Optica Acta: International Journal of Optics

ISSN: 0030-3909 (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tmop19

A Method for Evaluation of Two-point Resolution

of Axially Symmetrical Filters
M. Novotn
To cite this article: M. Novotn (1977) A Method for Evaluation of Two-point Resolution of
Axially Symmetrical Filters, Optica Acta: International Journal of Optics, 24:5, 567-576, DOI:
10.1080/713819592
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/713819592

Published online: 16 Nov 2010.

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Date: 12 November 2015, At: 07:21

OPTICA ACTA,

1977,

VOL .

24,

NO .

5, 567-576

A method for evaluation of two-point resolution of axially

symmetrical filters

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M . NOVOTN~'
Institute of Instrument Technology, Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences,
Kralovopolska 147, 612 64 Brno 12, Czechoslovakia
(Received 19 March 1976)

Abstract. The rapid convergence of the recently developed series representation

of the Fresnel diffraction pattern [1] enables us to evaluate the central intensity
maximum of the focal patterns using only the first three terms . This fact leads
to a simple graphical method of determining the two-point resolution achieved
in the Fraunhofer focal plane by the filters with real pupil functions . The
method is tested for the Fresnel and Gabor zone plates, the Wilkins filter and
the central obstruction .

The diffraction field G(u, v) of the axially symmetrical filter with a periodic
transmissivityg(t) can be expressed in the form ([1], equation (31))
G(u,v)=

(1)

(-M)-kYk(u)/k(v) .

k=0

The functions f k (V) in the series can be generated, e .g., from the first one
k+1(V)= vf / k (v)v dv .
/0 (v) =2J1 (v)/v, with the help of the recurrent relation 2 f
0

The series coefficients y k (u), the so-called diffraction coefficients, depend on the
filter transmissivityg(t) in the form ([1], equation (30))
Yk(u) = f g(t/M)

exp

(2M)Qk(t)

dt,

where 1/M, M integer, is the period of the transmissivity g(t) .

Q k(t) are the renormed Bernoulli polynominals defined by
a
lv
Qk+1(t) = f Q k (t) dt - f f Q k (t) dt dy
0

(2)
The functions

00

and
Q0 (t)= 1 .
The idea of a simple method for evaluating the two-point resolution consists
in that the diffraction field G(u, v) near the axis is practically expressed by a few
first terms of the series representation (1) . Then, the two-point resolution
given by the width of the central intensity maximum in the considered focal plane
can be appreciated from the first diffraction coefficients y k . In this way we can
avoid calculating the intensity from the original diffraction integral ([1], equation
(1))
1
alt
J0(vth/2) dt .
(3)
G(u, v) = f g(t) exp
0

In contradistinction to the diffraction amplitude (3), the needed focal diffraction

coefficients Yk may be often evaluated in an analytical form .

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568

M . Novotny

In practical applications the filter g(t) usually represents the coating of the
objective, the two-point resolution of which is to be improved . Thus u=0,
i .e . the focal plane of interest is the plane of the Fraunhofer diffraction-cf . [3],
p .220 . Although the suggested procedure for a quick evaluation of the twopoint resolution can be used for any focal plane, we restrict ourselves just to the
case of the Fraunhofer focal plane u=0 and to the real transmissivities of the
absorbing coating . Then, all the series coefficients (2) are real, which is the case
of practical interest-cf. also [2], p . 60 . Further, it is evident from (1) that with
M increasing the deviation from the normal Airy pattern is suppressed .
Thus,
let us consider M=1, the case of non-periodic filter transmissivities when the
absorbing coatings are able to influence the imaging properties of the optical
system most strongly.
First, let us study the rapidity of the series convergence near the axis of the
Gabor and Fresnel zone plate . We shall consider the transmissivities of the
Gabor plate
b(t)= 2+ 2 cos 2 r(t - E)

(4)

and of the Fresnel zone plate

c(t) = 2 + 2 sgn [cos 2,rr(t - e)]

