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V-2
Name
Empirical
Molecular
Structural
hydrogen peroxide
HO
H 2O 2
H!O!O!H
water
H 2O
H 2O
H!O!H
H H
ethane
CH 3
C 2H 6
H!C!C!H
H H
V-3
These representations are excellent for showing bond lengths and angles, but they
give little information about the volume requirements of the atoms in the molecule.
The following representations show the closest distance another molecule could
approach a H 2, H 2O or CH 4 molecule without serious repulsions between the
electron clouds on both molecules.
V-4
The arrangement of
carbon atoms in
diamond
Metallic bonding is often described in terms of metal atoms being in a sea of mobile electrons.
This accounts for ready conduction of electricity by metals.
Consequently, it can be seen that the use of a molecular formula for an element as it
occurs in nature is rather limited. Instead, most elements are represented, for
example in equation writing, by their empirical formula. Being elements, the
empirical formula is always just the symbol for the element. Thus, normally carbon
would be represented as C, sulfur as S, sodium as Na, etc in situations where a
formula for a "molecule" is needed such as in a chemical equation. The following
is a complete list of the few elements which would usually be represented by a
molecular formula in such cases:
H 2, N 2, O 2, F 2, Cl 2, Br 2, I 2.
In addition, the noble gases He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn occur only as individual atoms.
V-5
Chemical reactions.
Chemical reactions occur for one of two possible reasons:
(i) the products formed by the reaction contain less energy than the reactants, and
all systems tend to proceed spontaneously to the lowest energy state, or
(ii) enough energy is supplied to reactants to force them to proceed to form
products, even though the products have higher energy than the reactants.
Reactions are the result of the breaking of some or all of the bonds between atoms
in the reactants and the subsequent formation of new bonds to form the products.
Chemical equations.
Regardless of why any given reaction occurs, it can be represented in a number of
ways. For example, hydrogen gas combines with oxygen gas to form water which
is also a gas at the temperature that the reaction reaches due to released energy.
This reaction could be expressed in a word equation,
hydrogen + oxygen v water
It is much less cumbersome and more informative if the equation is written using
symbols rather than words. Thus,
H2 + O2
H 2O
tells us that hydrogen molecules react with oxygen molecules to form water
molecules, and gives the formulas for all species involved.
However, note that not all the oxygen shown on the left appears on the right - i.e.
the equation is not balanced. Given that water molecules must contain two H and
one O atoms and that hydrogen and oxygen molecules are both diatomic, then the
simplest equation which provides a proper balance so that all atoms on the left are
also present on the right would be
2H 2 + O 2 v 2H 2O
Writing the equation in this way states that 2 molecules of hydrogen react exactly
with 1 molecule of oxygen to form 2 molecules of water. Even more information
can be included in this MOLECULAR EQUATION by indicating the physical
state of each component by attaching an appropriate suffix, (g), (l) or (s). In this
case, reactants and products were all specified as being in the gaseous state.
2H 2(g) + O2(g)
2H 2O(g)
In another example, hydrogen and chlorine react to form the compound hydrogen
chloride, all species being gases. The balanced molecular equation would be
V-6
H 2(g) + Cl2(g)
2HCl(g)
C6H12O6 + 6O2
6CO 2 + 6H 2O
2NaCl(s)
In this example, note how the empirical formula Na is used for the metal sodium, as
discussed previously. Likewise, the empirical formula C is used for carbon in the
next example in which carbon solid is burnt in oxygen to form carbon dioxide.
C(s) + O 2(g)
CO 2(g)
The use of the term formula equation is also more appropriate when one
encounters a reaction that takes place in solution. For example, when solutions of
sodium chloride and silver nitrate are mixed, solid silver chloride forms and sodium
nitrate remains in solution as ions. Sometimes chemistry texts try to cover this
situation by introducing another suffix, (aq), to indicate a substance in solution, but
for reasons to be given later, this is not appropriate. The formula equation for this
reaction would be
Ag(NO 3) + NaCl
AgCl + NaNO 3
V-7
2.
Understand the manner in which ions in ionic solids pack together to form
crystals and that ionic bonds are non-directional.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
SUMMARY
Compounds can be represented by various types of formulas. The simplest is the
empirical formula which can be obtained for any pure compound by basic
analytical methods and requires no other information about the compound. The
empirical formula is the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms of each
component element present in that compound. All pure compounds have an
empirical formula.
