Horse Encyclopedia

Horse
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Horse (disambiguation).

The horse (Equus ferus caballus)[2][3] is one of two extant
subspecies of Equus ferus. It is an odd-toed ungulate mammal
belonging to the taxonomic family Equidae. The horse has evolved
over the past 45 to 55 million years from a small multi-toed
creature, Hyracotherium, into the large, single-toed animal of today.
Humans began to domesticate horses around 4000 BC, and their
domestication is believed to have been widespread by 3000 BC.
Horses in the subspecies caballus are domesticated, although some
domesticated populations live in the wild as feral horses. These
feral populations are not true wild horses, as this term is used to
describe horses that have never been domesticated, such as the
endangered Przewalski's horse, a separate subspecies, and the only
remaining true wild horse. There is an extensive, specialized
vocabulary used to describe equine-related concepts, covering
everything from anatomy to life stages, size, colors, markings,
breeds, locomotion, and behavior.
Horses' anatomy enables them to make use of speed to escape
predators and they have a well-developed sense of balance and a
strong fight-or-flight response. Related to this need to flee from
predators in the wild is an unusual trait: horses are able to sleep
both standing up and lying down. Female horses, called mares,
carry their young for approximately 11 months, and a young horse,
called a foal, can stand and run shortly following birth. Most
domesticated horses begin training under saddle or in harness
between the ages of two and four. They reach full adult
development by age five, and have an average lifespan of between
25 and 30 years.
Horse breeds are loosely divided into three categories based on
general temperament: spirited "hot bloods" with speed and
endurance; "cold bloods", such as draft horses and some ponies,
suitable for slow, heavy work; and "warmbloods", developed from
crosses between hot bloods and cold bloods, often focusing on
creating breeds for specific riding purposes, particularly in Europe.
There are more than 300 breeds of horse in the world today,
developed for many different uses.
Horse
Conservation status
Domesticated
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Animalia
Phylum:
Chordata
Class:
Mammalia
Order:
Perissodactyla
Family:
Equidae
Genus:
Equus
Species:
E. ferus
Subspecies:
E. f. caballus
Trinomial name
Equus ferus caballus
Linnaeus, 1758[1]
Synonyms
at least 48 published[2]
Horses and humans interact in a wide variety of sport competitions

and non-competitive recreational pursuits, as well as in working activities such as police work, agriculture,
entertainment, and therapy. Horses were historically used in warfare, from which a wide variety of riding and
driving techniques developed, using many different styles of equipment and methods of control. Many products
are derived from horses, including meat, milk, hide, hair, bone, and pharmaceuticals extracted from the urine of
pregnant mares. Humans provide domesticated horses with food, water and shelter, as well as attention from
specialists such as veterinarians and farriers.
Contents
1 Biology
1.1 Lifespan and life stages
1.2 Size and measurement
1.2.1 Ponies
1.3 Genetics
1.4 Colors and markings
1.5 Reproduction and development
1.6 Anatomy
1.6.1 Skeletal system
1.6.2 Hooves
1.6.3 Teeth
1.6.4 Digestion
1.6.5 Senses
1.7 Movement
1.8 Behavior
1.8.1 Intelligence and learning
1.8.2 Temperament
1.8.3 Sleep patterns
2 Taxonomy and evolution
2.1 Wild species surviving into modern times
2.2 Other modern equids
3 Domestication
3.1 Feral populations
3.2 Breeds
4 Interaction with humans
4.1 Sport
4.2 Work
4.3 Entertainment and culture
4.4 Therapeutic use
4.5 Warfare
4.6 Products
4.7 Care
5 See also
6 References
7 Sources
8 Further reading
9 External links
Biology
Main article: Equine anatomy
Specific terms and specialized language are used to
describe equine anatomy, different life stages, colors
and breeds.
Lifespan and life stages

Depending on breed, management and environment,
the modern domestic horse has a life expectancy of 25
to 30 years.[6] Uncommonly, a few animals live into
their 40s and, occasionally, beyond.[7] The oldest
verifiable record was "Old Billy", a 19th-century horse
that lived to the age of 62.[6] In modern times, Sugar
Puff, who had been listed in Guinness World Records
as the world's oldest living pony, died in 2007 at age
56.[8]
Points of a horse[4][5]
Regardless of a horse or pony's actual birth date, for most competition purposes a year is added to its age each
January 1 of each year in the Northern Hemisphere[6][9] and each August 1 in the Southern Hemisphere.[10] The
exception is in endurance riding, where the minimum age to compete is based on the animal's actual calendar
age.[11]
The following terminology is used to describe horses of various ages:
Colt: A male horse under the age of four.[12] A common terminology error is to call any young horse a
"colt", when the term actually only refers to young male horses.[13]
Filly: A female horse under the age of four.[14]
Foal: A horse of either sex less than one year old. A nursing foal is sometimes called a suckling and a foal
that has been weaned is called a weanling.[14] Most domesticated foals are weaned at five to seven
months of age, although foals can be weaned at four months with no adverse physical effects.[15]
Gelding: A castrated male horse of any age.[14]
Mare: A female horse four years old and older.[16]
Stallion: A non-castrated male horse four years old and older.[17] The term "horse" is sometimes used
colloquially to refer specifically to a stallion.[18]
Yearling: A horse of either sex that is between one and two years old.[19]
In horse racing, these definitions may differ: For example, in the British Isles, Thoroughbred horse racing
defines colts and fillies as less than five years old.[20] However, Australian Thoroughbred racing defines colts
and fillies as less than four years old.[21]
Size and measurement