(5)

continually shifted. The shift c has clearly the values EE(0,1 > . Knowing
the diffraction coefficients y k (0) (see Appendix), the Fraunhofer diffraction
fields C E (0, v) and B,(0, v) due to the Fresnel and Gabor plates can be calculated
from (1) for all possible shifts E .
With the help of the figure 2 we can correlate the form of the first three diffraction coefficients and the shape of the central intensity maximum . The
quantity tXv plotted there is the half width of the central maximum in its 4 per cent
level-cf . figures land 3 . The value of Ov for the Airy disk is Av 3 . 08 . From
graphs AV(E) in figure 2 it may be seen that the trend of deviation from the normal
value is indicated by the signs of Yo and y l . Taking into account the further
third term of the series (1) a fair appreciation of the diffraction field near the axis
is attained-cf. figure 3 . The dashed curves Ova in figure 2 derived for both the
filters are illustrative of the three-terms approximation . The inaccuracy of
Ova is less than 3 per cent for both the curves if the value of Av 3 5 4 . A similar
accuracy may also be expected for other filters that show focusing powers comparable with those of the Fresnel or Gabor zone plates .
The quantity Ov is defined in terms of the diffraction amplitude by the equation
G(Ov)/G(0)=0 .2 . Regarding y o =G(0) we can also write by the use of (1)
with M= 1, u=0,
fo(Ov)-Yof1(Av)+Yo f2(Av)- . . .=0 .2 .

(6)

Thus, the half-width of the central maximum Ov and also any characteristics of
the normed diffraction field G(u, v)/y o are clearly functions of two independent
variables y1/Yo and Y2/Yo, if taking into account only the first three terms of (1) .
In the case of real yk , the curves Ov = const in the plane of these variables are then
represented by the straight lines-cf. figures 4 and 5 . Because of numerical
reasons we use the transformed variables
Y1 ' =

27T71/70,

Y2' = ( 2 Tr) 2 Y2/YO'

(7)

The two point resolution

569

0.5
CE (0,V)
10

.4

0 .3

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0 .2

0 .1

-0 .1

-0 .2
0
Figure 1 .

5 v

The diffraction fields C,(0, v) in the Fraunhofer plane u=0 due to the Fresnel
zone plates with different location of one transparent zone .

The choice of the constant 0 . 2 in (6) is appropriate for the three-term approximation for it enables us to evaluate Ov(y l ',y2 ') with a fair accuracy, not only for
super-resolving filters but also for apodizing filters with Lv > 3 . 08-cf. [6] .
The quantity Av is suitable for a simple comparison of the resolution abilities
due to different filters . However, it does not characterize the actual displacement
of the two-point objects just resolved, as their degree of coherency has not been
considered . For practical purposes the Rayleigh criterion is commonly used [4] .
Two-point objects of equal brightness are then considered to be resolved if the
decrease of intensity mid-way between their geometrical images is just 73 . 5 per
cent of the maximum value . Thus, for the case of quite incoherent point objects,
the Rayleigh criterion AVR is defined by

21G(OvRI 2 )1 2
0 . 735 .
IG(0)1 2 +IG(Ov R )i 2=

(8)

Using the first three terms of the series representation (1) we can derive from (8)
the equation AVR=f(Yi',Ya) similarly as in deriving (6) . Now, the functions
f(Yi"Y2')=const are quadratic forms-see figure 6 . As to the cases with nonzero degrees of coherency, we only note that accuracy of the three-term approximation decreases if the degree of coherency is increasing . It is evident
from the values of the Rayleigh criterion for the superposed Airy patterns
OV R 3 . 83 for the incoherent case, whereas w R 5 . 15 in the case of perfect
coherency .
Figures 4, 5 and 6 show that there exist certain regions of the plane (yr', Y2' )
where the functions Av(yl', Y2) and OvR(Yj', Y2') are unambiguous . Consequently,
knowing the coefficients yl ', Y2 ' the figures can serve to determine Ov or AVR of
any focusing filter . The problem of finding the characteristics of two-point

5 70

M.