A molecular formula applies only to elements and compounds that exist as
molecules and it lists the actual number of atoms of each element present in a
molecule of that substance. It is a simple multiple of the empirical formula.
V-8
Molecular formulas do not convey any information about the structure of the
molecule.
Structural formulas for compounds indicate the arrangement of the component
atoms within the molecule.
Ionic compounds exist as solid crystal lattices in which the cations and anions pack
together so as to maximise their attractive forces and minimise their repulsive
forces. The particular arrangement adopted in a given ionic compound depends on
the relative sizes of the cation and anion. As no cation is specifically bonded to a
particular anion but instead is shared by a number of neighbouring anions, then
there is no molecule of an ionic compound. Consequently all ionic compounds are
represented by just an empirical formula giving the simplest ratio of the component
ions. Another consequence is that ionic bonding has no directional characteristics,
the crystal shape being determined by the most efficient packing of the ions.
Covalent bonding is highly directional as it depends on the overlap of electron
orbits. This leads to covalent molecules having specific shapes which can be
represented on a two-dimensional surface by several methods to convey bond
angles and also volume requirements. One molecular shape which is particularly
important is the tetrahedral arrangement often found when four atoms are bonded to
a central atom as for example in methane.
Only the noble gases occur in nature as individual atoms. A few elements occur as
diatomic molecules (H 2, N 2, O 2, F 2, Cl 2, Br 2, I 2). Otherwise, all elements occur
naturally as larger aggregates of atoms. The aggregated atoms in metals are held
together by metallic bonds in which outer electrons on each atom are very mobile
and the atoms are bonded to each other as a result of the constant exchange of these
electrons between atoms. This type of bond accounts for the physical properties of
metals such as conducting electricity and being malleable. Non-metals frequently
consist of large numbers of atoms held together by covalent bonds - termed network
covalent bonding. Metals and most non-metals do not have a molecular formula as
the number of component atoms is not fixed and may be enormous. These elements
are represented by their symbol alone where a formula is required.
Chemical reactions occur either because the products have less energy than the
reactants or because sufficient energy is supplied externally to the reactants to force
them to convert to products. Reactions can be conveniently represented by means
of chemical equations of several types.
A word equation gives the names of the reactants and products. Word equations are
convenient when the species involved have large or complicated or unknown
formulas.
Formula equations give the formulas of all the component reactants and products
and should be balanced so that all atoms on the reactant side are also present on the
products side. It is a fundamental law of chemistry that atoms are not created or
destroyed in reactions. Physical states of the species (gas, liquid or solid) may also
be shown as a suffix on each formula.
V-9
H 2(g) +
O 2(g)
H 2O(l)
(ii)
N 2(g) +
H 2(g)
NH 3(g)
(iii)
Na(s) +
Br2(l)
NaBr(s)
(iv)
Fe(s) +
O 2(g)
Fe 2O 3(s)
(v)
C 6H 12O 6(s) +
(vi)
Mg(s) +
N 2(g)
Mg 3N 2(s)
(vii)
P(s) +
F2(g)
PF 5(s)
(viii)
O 2(g) +
SO 2(g)
(ix)
HI(g)
(x)
HCl(g) +
(xi)
Fe3O 4(s) +
H 2(g)
(xii)
Pb(NO 3)2(s)
heat
v
O 2(g)
H 2(g) +
O 2(g)
CO 2(g) +
H 2O(l)
SO 3(g)
I 2(g)
v
v
Cl 2(g) +
Fe(s) +
PbO(s) +
H 2O(g)
H 2O(g)
NO 2(g) +
O 2(g)
3. Write balanced formula equations for each of the following reactions. Physical
states of reactants and products need not be shown.
(i) The combustion of ethane gas, C2H6, in excess air to form carbon dioxide and
water.
V - 10
(ii) The decomposition of solid calcium carbonate by heat to form calcium oxide
and carbon dioxide.
(vi) The action of heat on potassium nitrate to form potassium nitrite and oxygen
gas.
(vii) The action of heat on lead(II) nitrate to form lead(II) oxide and the gases,
oxygen and nitrogen dioxide (nitrogen(IV) oxide).
(ix) The reaction of glucose, C 6H 12O 6, to form ethanol, C 2H 5OH, and carbon dioxide
gas.
