MACE43001 & MACE61057

Three hours
Graph paper is available in the Examination Room
An R6 Failure Assessment Diagram is provided and, if used, should be attached
to your script
A Formula Sheet is supplied at the end of the question paper on pages XX to XX

UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER

STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY
XX January 2015
XX.00 - XX.00

Answer Question 1 in Part A, and any TWO QUESTIONS in Part B.

Question 1 is worth 50 marks and all the questions in Part B are worth 25
marks each.

________________________________________________________________
Electronic calculators may be used, provided that they cannot store text.
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P.T.O.

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PART A

Compulsory Question

Question 1

(a) Describe the meaning of the stress intensity factor, K, and the fracture
toughness, Kc. Include in your answer what determines their values.
[6 marks]
K is a mechanical parameter, measuring the magnitude of the stresses near the
tip of a crack in a homogeneous linear elastic material. The value of K depends
only on the geometry of the cracked component and on the load applied to it.
Kc is a material property, representing the resistance of a material to cracking.
The value of Kc depends on the amount of plasticity the material allows to be
developed ahead of a crack; more crack tip plasticity means higher fracture
toughness.

(b) Describe briefly the effect of plane strain and plain stress conditions on
plasticity. Explain how this affects the measurement of fracture
toughness considering the conditions along a crack front.
[6 marks]
For a given maximum stress, plane strain conditions allow for less plasticity than
plane stress conditions. The conditions along a crack front can be approximated
via plane strain in the interior and plain stress at the two ends. For a given crack
opening load, the interior will develop less plasticity than the two ends. This
means that measurements with thick specimens (long plane strain interior and
relatively short plane stress ends) will provide lower fracture toughness values
than measurements with thin specimens (short plain strain interior and relatively
longer plane stress ends).

A compact tension specimen with geometry shown in Figure Q1(a) is used to

determine the fracture toughness of a material with stress Y = 610 MPa. During

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testing, a specimen with standard dimensions: thickness B = 25 mm; width W =

50 mm; and crack length a = 25 mm, failed at applied force Pf = 35 kN.
(c) Using the additional information in Table Q1
(i) Calculate the material fracture toughness, assuming that the failure
occurred under small scale yielding conditions
[4 marks]
Under small scale yielding the fracture toughness equals the stress intensity
factor (formula in Table 1) attained at failure load, Pf. Substitution of B = 0.025 m,
a = 0.025 m, W = 0.05 m, Pf = 0.05 MN, yields KC = 59.9 MPa.m1/2.

(ii) Evaluate whether the test provided a valid material plane strain
fracture toughness
[4 marks]
The standard length parameter is 2.5 (KC / Y)2 = 2.5 (59.9 / 610)2 = 0.024 m.
Since a, B, W-a > 0.024 m, the test provided a valid plane strain fracture
toughness; the plastic zone was smaller than the allowed by the standards.

A cylindrical pressure vessel was fabricated from a steel plate, bended and
welded longitudinally. The vessel mean diameter and wall thickness are d = 2.4
m and t = 0.12 m, respectively. The tensile and toughness properties of the plate
material, known at fabrication, are yield stress Y = 610 MPa, ultimate tensile
strength UTS = 680 MPa, and plane strain fracture toughness KIC = 85 MPa.m1/2.
The vessel was post-weld heat treated to reduce residual stresses in the heataffected zone to 10% of the yield stress. During in-service inspection, a flaw was
detected in the inner surface of the wall in the heat-affected zone aligned normal
to the hoop stress. Flaw geometry characterisation provided a representative
semi-circular crack of length 2c = 100 mm and depth a = 30 mm, as shown in
Figure Q1(b). The operating pressure is 20 MPa, but the vessel must be able to
survive a single overload of 22 MPa in exceptional circumstances.