Novotny

AV

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0.5

LI

3.082
3

-0.5

-1

2
0

0.25

0.5

0 .75

(a)

(2n)'r,

AV

r=0

0.5

.r

3.082
3

-0 .5

0 .25

0.5

0 .75

(b)

Figure 2 .

The first three diffraction coefficients y,.(0) of the Fresnel and Gabor plate-

(a) and (b) respectively . The dotted curves Ova ( e) mean the three-term approximation

of the half-width Av of the central intensity maximum defined by the relation

G(Ov) 2 J G(0) 2 /25 .
I

57 1

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The two point resolution

(a)

= 0 .725

Figure 3 . The Fraunhofer diffraction fields B,(0, v) and their three-term approximation
(the dashed curves) due to the Gabor plate . Two values of the shift a correspond
to the minimum and maximum width of the central maximum .

resolution is thus transferred to the calculation of the first three diffraction coefficients yk . We can use either the relation (2) with M=1, u = 0 and k = 0, 1, 2, i .e .
1

Yo

= f0 g(t) dt,

y1

= fg(t) (t-1/2)dt,

(9)

0
1

Y2 - jg( t ) (2t2- 2t+1$)dt

0

or the relation (A 1) where L = 0 .

Besides the convenience of the relations (9) for a number of simple filter
transmissivities g(t), the present graphical method is particularly suitable for
analysing the influence of some filter parameters on Ov or Av R . For instance,
using the relations (A 2), (A 5-A 7), the circle and the outer lens-shaped curve in
figure 4 are constructed for the Gabor and Fresnel filter transmissivities b(t)
and c(t) whose one period is continually shifted . We can easily trace the influence of the shift c on Av . If we desire to examine the dependence of w on
the number of periods M, following simple transformation of one-period curves
must be performed . According to the series (1) the kth series coefficient
contains 1/M in the kth power . Thus, reducing the one-period curves M times
in the variable yl' and M2 times in the other y2 ', we can see how the previous
extent of Ov is attainable by shifting contracts to reach the limit point Ov = 3 . 08
for M-co -cf . figure 4.

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5 72

M. Novotny

Figure 4 . The characteristics of two-point resolution iv(y l ', y 2 ')=const in the threeterm approximation are represented by the straight lines . The circle and the outer
lens-shaped curve correspond to the diffraction coefficients yk'=(2Tr)kyk(e)/yo ,
k=1, 2 of the Gabor and Fresnel plates . The numbers along the curves are the
values of shifts ee(0, 1) . After the transformation (M)-kyk', k=1, 2 we can
examine Ov in dependence on the number of periods M.

Finally, we shall examine the accuracy of the present graphical method for a
number of filters . A simple test is used for verifying the accuracy of the Rayleigh
criterion Ov R in the three-term approximation . The testing curve in figure 6
corresponds to the free opening with variable relative pupil area p . The diffraction coefficients follow from (9) setting g(t) = 1 and replacing the upper limit
1 by p . Then,
70 =p,

y,'= 2rry1fyo = ,,,(p -1),

?2'= ( 2 ir) 2 y21y0 = ir2 (p - 1) (2p -1)/3 .

On the other hand, the Fraunhofer diffraction field of such a filter is the transformed
Airy pattern 2J1 (vpt/ 2 )/(vp 11 2) . Thus, the exact value of the Rayleigh criterion
is 3 . 832/pli2 . We can then compare the Ov R (p), derived from figure 6, and the
exact one . A slight difference appears just for the greatest value of Ov R 6 . 0
(about 1 . 5 per cent) .
The accuracy of Ov(yl ', y 2) is tested with the help of the Luneberg filter
1(t) = a - b J0 (Ovt1"2 ) that maximizes the Strehl criterion for a given value of
Lv---for details see [6] . Its diffraction coefficients y 1 ', y2 are calculated for the