The height of horses is usually measured at the highest point of the withers, where the neck meets the back.[22]
This point is used because it is a stable point of the anatomy, unlike the head or neck, which move up and down
in relation to the body of the horse.
In English-speaking countries, the height of horses is often stated in units of hands and inches: one hand is equal
to 4 inches (101.6 mm). The height is expressed as the number of full hands, followed by a point, then the
number of additional inches, and ending with the abbreviation "h" or "hh" (for "hands high"). Thus, a horse
described as "15.2 h" is 15 hands plus 2 inches, for a total of 62 inches (157.5 cm) in height.[23]
The size of horses varies by breed, but also is influenced by nutrition. Light riding horses usually range in
height from 14 to 16 hands (56 to 64 inches, 142 to 163 cm) and can weigh from 380 to 550 kilograms (840 to
1,210 lb).[24] Larger riding horses usually start at about 15.2 hands (62 inches, 157 cm) and often are as tall as
17 hands (68 inches, 173 cm), weighing from 500 to 600 kilograms (1,100 to 1,320 lb).[25] Heavy or draft
horses are usually at least 16 hands (64 inches, 163 cm) high and can be as tall as 18 hands (72 inches, 183 cm)
high. They can weigh from about 700 to 1,000 kilograms (1,540 to 2,200 lb).[26]
The largest horse in recorded history was probably a Shire horse named Mammoth, who was born in 1848. He
stood 21.212 hands (86.5 inches, 220 cm) high and his peak weight was estimated at 1,500 kilograms
(3,300 lb).[27] The current record holder for the world's smallest horse is Thumbelina, a fully mature miniature
horse affected by dwarfism. She is 17 in (43 cm) tall and weighs 57 lb (26 kg).[28]
Ponies
Main article: Pony
Ponies are taxonomically the same animals as horses. The
distinction between a horse and pony is commonly drawn
on the basis of height, especially for competition purposes.
However, height alone is not dispositive; the difference
between horses and ponies may also include aspects of
phenotype, including conformation and temperament.
The traditional standard for height of a horse or a pony at
maturity is 14.2 hands (58 inches, 147 cm). An animal
14.2 h or over is usually considered to be a horse and one
Size varies greatly among horse breeds, as with this

full-sized horse and a miniature horse.
less than 14.2 h a pony,[29] but there are many exceptions

to the traditional standard. In Australia, ponies are
considered to be those under 14 hands (56 inches,
142 cm),[30] For competition in the Western division of
the United States Equestrian Federation, the cutoff is
14.1 hands (57 inches, 145 cm)[31] The International

Federation for Equestrian Sports, the world governing body for horse sport, uses metric measurements and
defines a pony as being any horse measuring less than 148 centimetres (58.27 in) at the withers without shoes,
which is just over 14.2 h, and 149 centimetres (58.66 in), or just over 14.2 h, with shoes.[32]
Height is not the sole criterion for distinguishing horses from ponies. Breed registries for horses that typically
produce individuals both under and over 14.2 h consider all animals of that breed to be horses regardless of their
height.[33] Conversely, some pony breeds may have features in common with horses, and individual animals
may occasionally mature at over 14.2 h, but are still considered to be ponies.[34]
Ponies often exhibit thicker manes, tails, and overall coat. They also have proportionally shorter legs, wider
barrels, heavier bone, shorter and thicker necks, and short heads with broad foreheads. They may have calmer
temperaments than horses and also a high level of equine intelligence that may or may not be used to cooperate
with human handlers.[29] Small size, by itself, is not an exclusive determinant. For example, the Shetland pony
which averages 10 hands (40 inches, 102 cm), is considered a pony.[29] Conversely, breeds such as the Falabella
and other miniature horses, which can be no taller than 30 inches (76 cm), are classified by their registries as
very small horses, not ponies.[35]
Genetics
Horses have 64 chromosomes.[36] The horse genome was sequenced in 2007. It contains 2.7 billion DNA base
pairs,[37] which is larger than the dog genome, but smaller than the human genome or the bovine genome.[38]
The map is available to researchers.[39]
Colors and markings

Main articles: Equine coat color, Equine coat color
genetics and Horse markings
Horses exhibit a diverse array of coat colors and
distinctive markings, described by a specialized
vocabulary. Often, a horse is classified first by its coat
color, before breed or sex.[40] Horses of the same color
may be distinguished from one another by white
markings,[41] which, along with various spotting patterns,
are inherited separately from coat color.[42]
Many genes that create horse coat colors and patterns have
been identified. Current genetic tests can identify at least
Bay (left) and chestnut (sometimes called "sorrel") are

two of the most common coat colors, seen in almost
all breeds.
13 different alleles influencing coat color,[43] and research

continues to discover new genes linked to specific traits.
The basic coat colors of chestnut and black are determined by the gene controlled by the Melanocortin 1
receptor,[44] also known as the "extension gene" or "red factor,"[43] as its recessive form is "red" (chestnut) and
its dominant form is black.[45] Additional genes control suppression of black color to point coloration that
results in a bay, spotting patterns such as pinto or leopard, dilution genes such as palomino or dun, as well as
graying, and all the other factors that create the many possible coat colors found in horses.[43]
Horses which have a white coat color are often mislabeled; a horse that looks "white" is usually a middle-aged
or older gray. Grays are born a darker shade, get lighter as they age, but usually keep black skin underneath
their white hair coat (with the exception of pink skin under white markings). The only horses properly called
white are born with a predominantly white hair coat and pink skin, a fairly rare occurrence.[45] Different and
unrelated genetic factors can produce white coat colors in horses, including several different alleles of dominant
white and the sabino-1 gene.[46] However, there are no "albino" horses, defined as having both pink skin and red
eyes.[47]
Reproduction and development