(x) The reaction of copper(II) oxide with hydrogen gas to form copper metal and
water.
(xi) The reaction of zinc sulfide with oxygen gas to form zinc oxide and sulfur
dioxide gas.
V - 11
(xiv) The action of heat on copper(II) hydroxide to form copper(II) oxide and water.
(xv) The reaction of calcium hydroxide with carbon dioxide to form calcium
carbonate and water.
N 2O 4
(ii)
C 4H 10
(iii)
C 2H 6O
(iv)
N 2H 4
(v)
P4O 10
(vi)
C 4H 8O 4
(vii)
NSF 3O 3
(viii) C 2H 4
(ix)
C 3H 6
(x)
C 6H 12
(xi)
(xii)
C 6H 12O 6
CS2
V - 12
ACROSS
1.
in epsom salts
3.
copper(I) cyanide
6.
gas used in San Quentin
9.
backward water
DOWN
2.
component of acid rain
4.
toxic gas in car exhaust
5.
ammonium bromide
7.
main acidic component of
vinegar
8.
rubidium hydroxide
10. selenium trioxide
12. chromium(III) phosphate
13. lithium hydrogensulfite
14. caesium amide
15. nitrogen trichloride
17. main greenhouse gas
18. potassium carbonate
21. nitrogen triiodide
22. lead(IV) oxide
23. in iodised table salt
24. copper(I) hydrogensulfide
25. hydride of nitrogen
11.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
23.
25.
26.
27.
28.
lithium bromide
caesium carbonate
nitrogen dioxide
aluminium nitride
carbon tetrachloride
potassium hydrogensulfide
blonde's secret
protects from UV light
element; main component of air
antacid remedy
Bond's enemy; a pollutant from
cars
used in cloud seeding
element; caused Hindenberg disaster
rubidium hydride
29.
30.
31.
33.
34.
35.
calcium phosphide
hydride of bromine
30.
32.
35.
37.
39.
40.
41.
36.
lead(II) oxide
43.
38.
42.
44.
aluminium sulfate
kidney stones
component of teeth and bones
44.
45.
46.
26.
28.
29.
silver dihydrogenphosphate
a halide of rubidium
acid with one less oxygen
atom than nitric acid
a cobalt(II) compound
silver salt in photography
hello; a Group VII hydride
rotten egg gas
sulfur analogue of 10 down
manganese dioxide
sodium compound; in oven
cleaners and draino
greenhouse gas from flatulent
cows
limestone; marble
phosphine
sodium salt of anion in 42
across
V - 13
46.
47.
49.
a hypochlorite in bleaches
strontium phosphide
potassium iodide
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
58.
60.
63.
64.
potassium hydride
water, structural formula
sodium phosphate
occasional acid
laughing gas
hydride of selenium
aluminium sulfite
1
56.
57.
58.
59.
61.
62.
3
8
11
47.
48.
49.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
strontium fluoride
chromium(III) chloride
a fertilizer
on every dinner table
sodium hydride
a chill in the air
potassium bromide
hydrogen peroxide,
structural formula
sodium permanganate
compound in alumina
nitric acid
element; purple solid
calcium selenide
element; the most reactive
non-metal
10
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
36
35
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
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49
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51
53
52
54
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56
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59
60
62
64
61
63
V - 14
(i)
2K + Cl2 v 2KCl
Ba + 2H 2O v Ba(OH)2 + H 2
Because the formula of barium hydroxide on the right hand side requires two
H atom and two O atoms, the minimum number of water molecules on the
left hand side that can supply this would be two H 2O molecules. This would
leave an excess of two H atoms on the right hand side and, as hydrogen is a
diatomic gas, they would be shown as a hydrogen molecule, H 2.
(iii)
4HCl + O 2 v 2H 2O + 2Cl 2
(iv)
2H 2S + 3O 2 v 2H 2O + 2SO 2
(v)
2C 2H 6 + 7O 2 v 4CO 2 + 6H 2O
(vi)
6Li + N 2 v 2Li3N
(vii)
Each iron(III) oxide on the left will result in two Fe atoms on the right hand
side. Then there are three O atoms on the left to be removed as carbon
dioxide, so 3/2 C atoms are needed on the left and 3/2 CO 2 molecules would
result on the right. In order that all the coefficients are integers, multiply
throughout by two.
