper will firstly compare different insulating liquids,


namely mineral oil, synthetic oil and vegetable oil, with
respect to some of their fundamental characteristics.
Secondly, the paper will discuss technical and
manufacturing issues connected to the use of natural
esters. This is based on experience obtained from recent
projects using natural ester fluids, namely a power
transformer for the UK, (rated at 132kV and 90MVA) and a
Shunt Reactor for Brazil, (rated at 242kV and 22 MVAr).
Finally, the paper will talk about temperature rise tests
carried out on duplicate distribution transformers filled with
either mineral oil or vegetable oil.

Insulating oils, natural ester, breakdown voltage, ageing


stability, heat transfer, manufacturing, monitoring,
temperature rise test, hot spot, distribution transformer,
power transformer.

COMPARISON OF FUNDAMENTAL
CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSFORMER
OILS

INTRODUCTION
In the face of increasing demand for the use of
environmentally friendly products in the industry, AREVA
T&D has been working to develop the use of vegetable oils
in distribution transformers and to extend its use to HV
power transformers and reactors.
In a liquid-filled transformer, the insulating liquid plays an
important function by providing both the electrical insulation
(in combination with a solid such as cellulose) and the
means of transferring the thermal losses to the cooling
system. The insulating liquid can also provide important
and easily obtainable information for use in diagnosing the
health of a transformer.
For more than one hundred years, the majority of liquidimmersed transformers have been filled with mineral oil.
The significant use of this petroleum-based product has
been justified until now by its wide availability, its good
properties, its good combination with cellulose and its low
cost. However, with environmental issues now becoming
extremely important, the use of a product with a high fire
point temperature and high biodegradability is becoming
extremely attractive. Thus, the recent availability of natural
ester fluids based on renewably sourced vegetable oils
has provided a new insulating liquid for use with
transformers.
To make the change from mineral oil to a natural ester
vegetable oil is an interesting challenge, as there are many

Different oil types


Nowadays, transformers can be filled with 3 basic types of
insulating liquids: (i) mineral oils, (ii) synthetic oils or (iii)
natural esters. The use of each type is justified by the
application. However, in the face of increasing demand for
the use of environmentally friendly products in the industry,
more and more companies are working towards developing
the use of esters and specifically natural esters for use in
the majority of their products.
(i) Transformers have been filled with mineral oils for more
than one century. This type of oil is a petroleum-based
product, essentially composed of hydrogen and carbon
atoms. Carbon and hydrogen are assembled in different
structures: napthenic (CnH2n), paraffinic (CnH2n+2) and
aromatic (CnH2n-6). The distribution of carbons in napthenic
and paraffinic structures defines the type of mineral oil. This
distribution is controlled by the crude oil and the refining
processes used. Because of its wide availability, good
properties and low cost, mineral oil is the fluid most used in
the transformer industry and at present is generally the only
one used for power transformers. New mineral oils have to
be in accordance with the IEC 60296 or ASTM D3487. As
mineral oil has been used for such a long time, a large data
base of information is available to enable interpretation of
changes to its characteristics and thus predict the possible
malfunction of a transformer. IEC 60422 is a good tool to
evaluate the quality of insulating oils in operational
transformers.
(ii) There are two main synthetic liquids that can be used in

Experimental investigations for comparison


This part presents a comparison between different types of
fresh insulating oil described briefly in Table 1.
Name
Data
Vegetable oil 1
Mixture of mono and tri-ester
Vegetable oil 2
Tri-ester
Vegetable oil 3
Tri-ester
Synthetic ester
Tetra-ester largely used
Mineral oil
Napthenic/uninhibited, largely used
Silicone oil
Largely used
Table 1: Tested fluids

The comparison study is based on experimental work


realized in a laboratory and is focused primarily on the
three main properties of transformer fluids, i.e. the
insulating capability with the breakdown voltage; the heat
transfer with the viscosity; the ageing stability with oxygen
and temperature influences.