Main article: Horse breeding
Gestation lasts approximately 340 days, with an average range 320370 days,[48] and usually results in one foal;
twins are rare.[49] Horses are a precocial species, and foals are capable of standing and running within a short
time following birth.[50] Foals are usually born in the spring. The estrous cycle of a mare occurs roughly every
1922 days and occurs from early spring into autumn. Most mares enter an anestrus period during the winter
and thus do not cycle in this period.[51] Foals are generally weaned from their mothers between four and six
months of age.[52]
Horses, particularly colts, sometimes are physically capable of reproduction at about 18 months, but
domesticated horses are rarely allowed to breed before the age of three, especially females.[53] Horses four
years old are considered mature, although the skeleton normally continues to develop until the age of six;
maturation also depends on the horse's size, breed, sex, and quality of care. Larger horses have larger bones;
therefore, not only do the bones take longer to form bone tissue, but the epiphyseal plates are larger and take
longer to convert from cartilage to bone. These plates convert after the other parts of the bones, and are crucial
to development.[54]
Depending on maturity, breed, and work expected, horses are usually put under saddle and trained to be ridden
between the ages of two and four.[55] Although Thoroughbred race horses are put on the track as young as the
age of two in some countries,[56] horses specifically bred for sports such as dressage are generally not put under
saddle until they are three or four years old, because their bones and muscles are not solidly developed.[57] For
endurance riding competition, horses are not deemed mature enough to compete until they are a full 60 calendar
months (five years) old.[11]
Anatomy
Main articles: Equine anatomy, Muscular system of the horse, Respiratory system of the horse and
Circulatory system of the horse
Skeletal system
Main article: Skeletal system of the horse
The horse skeleton averages 205 bones.[58] A significant
difference between the horse skeleton and that of a human
is the lack of a collarbonethe horse's forelimbs are
attached to the spinal column by a powerful set of
muscles, tendons, and ligaments that attach the shoulder
blade to the torso. The horse's legs and hooves are also
unique structures. Their leg bones are proportioned
differently from those of a human. For example, the body
part that is called a horse's "knee" is actually made up of
the carpal bones that correspond to the human wrist.
Similarly, the hock contains bones equivalent to those in
the human ankle and heel. The lower leg bones of a horse
correspond to the bones of the human hand or foot, and
the fetlock (incorrectly called the "ankle") is actually the
proximal sesamoid bones between the cannon bones (a
The skeletal system of a modern horse
single equivalent to the human metacarpal or metatarsal bones) and the proximal phalanges, located where one
finds the "knuckles" of a human. A horse also has no muscles in its legs below the knees and hocks, only skin,
hair, bone, tendons, ligaments, cartilage, and the assorted specialized tissues that make up the hoof.[59]
Hooves
Main articles: Horse hoof, Horseshoe and Farrier
The critical importance of the feet and legs is summed up by the traditional adage, "no foot, no horse".[60] The
horse hoof begins with the distal phalanges, the equivalent of the human fingertip or tip of the toe, surrounded
by cartilage and other specialized, blood-rich soft tissues such as the laminae. The exterior hoof wall and horn
of the sole is made of keratin, the same material as a human fingernail.[61] The end result is that a horse,
weighing on average 500 kilograms (1,100 lb),[62] travels on the same bones as would a human on tiptoe.[63]
For the protection of the hoof under certain conditions, some horses have horseshoes placed on their feet by a
professional farrier. The hoof continually grows, and in most domesticated horses needs to be trimmed (and
horseshoes reset, if used) every five to eight weeks,[64] though the hooves of horses in the wild wear down and
regrow at a rate suitable for their terrain.
Teeth
Main article: Horse teeth
Horses are adapted to grazing. In an adult horse, there are 12 incisors at the front of the mouth, adapted to biting
off the grass or other vegetation. There are 24 teeth adapted for chewing, the premolars and molars, at the back
of the mouth. Stallions and geldings have four additional teeth just behind the incisors, a type of canine teeth
called "tushes". Some horses, both male and female, will also develop one to four very small vestigial teeth in
front of the molars, known as "wolf" teeth, which are generally removed because they can interfere with the bit.
There is an empty interdental space between the incisors and the molars where the bit rests directly on the gums,
or "bars" of the horse's mouth when the horse is bridled.[65]
An estimate of a horse's age can be made from looking at its teeth. The teeth continue to erupt throughout life
and are worn down by grazing. Therefore, the incisors show changes as the horse ages; they develop a distinct
wear pattern, changes in tooth shape, and changes in the angle at which the chewing surfaces meet. This allows
a very rough estimate of a horse's age, although diet and veterinary care can also affect the rate of tooth wear.[6]
Digestion
Main articles: Equine digestive system and Equine nutrition
Horses are herbivores with a digestive system adapted to a forage diet of grasses and other plant material,
consumed steadily throughout the day. Therefore, compared to humans, they have a relatively small stomach
but very long intestines to facilitate a steady flow of nutrients. A 450-kilogram (990 lb) horse will eat 7 to 11
kilograms (15 to 24 lb) of food per day and, under normal use, drink 38 to 45 litres (8.4 to 9.9 imp gal; 10 to
12 US gal) of water. Horses are not ruminants, they have only one stomach, like humans, but unlike humans,
they can utilize cellulose, a major component of grass. Horses are hindgut fermenters, Cellulose fermentation by
symbiotic bacteria occurs in the cecum, or "water gut", which food goes through before reaching the large
intestine. Horses cannot vomit, so digestion problems can quickly cause colic, a leading cause of death.[66]
Senses
See also: Equine vision
The horses' senses are based on their status as prey animals, where they
must be aware of their surroundings at all times.[67] They have the
largest eyes of any land mammal,[68] and are lateral-eyed, meaning that
their eyes are positioned on the sides of their heads.[69] This means that
horses have a range of vision of more than 350, with approximately 65
of this being binocular vision and the remaining 285 monocular
A horse's eye
vision.[68] Horses have excellent day and night vision, but they have
two-color, or dichromatic vision; their color vision is somewhat like redgreen color blindness in humans, where certain colors, especially red and related colors, appear as a shade of
green.[70]
Their sense of smell, while much better than that of humans, is not quite as good as that of a dog. It is believed
to play a key role in the social interactions of horses as well as detecting other key scents in the environment.
Horses have two olfactory centers. The first system is in the nostrils and nasal cavity, which analyze a wide
range of odors. The second, located under the nasal cavity, are the Vomeronasal organs, also called Jacobson's
organs. These have a separate nerve pathway to the brain and appear to primarily analyze pheromones.[71]
A horse's hearing is good,[67] and the pinna of each ear can rotate up to 180, giving the potential for 360
hearing without having to move the head.[72] Noise impacts the behavior of horses and certain kinds of noise
may contribute to stress: A 2013 study in the UK indicated that stabled horses were calmest in a quiet setting, or
if listening to country or classical music, but displayed signs of nervousness when listening to jazz or rock
music. This study also recommended keeping music under a volume of 21 decibels.[73] An Australian study
found that stabled racehorses listening to talk radio had a higher rate of gastric ulcers than horses listening to
music, and racehorses stabled where a radio was played had a higher overall rate of ulceration than horses
stabled where there was no radio playing.[74]
Horses have a great sense of balance, due partly to their ability to feel their footing and partly to highly
developed proprioceptionthe unconscious sense of where the body and limbs are at all times.[75] A horse's
sense of touch is well developed. The most sensitive areas are around the eyes, ears, and nose.[76] Horses are
able to sense contact as subtle as an insect landing anywhere on the body.[77]
Horses have an advanced sense of taste, which allows them to sort through fodder and choose what they would
most like to eat,[78] and their prehensile lips can easily sort even small grains. Horses generally will not eat
poisonous plants, however, there are exceptions; horses will occasionally eat toxic amounts of poisonous plants
even when there is adequate healthy food.[79]
Movement
Main articles: Horse gait, Trot (horse gait), Canter and
Ambling
All horses move naturally with four basic gaits: the fourbeat walk, which averages 6.4 kilometres per hour
(4.0 mph); the two-beat trot or jog at 13 to 19 kilometres per
hour (8.1 to 11.8 mph) (faster for harness racing horses); the
canter or lope, a three-beat gait that is 19 to 24 kilometres
per hour (12 to 15 mph); and the gallop.[80] The gallop
averages 40 to 48 kilometres per hour (25 to 30 mph),[81]
but the world record for a horse galloping over a short,
The gallop
sprint distance is 88 kilometres per hour (55 mph).[82]