(viii) 4Al + 3O 2 v 2Al 2O 3
(ix)
Starting with one hexane molecule on the left would result in six carbon
dioxide molecules plus seven water molecules appearing on the right. The
total number of O atoms on the right would then be 19 and they would be
required to be shown on the left hand side. But oxygen occurs as a diatomic
gas so it must be shown as O 2 on the left. One could write the equation with
19/2 O 2 molecules on the left or multiply throughout by two in order to avoid
non-integer coefficients, as in the answer given above.
2.
(i)
2H 2(g) +
O 2(g)
2H 2O(l)
(ii)
N 2(g) +
3H 2(g)
2NH3(g)
(iii)
2Na(s) +
Br2(l)
2NaBr(s)
(iv)
4Fe(s) +
3O 2(g)
2Fe 2O 3(s)
V - 15
(v)
C 6H 12O 6(s) +
6O 2(g)
6CO 2(g) +
6H 2O(l)
Starting with one glucose molecule on the left would result in the formation
of six carbon dioxide molecules plus six water molecules on the right hand
side. The total number of O atoms on the right would then be 18. However,
glucose already contains six O atoms so only 12 additional O atoms are
required on the left, shown as six O 2 molecules.
(vi)
3Mg(s) +
(vii)
2P(s) +
N 2(g)
5F 2(g)
(viii) O 2(g) +
2PF 5(s)
v
2SO2(g)
v
Mg 3N 2(s)
(ix)
2HI(g)
H 2(g) +
(x)
4HCl(g) +
O 2(g)
(xi)
Fe3O 4(s) +
4H 2(g)
(xii)
2Pb(NO 3)2(s)
2SO 3(g)
I 2(g)
2Cl 2(g) +
heat
v
2H 2O(g)
3Fe(s) +
2PbO(s) +
4H 2O(g)
4NO 2(g) +
O 2(g)
One lead(II) nitrate on the left would result in one lead(II) oxide plus two
nitrogen dioxide molecules on the right hand side. The total number of O
atoms on the left would be six while only five are so far accounted for on the
right, leaving a single O atom to appear there as oxygen gas. Because
oxygen is a diatomic element, it needs to be shown as O 2 on the right hand
side and this would require the equation to be multiplied by two throughout.
3.
(i)
2C 2H 6 + 7O 2
(ii)
CaCO3 v CaO + CO 2
(iii)
2H 2O 2 v 2H 2O + O 2
(iv)
(v)
N 2 + 3H2 v 2NH 3
(vi)
2KNO 3 v 2KNO 2 + O 2
(vii)
(viii) 2Ca + O 2
4CO2 + 6H 2O
2CaO
(ix)
(x)
CuO + H 2 v Cu + H 2O
(xi)
(xii)
2NaHCO 3 v Na 2CO 3 + CO 2 + H 2O
Ca(OH)2 + CO 2
v CaCO 3 + H 2O
V - 16
4.
(i)
NO2
(ii)
C 2H 5
(iii)
C 2H 6O
(iv)
NH 2
(v)
P 2O 5
(vi)
CH 2O
(vii)
NSF3O 3
(viii) CH 2
(ix)
CH 2
(x)
CH 2
(xi)
(xii)
CH 2O
CS2
5.
Ionic compounds do not exist as molecules but instead consist of ions packed
into a crystal lattice in such a manner that attractions between oppositely
charged ions are maximised and repulsions between ions having charges
with the same sign are minimised. Thus each cation has up to 6 nearest
neighbour anions and vice versa, so no individual cation and anion can be
regarded as bonded to each other in the way that atoms are in covalent
molecules. Consequently, in ionic compounds the concept of a molecular
formula is not relevant and only an empirical formula which gives the
simplest whole number ratio of the cations and anions is possible.
6.
V - 17
O
K
Rb
Cr
P
N
Cl
Br
Pb
Ni
Mn
O
2
Co
Pb
I
)
Mn
Br
Na
H
Sr
Br
Ag
Ca
Cl
Cu
Cl
Se
F
Al
Na
3
3
Al
Cu
2
2
Cs
Na
Cr
Na
Cl
Br
H
Al
Na
C
Ca
H
K
Li
Rb
2
Na
Ag
Cu
P
H
O
4
Al
Ca
2
Se