Breakdown voltage (BDV)


A major function of oil is to ensure the electrical insulation
in a transformer. Specifically, this insulation capability is
controlled by the complex paper/oil structures. Oil
impregnates the cellulose (paper, pressboard and wood)
and thus drives away the air which presents a lower
dielectric strength than the oil. Breakdown voltage is one of
the main properties used to define the efficiency of oil as an
insulator. This characteristic is very sensitive to the quality
of the oil, which can be influenced by the presence of
impurities like humidity, particles and gases. Even though
the breakdown voltage is more associated to the oil quality
than the oil chemistry, it forms a good characteristic for
comparing different oils when the impurity content is well
controlled.
One big difference between ester oils and mineral oils is the
water solubility level. Indeed, ester oils can absorb around
20 to 30 times more moisture than mineral oil at 25C
before saturation. This better water solubility decreases the
effect of the humidity influence on insulation strength, but
also dries the paper. This could possibly increase the life of
a transformer, as its life is controlled by the state of the
paper. On the other hand, due to this higher solubility, ester
oils recapture moisture rapidly and special care has to be
taken during handling compared to mineral oil.
Experimental results are represented on Figure 1. As BDV
measurement is not an accurate method, the test was
repeated 18 times instead of the 6 times required by the
IEC 60156 standard.
120
100
Breakdown Voltage (kV)

transformers: silicone oil and ester of pentaerythritol


(synthetic ester). These oils were developed in the
seventies to replace askarels (PCB), which became
outlawed because of their toxicity. As PCB was a nonflammable liquid (no fire point), the main particularity of
these new oils was their high fire resistance (higher fire
point than mineral oil). Until now, their use was essentially
restricted to distribution and traction transformers, partly
because of their price (three to eight times more expensive
than mineral oil), but also because a better fire resistance
was required for these applications. Their better thermal
stability was also a positive point for their use and
especially for traction transformers.
Esters of pentaerythritol, also called tetra-ester, are
obtained by an esterification reaction between a tetraalcohol (pentaerythritol) and mono-carboxylic acids. These
oils are composed of hydrogen, carbon and oxygen. New
synthetic esters have to be in accordance with the IEC
61099 and a maintenance guide that is published in the IEC
61203. Silicone oil is a polymer based on silicon, which also
includes carbon, oxygen and hydrogen atoms. Specifically,
the final product is obtained by the polymerization of
polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS). This oil presents the
advantage to have a high thermal stability, but on the other
hand is not biodegradable at all. New silicone oils have to
be in accordance with IEC 60836 and a maintenance guide
that is published in IEC 60944.
(iii) Finally, there are vegetable oils, also known as natural
esters (tri-ester) as opposed to synthetic esters. These oils
are naturally synthesized from living organisms and come
in particular from soya, sunflower, rapeseed, etc.
Specifically, natural esters are created from an
esterification reaction between a tri-alcohol and fatty acids.
Other processes allow the final product to be obtained by
the transesterification reaction (mono-ester) or mixture of
mono and tri-esters [1]. Since the middle of the nineteen
nineties and because of environmental concerns, a lot of
studies were launched for the development of vegetable
oils. Nowadays, its use is starting to be widespread in the
distribution transformer market and the challenge of these
next years is to extend its use to the power transformer
market. The most difficult step will be to define new
evaluation criteria to diagnose the status of a transformer.
At this time, no international standards exist for vegetable
oils, although an IEEE Guide, will be published soon
(C57.147 - IEEE Guide for Acceptance and Maintenance
of Natural Ester Fluids in Transformers). The only standard
available at present is the ASTM D6871. A Project Team
(PT-5) was launched within TC 10 (Fluids for Electrotechnical Application) to develop an IEC standard for
vegetable oils as soon as possible.

80
60
Vegetable oil 1 (67ppm)

Vegetable oil 2 (55ppm)

40

Vegetable oil 3 (51ppm)

Synthetic ester oil (64ppm)

20

Mineral oil (9ppm)

0
1

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

Series

Figure 1: Breakdown voltage measurements in


accordance with IEC 60156/spherical electrodes with
2.5mm gap (water content in ppm)
Results showed that after the same laboratory treatment
(sintered glass filtration by vacuum) for each new oil,
natural and synthetic esters presented a BDV relatively
close to mineral oil and above the limits of IEC 60296 for
mineral oil (BDV > 70kV on the mean of 6 measurements).
Note that after the laboratory treatment, the water content
of the mineral oil was around 13% of its saturation value (at
25C), whereas ester oils were all largely below 10% of
their saturation level.