(d) Calculate, using the additional information in Table Q1, and stating any
assumptions that you make
(i) the hoop stress at the operating and the overload pressures
[3 marks]

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Since 10 t (1.2 m) is not larger than the radius r = d / 2 = 1.2 m, it is reasonable

to assume a thin walled cylinder for which hoop = p r / t.
For operating pressure hoop = 20 1.2 / 0.12 = 200 MPa
For overload pressure hoop = 22 1.2 / 0.12 = 220 MPa

(ii) the stress intensity factor for the crack in the most severe load case
[4 marks]
From Table Q1, with t = 0.12 m, a = 0.03 m, and c = 0.05 m, the geometry factor
for the crack is Y = 0.82. At overload, p = 22 MPa, the stress intensity factor is KI
= Y hoop (a)1/2 = 0.82 220 ( 0.03)1/2 = 55.4 MPa.m1/2

(iii) the collapse pressure of the vessel

[3 marks]
From Table Q1, with r = 1.2 m, t = 0.12 m, b = t a = 0.09 m, and c = 0.05 m, the
collapse pressure is pc = 60.8 MPa

(e) Use the R6 Failure Assessment Diagram (Option 1) to conduct a

structural integrity assessment on the pressure vessel, including the
effect of weld residual stresses. Calculate the safety factor by load and
comment on the likely failure mode of the vessel. A Failure
Assessment Diagram, Figure Q1(c), is provided on page XXX and
should be attached to your answer book.
[10 marks]
Since the crack was found in the HAZ, a residual stress acts on the crack in
addition to the hoop stress from pressure. The residual stress is given to be 10%
of yield as a result of post-weld treatment, i.e. res = 0.10 610 = 61 MPa.
The stress intensity factor due to this residual stress is KIs = Y res (a)1/2 =
0.82 61 ( 0.03)1/2 = 15.4 MPa.m1/2.
The proximity to fracture due to residual stress is Krs = KIs / KIC = 15.4 / 85 =
0.181.
The proximity to fracture due to primary stress (at overload pressure) is Krp = KI /
KIC = 55.4 / 85 = 0.652.

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The proximity to plastic collapse (at overload pressure) is Lr = p / pc = 22 / 60.8 =

0.362.
The cut-off of FAD is Lmax = flow /y = (UTS + y) /y) = 1.06
All derived data is plotted on the FAD below.
B

1.0
0.9
A

Kr = K / Kmat

0.8

[P / Pc, (KpI + KsI) / KIC]

0.7

(0.36, 0.83)

0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2

[0, KsI / KIC]

(0, 0.18)

0.1

Lmax = 1.06

0.0
0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

1.4

1.6

Lr = P / Pc
From the diagram, the safety factor on load is |OB| / |OA| = 0.95 / 0.83 = 1.14.
The likely failure mode is brittle fracture, since point B is in the region of the
failure loci with small scale yielding conditions.

(f) Make recommendation whether to repair the pressure vessel now, or

leave the crack in the vessel. Justify your decision by a sensitivity
analysis, e.g. with slightly deeper cracks.
[6 marks]
With a safety factor of 1.14 the vessel is safe with the observed crack.
However, if the crack is left in and grows to a = 4 mm, we will have
KIp = Y hoop (a)1/2 = 0.82 220 (0.04)1/2 = 64.0 MPa.m1/2.
Krp = KIp / KIC = 0.753
KIs = Y res (a)1/2 = 0.82 0.1 * 610 (0.04)1/2 = 17.7 MPa.m1/2.
Krs = KIs / KIC = 0.208
The point on FAD at zero load will be [Lr, Krs] = [0, 0.21].

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The assessment point on FAD at overload will be [Lr, Krs + Krp] = [0.36, 0.96].
This will be unsafe situation; the assessment point will be practically on the
failure loci. Repair is recommended in this situation to reduce the flaw size to a
minimum.

(g) Comment on the uncertainties in your analysis and suggest ways of

overcoming them.
[4 marks]
The biggest unknown is the fracture toughness value used for the heat-affected
zone. It is possible that the changed microstructure in the heat-affected zone has
changed the fracture toughness from the value for the virgin plate. Also, the inservice degradation of the material may have changed the fracture toughness
further. The second unknown is the crack size and shape, but their effect on the
assessment is smaller. Fracture toughness values should be obtained with
specimens made of the actual welded material. Multiple crack detection should
be performed to get statistics on crack size and shape.