Besides these basic gaits, some horses perform a two-beat
pace, instead of the trot.[83] There also are several four-beat "ambling" gaits that are approximately the speed of
a trot or pace, though smoother to ride. These include the lateral rack, running walk, and tlt as well as the
diagonal fox trot.[84] Ambling gaits are often genetic in some breeds, known collectively as gaited horses.[85]
Often, gaited horses replace the trot with one of the ambling gaits.[86]
Behavior
Main articles: Horse behavior and Stable vices
Horses are prey animals with a strong fight-or-flight response. Their first reaction to threat is to startle and
usually flee, although they will stand their ground and defend themselves when flight is impossible or if their
young are threatened.[87] They also tend to be curious; when startled, they will often hesitate an instant to
ascertain the cause of their fright, and may not always flee from something that they perceive as nonthreatening. Most light horse riding breeds were developed for speed, agility, alertness and endurance; natural
qualities that extend from their wild ancestors. However, through selective breeding, some breeds of horses are
quite docile, particularly certain draft horses.[88]
Horses are herd animals, with a clear hierarchy of rank, led by a dominant individual, usually a mare. They are
also social creatures that are able to form companionship attachments to their own species and to other animals,
including humans. They communicate in various ways, including vocalizations such as nickering or whinnying,
mutual grooming, and body language. Many horses will become difficult to manage if they are isolated, but
with training, horses can learn to accept a human as a companion, and thus be comfortable away from other
horses.[89] However, when confined with insufficient companionship, exercise, or stimulation, individuals may
develop stable vices, an assortment of bad habits, mostly stereotypies of psychological origin, that include wood
chewing, wall kicking, "weaving" (rocking back and forth), and other problems.[90]
Intelligence and learning
Studies have indicated that horses perform a number of cognitive tasks on a daily basis, meeting mental
challenges that include food procurement and identification of individuals within a social system. They also
have good spatial discrimination abilities.[91] Studies have assessed equine intelligence in areas such as problem
solving, speed of learning, and memory. Horses excel at simple learning, but also are able to use more advanced
cognitive abilities that involve categorization and concept learning. They can learn using habituation,
desensitization, classical conditioning, and operant conditioning, and positive and negative reinforcement.[91]
One study has indicated that horses can differentiate between "more or less" if the quantity involved is less than
four.[92]
Domesticated horses may face greater mental challenges than wild horses, because they live in artificial
environments that prevent instinctive behavior whilst also learning tasks that are not natural.[91] Horses are
animals of habit that respond well to regimentation, and respond best when the same routines and techniques are
used consistently. One trainer believes that "intelligent" horses are reflections of intelligent trainers who
effectively use response conditioning techniques and positive reinforcement to train in the style that best fits
with an individual animal's natural inclinations.[93]
Temperament
Main articles: Draft horse, Warmblood and Oriental horse
Horses are mammals, and as such are warm-blooded, or endothermic creatures, as opposed to cold-blooded, or
poikilothermic animals. However, these words have developed a separate meaning in the context of equine
terminology, used to describe temperament, not body temperature. For example, the "hot-bloods", such as many
race horses, exhibit more sensitivity and energy,[94] while the "cold-bloods", such as most draft breeds, are
quieter and calmer.[95] Sometimes "hot-bloods" are classified as "light horses" or "riding horses",[96] with the
"cold-bloods" classified as "draft horses" or "work horses".[97]
"Hot blooded" breeds include "oriental horses" such as
the Akhal-Teke, Arabian horse, Barb and now-extinct
Turkoman horse, as well as the Thoroughbred, a breed
developed in England from the older oriental
breeds.[94] Hot bloods tend to be spirited, bold, and
learn quickly. They are bred for agility and speed.[98]
They tend to be physically refinedthin-skinned, slim,
and long-legged.[99] The original oriental breeds were
brought to Europe from the Middle East and North
Africa when European breeders wished to infuse these
traits into racing and light cavalry horses.[100][101]
Muscular, heavy draft horses are known as "cold
bloods", as they are bred not only for strength, but also
to have the calm, patient temperament needed to pull a
plow or a heavy carriage full of people.[95] They are
sometimes nicknamed "gentle giants".[102] Well-known
Illustration of assorted breeds; slim, light hotbloods,