Insulating oil in a transformer must ensure the transfer of


heat. This function is realized both by thermal conductivity
and convection [2]. The convection represents all of the
properties which lead to the heat transfer by fluid
displacement (viscosity, specific heat, thermal expansion
coefficient), whereas the conduction is realized within the
fluid. In a previous paper [3], it was shown that the
kinematic viscosity is the most influential parameter for the
heat transfer. Viscosity measurements were realized in
accordance with the ISO 3104 specification.
40

5
4.5

Before ageing

After IEC 61125C ageing

3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1

30
25

Vegetable oil 1

0.5

Vegetable oil 2

Vegetable oil 3

20

Veg. Oil 1

Synthetic ester

15

Veg. Oil 2

Mineral oil

Veg. Oil 3

Synth. Ester

Mineral oil

Oil type

Silicone oil

10
5
0
20

40

60

80

100

Temperature (C)

Figure 2: Viscosity evolution versus temperature for


different oil types
At the normal operating temperature of a power
transformer, the viscosity of ester oils is higher than that of
mineral oil, but lower than that of silicone oil (see figure 2).
These results show that the transfer of heat in the
transformer by convection will be less efficient with ester
oils and the worst with silicone oil. This is not necessarily a
critical issue, but care has to be taken especially when
designing the cooling system of power transformers. It
should be noted that some vegetable oils can have a
viscosity closer to mineral oil (e.g. vegetable oil 1), so
minimising this effect.

Ageing stability
In addition to the BDV and the heat transfer characteristics,
insulating oil must have a good ageing stability. Oxygen,
which is present in the oil and can also ingress from the
environment, constitutes one of the more influential factors,
ageing the oil by oxidation. Temperature acts as a catalyst
as well as some metals such as copper. The ageing
stability of oil, therefore, is even more important if the
transformer is free breathing. Sulphur compounds are
present in mineral oils and act as natural inhibitors, but also
some synthetic inhibitors like DBPC can be added to
reduce the ageing process. As esters oils are more
biodegradable than mineral oil, they tend to have lower
oxidation stability. This lower oxidation stability can enforce
transformer manufacturers to use a sealed design (not free
breathing), although vegetable oil suppliers could also add
an inhibitor (which should be as green as possible).
For studying the oxidation stability of the different oil types,
the ageing was realized in accordance with IEC 61125 C.
This is the reference test to evaluate a new mineral oil. It
consists in ageing oil in the presence of a copper catalyst at
120C for 164 hours (for non inhibited oil) with a defined
oxygen flow rate. These tests were realized on new oils, as

Figure 3: Evolution of acidity after IEC 61125 C


ageing (120C / 164h)
Figure 3 shows that synthetic ester keeps a very low acidity
after the ageing, lower even than that of mineral oil. The
three vegetable oils tested each reacted differently with
respect to ageing: one (veg. oil 2) stayed below the IEC
limit required for mineral oil (red dashed line), whereas
another (veg. oil 1) showed a large increase of acidity.
These results could be correlated to the presence or lack of
an additive, as well as to the nature of the seed used to
produce the vegetable oil. At present, specifications for
natural esters are not well established, and it is thus difficult
for the user to know if a vegetable oil contains additives or
not.
before ageing

1.2

after IEC 61125C ageing


1

Tan delta (90C)

Viscosity (mm2/s)

35

received from the supplier. Acidity and tan delta were


measured, as they constitute the more pertinent properties
for evaluating the oxidation [4, 5]. These measurements
were realized in accordance with the IEC 62021-1 and IEC
60247 specifications respectively.

Acidity (mg KOH/g)

Heat transfer

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

Veg. Oil 1

Veg. Oil 2

Veg. Oil 3

Synth. Ester

Mineral oil

Oil type

Figure 4: Evolution of tan delta after IEC 61125 C


ageing (120C / 164h)
Figure 4 shows that tan delta of synthetic ester increases
significantly after ageing in comparison to mineral oil and
some vegetable oils. One vegetable oil (veg. oil 2) stays
below the IEC limits for mineral oil.
As a summary, ageing test results show that some
vegetable oils can pass the IEC 61125C test for non
inhibited mineral oil, whereas others do not. Synthetic ester
shows good acidity stability, but a large increase in tan
delta. One of the challenges for the industry is to
understand if the different ageing behaviour of ester oils is
significant for the transformer life expectancy or whether a
new reference level could be used?