Figure Q1(a). Geometry of compact tension specimen

a
t
2c
d

Figure Q1(b). Geometry of cracked pipe

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Table Q1. Additional information

Stress intensity factor for a compact
tension specimen, where
P applied force
B specimen thickness
W specimen width
a crack depth
Standard requirements for valid
plane strain fracture toughness
Stress intensity calibration function
for an internally pressurised cylinder
with a semi-elliptical axial defect,
where
t wall thickness
c defect half-length
a defect depth
Collapse pressure of an internally
pressurised cylinder with a semielliptical axial defect, where
Pc internal collapse pressure
r radius of cylinder
t wall thickness
c defect half-length
b ligament length = (wall thickness
defect depth) = (t - a)

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Figure Q1(c). Failure Assessment Diagram

End of Part A
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Part B
Answer any TWO questions
Question 2
(a) A structural member with a circular cross-section made of a metal has
failed due to cyclic loading in service. Draw a schematic of a typical
fatigue fracture surface and identify different regions that represent fatigue
initiation, propagation and final fracture.
[4 marks]
Students are expected to draw a schematic as shown that shows fatigue
initiation region, a crack propagation region with striations and a fast fracture
region.

(b) Describe the physical mechanisms of metal fatigue during crack initiation
and propagation.
[6 marks]
Students should describe that fatigue crack initiation as shear mode mechanism
and crack propagation as opening mode mechanism.
In fatigue initiation, students should describe the growth of the crack at 45o to the
tensile loading direction, along slip planes; the retardation at grain boundaries or
other microstructural features; and the gradual change in direction to crack
propagation region as the plastic zone becomes much larger than the grain size.
In fatigue propagation, students should describe that the most likely mechanism
is the one proposed by Grosskreutz with slip in the two shear directions at the tip
of the crack on each cycle.
Students should show that the increment of crack growth is about half the crack
opening displacement.
(c) A structural member of a military aircraft is made of steel. The material
and fatigue properties given in Table Q2 and Figure Q2. The load history
at the critical location for failure can be simplified to a single stress cycle of
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magnitude 0 to 680 MPa occurring every time the aircraft makes a heavy
landing. On average, this occurs every 4 flights. If the elastic stress
concentration factor at the critical location is 2.0 where failure is expected:
i)

Show that the maximum stress and the strain range at the critical
location are 1260 MPa and 0.66% respectively, and determine the
mean stress in the cycle;

Using the Neuber products

and
, the maximum stress and strain and the stress and strain amplitudes at the
notch is calculated using the graph shown. Applying the Massings hypothesis,
the stable hysteresis loop is estimated and the strain range is calculated.
;
Strain range,

1600
1400
(0.0077,1260)

Stress (MPa)

1200
1000
800
(0.0033,680)

600
400
200
0
0

0.001

0.002

0.003

0.004

0.005

0.006

0.007

0.008

0.009

0.01

0.011

Strain

ii)

Estimate the number of flights that this component can be safely

used;
Calculating the SWT parameter,

Reading Nf from the fatigue life curve, Nf

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0.012

Using a safety factor of 5 on life, (1400 x 4)/5

iii)

Suggest two changes (apart from changing the material) that could
be made to this component to increase the lifetime.
[10+3+2=15 marks]

Reduce strain amplitude at notch root by reducing stress concentration;

Introducing compressive stresses by shot peening or polishing to remove
surface defects
Yield strength, MPa
Tensile strength, MPa
Fracture toughness, MPam

1300
1500
80

Cyclic stress strain behaviour (

a
a
a =
+
207000
2200

is in MPa)

Strain life fatigue strength, f , MPa

1700

Strain life fatigue exponent, b

Strain life fatigue ductility, f

-0.1
2.0

Strain life fatigue exponent, c

-0.9

0.08

Table Q2: Material properties of the steel member

1600
1400

Stress (MPa)

1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0

0.001

0.002

0.003

0.004

0.005

0.006

0.007

0.008

0.009

0.01

0.011

0.012

Strain

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Fig Q2(a): Cyclic stress strain curve for the steel used