The two point resolution

573

values Av corresponding to the straight lines in figure 5 . We see than at increasing

displacement of the points [yl', 721 from the isolines Av = const appears for
Lv > 3 . 4.
Figure 5 serves also for evaluation of Av of the well-known super-resolving
filters, the Wilkins filter [4] and the central obstruction [3] . Denoting k the
relative area of the central reversing part (cf . figure 5 a), we easily derive from
(9) the needed diffraction coefficients of the Wilkins filter (0 5 k < 1)
Yo=1-2k,

Y1 = k(1 - k)~

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Yo

1- 2k

Y2=k(k-1)

(10)

Yo

Similarly, for the central obstruction it follows that

(11)
2= 1(21-1) .
12
Yo 2
Yo
lc-(0,1> being the relative area of the central opaque disk . Plotting the respective curves by the use of (7), (10), (11) we get a comprehensive picture of
Ov(k) or Ov(l) . The differences between the exact value of Av and that following
from the figure 5 are beyond the accuracy of the graphs .
The possibilities of the three-term approximation are far from exhausting .
It has been shown in [6] that the three-term approximation is successful in
finding the filter transmissivity attaining the maximum Strehl criterion . This
problem requires the reconstruction of the transmissivity from the diffraction
coefficients . The needed development of theory is also the object of paper [6] .

Yo=1-1,

Y1 = 1 ~

3 .0
1
r=

2 .0

1 .0

-1 .0

-2 .0
-2 .0

-1 .0

1 .0

2 0

3 .0

8+

-__- 4 .0

Figure 5 . The characteristics of two-point resolution t v for the central obstruction, the
Wilkins filter and the Luneberg filter 1(t)=a-bJa (Ovt 1 12)-the fully drawn, dashed
and the dashed-dotted curves, respectively. The Luneberg filter maximizes the
Strehl criterion-cf. [6] .

574

M . Novotny
3 .0

20

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1 .0

05

10
09

59

-1 .0

08

57
53
55

-2 .0
-2 .0

51

49
4.

43 4 .1 3 9

35

37

31 30 2 .9 2 .8 27

33

26

25

3 .0

g;

L1.1_11
1 .0

2 .0

1 .0

4 .0

Figure 6 . The Rayleigh criterion in the three-term approximation vR(yi ' , V2) calculated
for two incoherent point objects of equal brightness . The testing curve corresponds
to the free opening with variable relative pupil area p . The exact values of Ov R
are 3 . 832/p'1 2 .

Appendix
The focal diffraction coefficients y k (4rrML), L being an integer, due to the
filters g(t) with the finite Fourier series expansion (m = 0, 1, 2, . . .)
g(t)

= Ig n exp (i2irMmt),
m
1

gm = f g(t/M) exp (- i2aMmt),

0

can be easily evaluated in terms of the Fourier coefficients g m ([1], equation 16)
Y0(47rML) =g- L ,
Yk( A

71,TT

= - ik
gn
n#_L(n+L )k

1 ,2,

(A 1)
....

The Fourier coefficients b n of the Gabor filter transmissivity (4) with one period
M=1 are of the form
b0 = 2i

b_ 1 =b1 = exp (i27re) .

From (A 1) we get then for the diffraction coefficients associated with the Fraunhofer plane L = 0
y0(0 ) -

2,

(2,7r)ryr(0)=- cos21r(e-4I,

r=1,2, . . . .

(A2)

The two point resolution

575

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Before determining the diffraction coefficients of the Fresnel zone plate let us
derive some useful relations holding for a pair of the complementary filters . The
transmissivity g+(t) of the filter which is complementary to the filter g(t) is
defined from the condition that their sum is unity, i .e . the transmissivity of the
free opening o(t)
g(t)+g+(t)=o(t)=l ; te(0,1 > .
As the diffraction coefficients depend linearly on the transmissivity-cf . (2),
the sum of the corresponding diffraction coefficients Yk + yk+ must give the
diffraction coefficients cwk due to the free opening o(t) for any u
Yk(u)+Yk+(u)='uk(u) .
From ([1], equations (43), (48)) we can write for cok(u)

(A 3)

w0(u) = exp( 4 sinc(4),

Wk(U) ()O(u)[fk() ik'4-f(4)]1 k=1,2, . . .,
where f k(u/4) is the truncated Taylor expansion of the function
f (u4)= 4 cot(4),

fk(nl
4 // - 2n n=o
<_k ( -

1)nB2n (u)2n
.
22
(2n)!