medium-sized warmbloods and draft and pony-type
coldblood breeds
draft breeds include the Belgian and the Clydesdale.[102] Some, like the Percheron, are lighter and livelier,
developed to pull carriages or to plow large fields in drier climates.[103] Others, such as the Shire, are slower
and more powerful, bred to plow fields with heavy, clay-based soils.[104] The cold-blooded group also includes
some pony breeds.[105]
"Warmblood" breeds, such as the Trakehner or Hanoverian, developed when European carriage and war horses
were crossed with Arabians or Thoroughbreds, producing a riding horse with more refinement than a draft
horse, but greater size and milder temperament than a lighter breed.[106] Certain pony breeds with warmblood
characteristics have been developed for smaller riders.[107] Warmbloods are considered a "light horse" or
"riding horse".[96]
Today, the term "Warmblood" refers to a specific subset of sport horse breeds that are used for competition in
dressage and show jumping.[108] Strictly speaking, the term "warm blood" refers to any cross between coldblooded and hot-blooded breeds.[109] Examples include breeds such as the Irish Draught or the Cleveland Bay.
The term was once used to refer to breeds of light riding horse other than Thoroughbreds or Arabians, such as
the Morgan horse.[98]
Sleep patterns
See also: Horse sleep patterns and Sleep in non-humans
Horses are able to sleep both standing up and lying down. In an
adaptation from life in the wild, horses are able to enter light sleep by
using a "stay apparatus" in their legs, allowing them to doze without
collapsing.[110] Horses sleep better when in groups because some
animals will sleep while others stand guard to watch for predators. A
horse kept alone will not sleep well because its instincts are to keep a
constant eye out for danger.[111]
When horses lie down to sleep, others
in the herd remain standing, awake or
in a light doze, keeping watch.
Unlike humans, horses do not sleep in a solid, unbroken period of time,

but take many short periods of rest. Horses spend four to fifteen hours a
day in standing rest, and from a few minutes to several hours lying
down. Total sleep time in a 24-hour period may range from several
minutes to a couple of hours,[111] mostly in short intervals of about 15 minutes each.[112] The average sleep
time of a domestic horse is said to be 2.9 hours per day.[113]
Horses must lie down to reach REM sleep. They only have to lie down for an hour or two every few days to
meet their minimum REM sleep requirements.[111] However, if a horse is never allowed to lie down, after
several days it will become sleep-deprived, and in rare cases may suddenly collapse as it involuntarily slips into
REM sleep while still standing.[114] This condition differs from narcolepsy, although horses may also suffer
from that disorder.[115]
Taxonomy and evolution
Main articles: Evolution of the horse, Equus (genus) and Equidae

The horse adapted to survive in areas of wide-open
terrain with sparse vegetation, surviving in an
ecosystem where other large grazing animals,
especially ruminants, could not.[116] Horses and
other equids are odd-toed ungulates of the order
Perissodactyla, a group of mammals that was
dominant during the Tertiary period. In the past, this
order contained 14 families, but only three
Equidae (the horse and related species), the tapir,
and the rhinoceroshave survived to the present
day.[117]
The earliest known member of the Equidae family
was the Hyracotherium, which lived between 45
and 55 million years ago, during the Eocene period.
It had 4 toes on each front foot, and 3 toes on each
foot.[118]
back
The extra toe on the front feet soon
disappeared with the Mesohippus, which lived 32 to
From left to right: Size development, biometrical changes in

the cranium, reduction of toes (left forefoot)
37 million years ago.[119] Over time, the extra side

toes shrank in size until they vanished. All that remains of them in modern horses is a set of small vestigial
bones on the leg below the knee,[120] known informally as splint bones.[121] Their legs also lengthened as their
toes disappeared until they were a hooved animal capable of running at great speed.[120] By about 5 million
years ago, the modern Equus had evolved.[122] Equid teeth also evolved from browsing on soft, tropical plants
to adapt to browsing of drier plant material, then to grazing of tougher plains grasses. Thus proto-horses
changed from leaf-eating forest-dwellers to grass-eating inhabitants of semi-arid regions worldwide, including
the steppes of Eurasia and the Great Plains of North America.
By about 15,000 years ago, Equus ferus was a widespread holarctic species. Horse bones from this time period,
the late Pleistocene, are found in Europe, Eurasia, Beringia, and North America.[123] Yet between 10,000 and
7,600 years ago, the horse became extinct in North America and rare elsewhere.[124][125][126] The reasons for
this extinction are not fully known, but one theory notes that extinction in North America paralleled human
arrival.[127] Another theory points to climate change, noting that approximately 12,500 years ago, the grasses
characteristic of a steppe ecosystem gave way to shrub tundra, which was covered with unpalatable plants.[128]
Wild species surviving into modern times

Main article: Wild horse
A truly wild horse is a species or subspecies with no ancestors that were ever domesticated. Therefore, most
"wild" horses today are actually feral horses, animals that escaped or were turned loose from domestic herds
and the descendants of those animals.[129] Only two never-domesticated subspecies, the Tarpan and the
Przewalski's Horse, survived into recorded history and only the latter survives today.
The Przewalski's horse (Equus ferus przewalskii), named after the Russian explorer Nikolai Przhevalsky, is a
rare Asian animal. It is also known as the Mongolian wild horse; Mongolian people know it as the taki, and the
Kyrgyz people call it a kirtag. The subspecies was presumed extinct in the wild between 1969 and 1992, while a
small breeding population survived in zoos around the world. In 1992, it was reestablished in the wild due to the
conservation efforts of numerous zoos.[130] Today, a small wild breeding population exists in
Mongolia.[131][132] There are additional animals still maintained at zoos throughout the world.
The tarpan or European wild horse (Equus ferus ferus) was found in
Europe and much of Asia. It survived into the historical era, but became
extinct in 1909, when the last captive died in a Russian zoo.[133] Thus,
the genetic line was lost. Attempts have been made to recreate the
tarpan,[133][134][135] which resulted in horses with outward physical
similarities, but nonetheless descended from domesticated ancestors and
not true wild horses.
Periodically, populations of horses in isolated areas are speculated to be
relict populations of wild horses, but generally have been proven to be
feral or domestic. For example, the Riwoche horse of Tibet was
A small herd of Przewalski's Horses
proposed as such,[132] but testing did not reveal genetic differences from domesticated horses.[136] Similarly,
the Sorraia of Portugal was proposed as a direct descendant of the Tarpan based on shared
characteristics,[137][138] but genetic studies have shown that the Sorraia is more closely related to other horse
breeds and that the outward similarity is an unreliable measure of relatedness.[137][139]
Other modern equids