TECHNICAL AND MANUFACTURING ISSUES


FOR POWER TRANSFORMERS
Technical issues
For all new designs it is essential to use the design review
process to identify where differences to previously proven
designs need validation and/or new development. This was
especially true for the transformer (132kV, 90MVA) and
reactor (242kV, 22MVAr) designs that were to be filled with
natural ester fluid. Although the basic design and
construction was similar to previous designs, a key
component was being replaced, i.e. the insulating fluid.
Oil-immersed transformers and reactors rely on the oil to
provide part of the insulation structure as well as allow the
thermal losses to be cooled. If this insulating fluid is to be
changed, it is necessary to validate its use with respect to
both design and manufacture. In the above cases, the
design review process highlighted differences between the
two fluids that needed to be understood in case their impact
was significant during design, manufacture and operation.
These issues were investigated and their impact is
discussed below.
Dielectric issues
The natural ester has a relative permittivity that is closer to
the solid insulation used in oil-immersed transformers and
reactors (such as paper and pressboard). This has several
effects on the dielectric design.
The capacitances of the insulation structure change,
causing different voltage distributions under transient
conditions such as impulse application (lightning strike).
This change was not found to be significant.
The distribution of voltage stress within the insulation
structure also changed, such that for a given voltage
distribution the voltage stress in the fluid was less for the
natural ester than for the mineral oil. This was beneficial
and allowed higher levels of voltage withstand for certain
electrode and insulation configurations.
Much work was carried out to investigate the comparative
voltage withstand of the different oils under various test
and service voltage conditions such as power frequency
and impulse application. This enabled the design of the
windings and insulation structures to be carried out with
maximum confidence. Information about modified
acceptance criteria for the condition of the oil was made
available for use during manufacture and service.
The ester-filled transformer and shunt reactor both
successfully passed all their dielectric tests.
Thermal issues
As discussed above, the esters have higher viscosities than
mineral oil for the same temperature. This reduces the fluid
flow rate for a given dynamic head causing a higher
temperature difference between top and bottom of the
cooler. This is significant for natural cooled transformers,
as, although the mean oil temperature rise is controlled by
the cooler, the top oil is controlled by the natural
thermosyphonic fluid flow and is effectively the summation
of mean oil rise and half the top to bottom fluid rise. Where
the cooling system uses forced directed fluid flow, the effect
is minimal, providing that the correct rating of pump is used
to take into account the higher impedance to oil flow

caused by the higher viscosity. The better thermal


conduction of the esters means that the temperature
gradient between winding conductor and local oil is slightly
reduced, depending on its oil velocity component.
The net effect is that for naturally cooled transformers, the
top oil and thus hot spot temperature rises will be higher
with esters than with mineral oil. Temperature rise tests
carried out on the two 90 MVA transformers confirmed this
effect, there being an increase of 5 degrees for the top oil
rise (top to bottom rise increased by 20%), whilst the
winding gradients were very similar. Similar results were
seen for the 242 kV reactors. The vegetable oil used for
these tests was a tri-ester. Similar effects are seen for
distribution transformers later in the paper.
Recent publications [6, 7] demonstrate that using a natural
ester with cellulose insulating material could have a
beneficial effect on the life time of the solid insulation. By
decreasing the water content in the cellulose paper, the
natural ester reduces the hydrolysis phenomenon and the
rate of ageing is reduced for a given winding hot spot
temperature compared to that for normal mineral oil
impregnated cellulose. Table 2 shows the relative ageing
rate of cellulose paper impregnated with mineral oil or
natural ester with respect to hot spot temperature. The
relative ageing rate V = 1 occurs at 98C for a standard
mineral oil /paper system, but this temperature is increased
to 114/116C for a natural ester/paper system.
This effect could allow a natural ester filled transformer to
run at a higher overload for the same loss of life, or
alternatively, the higher hot spot temperature observed for
ester-filled naturally cooled transformers could be accepted
without extra ageing.
Thus, it would be worthwhile studying new applications for
conventional mineral oil design transformers immersed in
natural ester. There are possibilities of using high
temperature cellulose paper impregnated with natural ester
to allow the design of transformers withstanding overload
without increased life consumption or to allow a more
compact design of the transformer ,or more specific
applications such as wind farms, converters and
transformers installed in sensitive environments.
Hot spot (C)