For u = 0 it follows from (A 3) :

Yo+(0)=1 -Yo(0),
Yk+(0) = -Yk(0), k=1,2, . . . .

(A 4)

The diffraction coefficients yk(0) of the Fresnel plate (5) can now be determined
in two steps . First, using the property dQk(t)/dt=Qk_1(t) the integration of (2)
for EE(J, J> yields
1
Vk(O)=f C(t) Qk(t)dt=Qk+1( +1)-Qk+l(E-1) .
0
In particular, with the help of Q0(t)=1, Q1(t)=t-2, Q2(t) = t2/2 - t/2 + 1/12
we get
YO(O) = 1, Y1(0)=E/2-1/4,
Y2 (0) = E2/4- E/4+ 3/64 .

(A 5)

Secondly, taking into account that by shifting the Fresnel filter transmissivity
further, we obtain a complementary filter to the above values of the shift E . Thus,
the relations (A 4) can be utilized for the remaining values of E . Inserting
E+2 instead of E in (A 5), i .e . introducing the corresponding value of the shift
for the complementary filter, and changing the sign in accord with (A 4), we get
for EF(O, 4>
Y1(0)
2 E,
Y2(0)_ -E2/4+1/64,

(A 6)

576

The two point resolution

and for E<3/4, 1)

Y1(0) = - E/2+ 1/2,
(0)=_E 2 /4+c/2-l5/64,
Y2
whereas the value of y o (0) remains unchanged y,(0)= 2.

(A 7)

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Thanks are due to Mrs . Z . Kucerova for programming the numerical calculations and Dr . J . Komrska for his permanent interest devoted to the author's
work .
La convergence rapide du developpement en serie de la diffraction de Fresnel decrit
recemment [1] nous permet d'evaluer le maximum central de l'intensite pour la diffraction
au foyer en utilisant uniquement les trois premiers termes . Ceci conduit a une methode
graphique simple pour la determination de la resolution de deux points dans le plan focal
de Fraunhofer pour des filtres ayant des fonctions pupillaires reelles . La methode est
appliquee a des lames zones de Fresnel et Gabor, au filtre de Wilkins et a l'obstruction
centrale .
Die schnelle Konvergenz der kiirzlich entwickelten Reihendarstellung fur Fresnelsche
Beugungsbilder [1] ermoglicht uns die Berechnung des zentralen Intensitatsmaximums
fur das fokale Bild unter Benutzung lediglich der ersten drei Terme . Diese Tatsache
fiihrt zu einer einfachen graphischen Methode zur Bestimmung der Doppelpunkt-Auflosung
in der Fraunhofer-Brennebene fur Filter mit reellen Pupillenfunktionen . Die Methode
ist gepriift fur Fresnel- and Gabor-Zonenplatten, das Wilkins-Filter and die zentrale
Abschattung .

REFERENCES

NovOTNY, M ., 1977, Optica Acta, 24, 551 .

JACQUINOT, P ., and ROIZEN-DOSSIER, B ., 1964, Progress in Optics, Vol . 3, edited by
E . Wolf (Amsterdam : North-Holland Publishing Co .) .
NOVOTN', M ., 1973, Optica Acta, 20, 217.
BORN, M ., and WOLF, E ., 1965, Principles of Optics (Oxford : Pergamon Press).
WILKINS, J . E ., 1950, Y. opt . Soc . Am ., 40, 222 .
NOVOTNf, M ., 1977, Optica Acta, 24, 577 .