Main article: Equus (genus)
Besides the horse, there are seven other species of genus Equus in the Equidae family. These are the ass or
donkey, Equus asinus; the mountain zebra, Equus zebra; plains zebra, Equus quagga; Grvy's zebra, Equus
grevyi; the kiang, Equus kiang; and the onager, Equus hemionus.[140]
Horses can crossbreed with other members of their genus. The most common hybrid is the mule, a cross
between a "jack" (male donkey) and a mare. A related hybrid, a hinny, is a cross between a stallion and a jenny
(female donkey).[141] Other hybrids include the zorse, a cross between a zebra and a horse.[142] With rare
exceptions, most hybrids are sterile and cannot reproduce.[143]
Domestication
Main article: Domestication of the horse
Domestication of the horse most likely took place in central Asia prior to 3500 BC. Two major sources of
information are used to determine where and when the horse was first domesticated and how the domesticated
horse spread around the world. The first source is based on palaeological and archaeological discoveries; the
second source is a comparison of DNA obtained from modern horses to that from bones and teeth of ancient
horse remains.
The earliest archaeological evidence for the domestication of the horse comes from sites in Ukraine and
Kazakhstan, dating to approximately 35004000 BC.[144][145][146] By 3000 BC, the horse was completely
domesticated and by 2000 BC there was a sharp increase in the number of horse bones found in human
settlements in northwestern Europe, indicating the spread of domesticated horses throughout the continent.[147]
The most recent, but most irrefutable evidence of domestication comes
from sites where horse remains were interred with chariots in graves of
the Sintashta and Petrovka cultures c. 2100 BC.[148]
Domestication is also studied by using the genetic material of presentday horses and comparing it with the genetic material present in the
bones and teeth of horse remains found in archaeological and
palaeological excavations. The variation in the genetic material shows
that very few wild stallions contributed to the domestic horse,[149][150]
herds.[139][151][152]
Bhimbetka rock painting showing

man riding on horse, India
while many mares were part of early domesticated

This is reflected in the difference in genetic variation between the DNA
that is passed on along the paternal, or sire line (Y-chromosome) versus
that passed on along the maternal, or dam line (mitochondrial DNA). There are very low levels of Y-
chromosome variability,[149][150] but a great deal of genetic variation in mitochondrial DNA.[139][151][152]

There is also regional variation in mitochondrial DNA due to the inclusion of wild mares in domestic
herds.[139][151][152][153] Another characteristic of domestication is an increase in coat color variation.[154] In
horses, this increased dramatically between 5000 and 3000 BC.[155]
Before the availability of DNA techniques to resolve the questions related to the domestication of the horse,
various hypotheses were proposed. One classification was based on body types and conformation, suggesting
the presence of four basic prototypes that had adapted to their environment prior to domestication.[105] Another
hypothesis held that the four prototypes originated from a single wild species and that all different body types
were entirely a result of selective breeding after domestication.[156] However, the lack of a detectable
substructure in the horse has resulted in a rejection of both hypotheses.
Feral populations
Main article: Feral horse
Feral horses are born and live in the wild, but are descended from domesticated animals.[129] Many populations
of feral horses exist throughout the world.[157][158] Studies of feral herds have provided useful insights into the
behavior of prehistoric horses,[159] as well as greater understanding of the instincts and behaviors that drive
horses that live in domesticated conditions.[160]
There are also semi-feral horses in many parts of the world, such as Dartmoor and the New Forest in the UK,
where the animals are all privately owned but live for significant amounts of time in "wild" conditions on
undeveloped, often public, lands. Owners of such animals often pay a fee for grazing rights.[161][162]
Breeds
Main articles: Horse breed, List of horse breeds and Horse breeding
The concept of purebred bloodstock and a controlled, written breed registry has come to be particularly
significant and important in modern times. Sometimes purebred horses are incorrectly or inaccurately called
"thoroughbreds". Thoroughbred is a specific breed of horse, while a "purebred" is a horse (or any other animal)
with a defined pedigree recognized by a breed registry.[163] Horse breeds are groups of horses with distinctive
characteristics that are transmitted consistently to their offspring, such as conformation, color, performance
ability, or disposition. These inherited traits result from a combination of natural crosses and artificial selection
methods. Horses have been selectively bred since their domestication. An early example of people who
practiced selective horse breeding were the Bedouin, who had a reputation for careful practices, keeping
extensive pedigrees of their Arabian horses and placing great value upon pure bloodlines.[164] These pedigrees
were originally transmitted via an oral tradition.[165] In the 14th century, Carthusian monks of southern Spain
kept meticulous pedigrees of bloodstock lineages still found today in the Andalusian horse.[166]
Breeds developed due to a need for "form to function", the necessity to develop certain characteristics in order
to perform a particular type of work.[167] Thus, a powerful but refined breed such as the Andalusian developed
as riding horses with an aptitude for dressage.[167] Heavy draft horses developed out of a need to perform
demanding farm work and pull heavy wagons.[168] Other horse breeds developed specifically for light
agricultural work, carriage and road work, various sport disciplines, or simply as pets.[169] Some breeds
developed through centuries of crossing other breeds, while others descended from a single foundation sire, or
other limited or restricted foundation bloodstock. One of the earliest formal registries was General Stud Book
for Thoroughbreds, which began in 1791 and traced back to the foundation bloodstock for the breed.[170] There
are more than 300 horse breeds in the world today.[171]
Interaction with humans

Worldwide, horses play a role within human cultures and have done
so for millennia. Horses are used for leisure activities, sports, and
working purposes. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
estimates that in 2008, there were almost 59,000,000 horses in the
world, with around 33,500,000 in the Americas, 13,800,000 in Asia
and 6,300,000 in Europe and smaller portions in Africa and
Oceania. There are estimated to be 9,500,000 horses in the United
States alone.[172] The American Horse Council estimates that horserelated activities have a direct impact on the economy of the United
States of over $39 billion, and when indirect spending is
billion.[173]
Equine hospital in the United Kingdom
considered, the impact is over $102