Mineral oil

Natural ester

98
104
110
114
116
128
140

1
2
4
6.35
8
32
128

0.16
0.32
0.63
1
1.26
5
20

Table 2: Relative ageing rate due to hot spot


temperature

Manufacturing issues
Although the electrical design issues were critical to the
success of the transformer design, it was equally important
that the transformer could be manufactured, processed and
tested satisfactorily. A major issue was the effect of higher
viscosity on the processing time.
High viscosity of the insulation fluid increases the time to
fully impregnate the solid insulation, or even prevent full
impregnation. This is particularly relevant for thick
laminated insulation components. Tests showed that by

increasing the temperature of the fluid during the


impregnation process and by increasing the standing time
before voltage application, satisfactory impregnation and air
release were achieved. Careful control of component sizes
and thickness allowed this process to be optimised.
To maintain control of the processing operation it was
necessary to redefine the procedural instructions and
processing acceptance criteria. This included impregnation
temperature, standing time, moisture content and gas
content.
Another important issue was the characteristic of a natural
ester to gel with exposure to air (especially if hot).
Although this effect was not instantaneous and was found
not to have a deleterious effect on the dielectric withstand
capability, if the gel reduced the size of oil ducts, then the
cooling could be put at risk. For this reason, the breathing
system of the transformers and reactors was effectively of a
sealed type, using a nitrile rubber bag to isolate the ester
from the atmosphere during operation. It was also
necessary to ensure that any exposure after impregnation
(such as for repack and making connections) was
eliminated or reduced to an absolute minimum. Future
research should investigate this "gel" effect on the dielectric
withstand capability, as well as on the thermal implications,
as it is an important issue for both manufacturing and
operational maintenance.
All components used for the transformer needed to be
confirmed for use with ester fluids with respect to both
technical and chemical issues (including health and safety).
As with any factory involved in the use of different insulation
fluids, it is necessary to isolate the plant used to fill and
process the ester fluid to avoid cross-contamination of
factory bulk mineral oil supplies. Also, pipe work used for
filling and processing can become contaminated by gelled
fluid if not properly cleaned after use. For this ester-filled
transformer contract, an outside contractor with specialist
equipment was used.

Monitoring issues
Physical characteristics of mineral oil are universally used
to check the condition of oil-immersed transformers. Such
diagnostic interpretation for ester fluids cannot use the
same criteria as is presently available for mineral oil.
Esters have a higher dissipation factor, which will mean that
values of tan delta will generally be higher for an ester-filled
transformer of comparable condition (figure 4). For mineral
oil, a higher value of tan delta generally indicates ageing of
the transformer. The existing acceptance criteria will need
to be re-assessed. A similar problem exists for volume
resistivity, as insulation resistance levels will be generally
lower for ester-filled transformers.
Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA) criteria will need to be reassessed, as different amounts of gases are evolved and
the ratios of gases may not be the same. Initial
investigations suggest that present gas ratios may be used
to show major faults, but time will be needed to obtain a
sufficient library of data to be able to match the information
presently available for mineral oil.
Esters effectively contain more moisture than mineral oil
when measured in ppm (relative humidity values are
similar). This means that different acceptance criteria are
required compared to mineral oil. Also the voltage
breakdown acceptance criterion needs to be reviewed.

THERMAL ISSUES
TRANSFORMERS

IN

DISTRIBUTION

Description of Temperature rise tests


For transformers, the top oil and mean winding temperature
rises are guaranteed values. The hot spot temperature rise
is usually estimated for distribution and power transformers
in accordance with the overload guide IEC 60076-7, and is
often confirmed for large power transformer by direct
measurement using optical fibre sensors.
The winding hot spot temperature allows the evaluation of
relative ageing and transformer life, and is based on the
power loading and its duration, as well as ambient and
cooling conditions. Life time expectancy of the transformer
is generally considered to be 20 to 30 years for normal
operating conditions at constant load and ambient
temperature.
In order to evaluate the ageing for distribution transformers,
the following values are measured during the temperature
rise tests:
-Top oil temperature (O) under cover with thermometer,
-Mean winding temperature (W ) by measurement of
winding resistance variation during temperature rise test,
- Ambient temperature (A),
By using the recommendations of the loading guide (IEC
60076-7), the data presented in Table 2 can be calculated.
Meaning
Top oil temperature rise
Mean winding
temperature rise
Mean oil temperature
Mean winding/ oil gradient
Top winding hot spot
gradient
Hot spot winding
temperature
Hot spot winding
temperature rise

Symbol
Or
W

calculation
O - A
W - A

OM
gr

hr

0.8 x Or
W OM
H x gr
with H = 1.1
A + hr

hr

Or + hgr

hgr

Table 3: Symbols for temperature rise

Temperature rise tests comparing vegetable


oil and mineral oil
Table 4 shows a comparison between temperature rise
tests for different fluid systems.
Symbol
guarantee TR1
TR2
TR3
Or
60 K
50
51.1
52.8
W HT
65 K
56.2
57.7
59.3
Gr HT
16.2
16.8
17.1
hr HT
67.8
69.6
71.6
W BT
65 K
59.5
60.7
62.3
Gr BT
19.5
19.8
20.1
hr BT
71.4
72.9
74.9
Table 4: Comparative measurements for temperature
rise tests
The transformers used for the temperature rise tests were
manufactured according to the same technical
specification, except that TR1 and TR2 were filled with

mineral oil and TR3 was filled with vegetable oil.