In a 2004 "poll"
conducted by Animal Planet, more than 50,000 viewers from 73
countries voted for the horse as the world's 4th favorite animal.[174]
Communication between human and horse is paramount in any equestrian activity;[175] to aid this process
horses are usually ridden with a saddle on their backs to assist the rider with balance and positioning, and a
bridle or related headgear to assist the rider in maintaining control.[176] Sometimes horses are ridden without a
saddle,[177] and occasionally, horses are trained to perform without a bridle or other headgear.[178] Many horses
are also driven, which requires a harness, bridle, and some type of vehicle.[179]
Sport
Main articles: Equestrianism, Horse racing, Horse training
and Horse tack
Historically, equestrians honed their skills through games and
races. Equestrian sports provided entertainment for crowds and
honed the excellent horsemanship that was needed in battle. Many
sports, such as dressage, eventing and show jumping, have origins
in military training, which were focused on control and balance of
both horse and rider. Other sports, such as rodeo, developed from
practical skills such as those needed on working ranches and
stations. Sport hunting from horseback evolved from earlier
practical hunting techniques.[175] Horse racing of all types
A horse and rider in dressage competition at
evolved from impromptu competitions between riders or drivers.
the Olympics
All forms of competition, requiring demanding and specialized
skills from both horse and rider, resulted in the systematic
development of specialized breeds and equipment for each sport. The popularity of equestrian sports through
the centuries has resulted in the preservation of skills that would otherwise have disappeared after horses
stopped being used in combat.[175]
Horses are trained to be ridden or driven in a variety of sporting competitions. Examples include show jumping,
dressage, three-day eventing, competitive driving, endurance riding, gymkhana, rodeos, and fox hunting.[180]
Horse shows, which have their origins in medieval European fairs, are held around the world. They host a huge
range of classes, covering all of the mounted and harness disciplines, as well as "In-hand" classes where the
horses are led, rather than ridden, to be evaluated on their conformation. The method of judging varies with the
discipline, but winning usually depends on style and ability of both horse and rider.[181] Sports such as polo do
not judge the horse itself, but rather use the horse as a partner for human competitors as a necessary part of the
game. Although the horse requires specialized training to participate, the details of its performance are not
judged, only the result of the rider's actionsbe it getting a ball through a goal or some other task.[182]
Examples of these sports of partnership between human and horse include jousting, in which the main goal is
for one rider to unseat the other,[183] and buzkashi, a team game played throughout Central Asia, the aim being
to capture a goat carcass while on horseback.[182]
Horse racing is an equestrian sport and major international industry, watched in almost every nation of the
world. There are three types: "flat" racing; steeplechasing, i.e. racing over jumps; and harness racing, where
horses trot or pace while pulling a driver in a small, light cart known as a sulky.[184] A major part of horse
racing's economic importance lies in the gambling associated with it.[185]
Work
There are certain jobs that horses do very well, and no technology has
yet developed to fully replace them. For example, mounted police horses
are still effective for certain types of patrol duties and crowd
control.[186] Cattle ranches still require riders on horseback to round up
cattle that are scattered across remote, rugged terrain.[187] Search and
rescue organizations in some countries depend upon mounted teams to
locate people, particularly hikers and children, and to provide disaster
relief assistance.[188] Horses can also be used in areas where it is
necessary to avoid vehicular disruption to delicate soil, such as nature
reserves. They may also be the only form of transport allowed in
wilderness areas. Horses are quieter than motorized vehicles. Law
enforcement officers such as park rangers or game wardens may use
horses for patrols, and horses or mules may also be used for clearing
trails or other work in areas of rough terrain where vehicles are less
effective.[189]
A mounted police officer in Poland
Although machinery has replaced horses in many parts of the world, an

estimated 100 million horses, donkeys and mules are still used for
agriculture and transportation in less developed areas. This number
includes around 27 million working animals in Africa alone.[190] Some
land management practices such as cultivating and logging can be
efficiently performed with horses. In agriculture, less fossil fuel is used
and increased environmental conservation occurs over time with the use
of draft animals such as horses.[191][192] Logging with horses can result
in reduced damage to soil structure and less damage to trees due to more
selective logging.[193]
Tanga (carriage) at Darbhanga Bihar
Entertainment and culture

See also: Horses in art and Horse worship
Modern horses are often used to reenact many of their historical work purposes. Horses are used, complete with
equipment that is authentic or a meticulously recreated replica, in various live action historical reenactments of
specific periods of history, especially recreations of famous battles.[194] Horses are also used to preserve cultural
traditions and for ceremonial purposes. Countries such as the United Kingdom still use horse-drawn carriages to
convey royalty and other VIPs to and from certain culturally significant events.[195] Public exhibitions are
another example, such as the Budweiser Clydesdales, seen in parades and other public settings, a team of draft
horses that pull a beer wagon similar to that used before the invention of the modern motorized truck.[196]
Horses are frequently seen in television, films and literature. They are sometimes featured as a major character
in films about particular animals, but also used as visual elements that assure the accuracy of historical
stories.[197] Both live horses and iconic images of horses are used in advertising to promote a variety of
products.[198] The horse frequently appears in coats of arms in heraldry, in a variety of poses and
equipment.[199] The mythologies of many cultures, including Greco-Roman, Hindu, Islamic, and Norse, include
references to both normal horses and those with wings or additional

limbs, and multiple myths also call upon the horse to draw the chariots
of the Moon and Sun.[200] The horse also appears in the 12-year cycle of
animals in the Chinese zodiac related to the Chinese calendar.[201]
Therapeutic use
See also: Hippotherapy and Therapeutic horseback riding
People of all ages with physical and mental disabilities obtain beneficial
results from association with horses. Therapeutic riding is used to
mentally and physically stimulate disabled persons and help them
improve their lives through improved balance and coordination,
increased self-confidence, and a greater feeling of freedom and
independence.[202] The benefits of equestrian activity for people with
disabilities has also been recognized with the addition of equestrian
events to the Paralympic Games and recognition of para-equestrian
(FEI).[203]
The horse-headed deity in Hinduism,

Hayagriva
events by the International Federation for Equestrian Sports

Hippotherapy and therapeutic horseback riding are names for different
physical, occupational, and speech therapy treatment strategies that utilize equine movement. In hippotherapy, a
therapist uses the horse's movement to improve their patient's cognitive, coordination, balance, and fine motor
skills, whereas therapeutic horseback riding uses specific riding skills.[204]
Horses also provide psychological benefits to people whether they actually ride or not. "Equine-assisted" or
"equine-facilitated" therapy is a form of experiential psychotherapy that uses horses as companion animals to
assist people with mental illness, including anxiety disorders, psychotic disorders, mood disorders, behavioral
difficulties, and those who are going through major life changes.[205] There are also experimental programs
using horses in prison settings. Exposure to horses appears to improve the behavior of inmates and help reduce
recidivism when they leave.[206]
Warfare
Main article: Horses in warfare
Horses have been used in warfare for most of recorded history. The first
archaeological evidence of horses used in warfare dates to between 4000
to 3000 BC,[207] and the use of horses in warfare was widespread by the
end of the Bronze Age.[208][209] Although mechanization has largely
replaced the horse as a weapon of war, horses are still seen today in
limited military uses, mostly for ceremonial purposes, or for
reconnaissance and transport activities in areas of rough terrain where
motorized vehicles are ineffective. Horses have been used in the 21st
century by the Janjaweed militias in the War in Darfur.[210]
Products
Turkish cavalry, 1917
Horses are raw material for many products made by humans throughout history, including byproducts from the
slaughter of horses as well as materials collected from living horses.
Products collected from living horses include mare's milk, used by people with large horse herds, such as the
Mongols, who let it ferment to produce kumis.[211] Horse blood was once used as food by the Mongols and
other nomadic tribes, who found it a convenient source of nutrition when traveling. Drinking their own horses'
blood allowed the Mongols to ride for extended periods of time without stopping to eat.[211] The drug Premarin
is a mixture of estrogens extracted from the urine of pregnant mares (pregnant mares' urine), and was
previously a widely used drug for hormone replacement therapy.[212] The tail hair of horses can be used for
making bows for string instruments such as the violin, viola, cello, and double bass.[213]
Horse meat has been used as food for humans and carnivorous animals throughout the ages. It is eaten in many
parts of the world, though consumption is taboo in some cultures,[214] and a subject of political controversy in
others.[215] Horsehide leather has been used for boots, gloves, jackets,[216] baseballs,[217] and baseball gloves.
Horse hooves can also be used to produce animal glue.[218] Horse bones can be used to make implements.[219]
Specifically, in Italian cuisine, the horse tibia is sharpened into a probe called a spinto, which is used to test the
readiness of a (pig) ham as it cures.[220] In Asia, the saba is a horsehide vessel used in the production of
kumis.[221]
Care
Main article: Horse care
See also: Equine nutrition, Horse grooming, Veterinary medicine and Farrier
Horses are grazing animals, and their major source of nutrients is goodquality forage from hay or pasture.[222] They can consume
approximately 2% to 2.5% of their body weight in dry feed each day.
Therefore, a 450-kilogram (990 lb) adult horse could eat up to 11
kilograms (24 lb) of food.[223] Sometimes, concentrated feed such as
grain is fed in addition to pasture or hay, especially when the animal is
very active.[224] When grain is fed, equine nutritionists recommend that
Checking teeth and other physical
examinations are an important part of
horse care.
50% or more of the animal's diet by weight should still be forage.[225]

Horses require a plentiful supply of clean water, a minimum of 10 US
gallons (38 L) to 12 US gallons (45 L) per day.[226] Although horses are

adapted to live outside, they require shelter from the wind and precipitation, which can range from a simple
shed or shelter to an elaborate stable.[227]
Horses require routine hoof care from a farrier, as well as vaccinations to protect against various diseases, and
dental examinations from a veterinarian or a specialized equine dentist.[228] If horses are kept inside in a barn,
they require regular daily exercise for their physical health and mental well-being.[229] When turned outside,
they require well-maintained, sturdy fences to be safely contained.[230] Regular grooming is also helpful to help
the horse maintain good health of the hair coat and underlying skin.[231]
See also
Glossary of equestrian terms
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External links
Horse (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/272156) at
Encyclopdia Britannica
"Ancient horse bone yields oldest DNA sequence"
(http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-23060993)
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Horse

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Horse (disambiguation).

Horses and humans interact in a wide variety of sport competitions

Lifespan and life stages

Size and measurement

Size varies greatly among horse breeds, as with this

less than 14.2 h a pony,[29] but there are many exceptions

14.1 hands (57 inches, 145 cm)[31] The International

Colors and markings

Bay (left) and chestnut (sometimes called "sorrel") are

13 different alleles influencing coat color,[43] and research

Reproduction and development

The skeletal system of a modern horse

sprint distance is 88 kilometres per hour (55 mph).[82]

Illustration of assorted breeds; slim, light hotbloods,

Unlike humans, horses do not sleep in a solid, unbroken period of time,

Taxonomy and evolution

Main articles: Evolution of the horse, Equus (genus) and Equidae

From left to right: Size development, biometrical changes in

37 million years ago.[119] Over time, the extra side

Wild species surviving into modern times

A small herd of Przewalski's Horses

Other modern equids

Bhimbetka rock painting showing

while many mares were part of early domesticated

chromosome variability,[149][150] but a great deal of genetic variation in mitochondrial DNA.[139][151][152]

Interaction with humans

Equine hospital in the United Kingdom

considered, the impact is over $102

Although machinery has replaced horses in many parts of the world, an

Tanga (carriage) at Darbhanga Bihar

Entertainment and culture

references to both normal horses and those with wings or additional

The horse-headed deity in Hinduism,

events by the International Federation for Equestrian Sports

Turkish cavalry, 1917

50% or more of the animal's diet by weight should still be forage.[225]

gallons (38 L) to 12 US gallons (45 L) per day.[226] Although horses are

Wikimedia Commons has

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