Temperature rise tests carried out with a natural ester did
not show significant variations in value compared to the
ones for identical transformers filled with mineral oil
However, they do show the same effect of the increased
viscosity of the ester as seen for the power transformers,
with the top oil and hot spot rises being about 2-3 degrees
higher than for mineral oil. Although these differences are
small and could be interpreted as measurement
uncertainty, they do confirm that the top to bottom oil rise
will be greater for the esters than for mineral oil because of
their increased viscosity. It is interesting to note that the
natural ester used in these tests was a mixture of mono and
tri-ester, which had the lowest viscosity of the three
vegetable oils tested in the laboratory (see figure 2). Hence
a smaller difference would be expected than with the other
types of vegetable oil, such as used in the power
transformer and shunt reactor.
When compared to power transformers, the effect of using
vegetable oil in distribution transformers is generally less
significant, because the top to bottom temperature rise of
the fluid is usually smaller. Thus there is normally no need
to modify the design of the cooling system.
Synthetic esters have been used as the liquid cooling
medium of distribution transformers successfully for 25
years. The characteristics of thermal conductivity, kinematic
viscosity and specific heat are very similar for both natural
and synthetic esters. Thus, with respect to the design of the
distribution transformers cooling system, natural esters
have similar thermal cooling effects to the synthetic esters
that have a proven cooling capability for distribution
transformers.
With respect to cooling properties for a transformer, silicone
oil has an inferior thermal performance to the ester oils.
This fluid type has also been used for a long period of time
as the dielectric liquid and cooling medium for distribution
transformers, but requires some specific modifications to
the active part and the tank cooling systems. Due to its
higher kinematic viscosity at normal transformer
temperature condition work (see Figure 2), the number and
thickness of cooling ducts would need to be increased and
the cooling fins or radiators of the tank would need to be
increased by up to 20%.

CONCLUSIONS
Laboratory investigations show that:
o Ester oils are similar to mineral oil with respect to the
dielectric strength.
o Ester oils are seen to be more viscous than mineral oil
for a given temperature and are thus less efficient for
the transfer of heat by convection. Different types of
vegetable oil have different levels of viscosity effect.
o Ester oils are less stable with respect to oxidation than
mineral oil. However, depending on the type and the
presence or lack of inhibitor, the oxidation behaviour of
vegetable oils can be very different.
The understanding of chemical, physical, dielectric and
thermal properties of these fluids allows transformers to be
designed to encompass the differences compared to using
mineral oils, such that dielectric tests are not an issue.

Thermal tests have shown that for naturally cooled power


transformers, the top oil and hot spot temperature rises are
higher due to the higher viscosity of esters. This effect can
be mitigated if necessary with additional coolers or the use
of forced directed cooling.
Natural ester oils can increase the thermal stability of
paper, as they remove moisture from solid insulation more
effectively than mineral oil, thus allowing either higher hot
spot temperatures, or increased component life.
Processing and factory issues have been successfully
addressed and useful experience has been gained to
enable larger and higher voltage power transformers to be
designed and built in the future, although monitoring issues
need to be investigated in order to set the reference criteria
for ester oils.
Finally, temperature rise tests have shown that the use of
natural esters for distribution transformers is not a problem
for the cooling system. This has been confirmed by the
successful use of synthetic ester for this type of transformer
for the last 25 years.
REFERENCES
[1] Y. Bertrand, L. C. Hoang, 2004, Vegetable oils as
substitute for mineral insulating oils in medium voltage
equipment, Proceedings CIGRE conference, Paris, No.
D1-202
[2] J. Perret, M. Paris, 1987, Silicone oils for transformers
(in french), E.D.F. Bulletin des tudes et recherches
Srie B, Rseaux lectriques, matriels lectriques, No. 2,
pp. 5-13
[3] C. Perrier, A. Beroual, J-L. Bessede, 2006,
Improvement of power transformers by using mixtures of
mineral oil with synthetic esters, IEEE TDEI, No. 3, Vol.
13, pp. 556-564
[4] V. Prabhashankar, D. J. Badkas, 1961, Mechanism of
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