Fig Q2(b): Strain-life curve for the steel used

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Question 3
(a) Briefly explain the philosophy used in the safe-life, fail-safe and defecttolerance design against fatigue
[10 marks]
Safe life:
Fatigue lifetime estimated by S-N or strain-life approaches at design or
development stage and component retired or replaced at after that life has
been used. Useful life is a small fraction, maybe 1/10, of potential life and all
structures or components are replaced regardless of actual fatigue damage.
This is only option for parts that are not inspectable in service.
Fail safe:
The structure has redundant load paths so that in the event of fatigue
cracking and fracture, the structure can still function until it is brought to a
stop or shutdown.
Defect tolerance:
Must be able to inspect structure to detect cracks and estimate their size and
shape. Then, predict growth rate and acceptable defect size. From this,
estimate the duration to grow current defect to limiting size and define an
inspection interval of 1/3 to 1/5 of this. Repeat inspection and assessment
and re-estimate the remaining life and the next inspection interval. This
enables individual structures to be used for optimum lifetime. Examples: high
capital value, inspectable structures such as aircraft wing skins, pressure
vessels, oil rigs, power generating plant.
(b) An edge crack 8 mm long from the toe of a weld has been found in a
welded steel plate that is subjected to an estimated tensile stress history
as shown in Figure Q3. The mechanical properties are given in Table Q3.
Assume that the crack as an edge crack in a semi-infinite plate. The
welded steel plate is also expected to withstand a rare event that causes a
tensile stress of 160 MPa.
(i)

Identify all the stress cycles per hour and their maximum, minimum
and mean stresses.

Using the rainflow cycle counting:

Number of
Cycles

MPa

MPa

MPa

MPa

2 (0-60 MPa)

60

30

60

1 (30-100 MPa)

100

30

65

70

1 (0-120 MPa)

120

60

120

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(ii)

What is the critical size of crack for the welded plate?

As crack initiated in the toe weld, the fracture toughness of the weld
KIc should be used to calculate the critical crack size for the rare
event (160 MPa).

(iii)

Estimate the life of the cracked plate?

Using ai=8 mm and aj=120 mm; and using the Paris integration and
Minors rule:
= 85078 hours

(iv)

Recommend an inspection interval to ensure that cracks are found

and repaired before failure for welded plates of the same design.
Every 2 years; 5 intervals
[4+4+5+2=15 marks]

140
130
120
110

Stress (MPa)

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

Time (hours)

Figure Q3: Stress history for the welded plate per hour
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Yield strength, MPa

290

Tensile strength, MPa

500

Plane strain fracture toughness of weld, MPam

110

Plane strain fracture toughness of plate, MPam

130

Fatigue crack growth

intensities in MPam

rate,

m/cycle,

for

stress

da

dN

110

11

Table Q3: Material properties of the welded steel plate

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Question 4
(a) Briefly describe the stress-life approach used for high cycle fatigue?
[4 marks]
Students should describe that in the stress-life approach, smooth or
notched specimens are tested under cyclic stresses (either fully reversed
or with a non-zero mean stress) to failure and stress vs fatigue life (S-N)
curves (either semi-log or log-log plot) are obtained. For service conditions
(stress, cycles) that fall under the S-N curve, a safety factor on stress or
life is achieved. Correction factors are used for specimen surface
roughness, size etc. As local plastic strains are not explicitly considered, it
is not useful for low cycle fatigue.
(b) Describe the application of the following in the stress-life fatigue analysis:
i) Goodman diagram;
ii) Miners rule.
[3+3=6 marks]
Goodman diagram:
An empirical way of estimating the equivalent stress range of fatigue cycles of
different mean stress, in terms of their lifetime, or damage. On axes of mean
stress(X) and stress range (Y), cycles having the same lifetime lie on a line
between the points (tensile strength, 0) and (0, fatigue stress range). A way of
converting stress cycles of different mean levels to equivalent cycles of the
same mean stress, particularly if S-N data is only available at a particular
mean stress level.
Miners rule:
It is a linear damage summation to determine the lifetime of a loading
sequence of different stress amplitudes. One cycle is assumed to contribute
1/Nf damage, where Nf is the number of cycles of that amplitude that would
cause failure. Damage for each cycle is summed and failure occurs when the
total damage=1. Assumes no interaction between cycles, and hence so effect
of the sequence of the load cycles
(c) The design load history per hour for a skin-stringer assembly is provided in
Figure Q4(a). Fatigue test data on a representative test component is
obtained at a mean stress of 40 MPa and given in Figure Q4(b) in the
form of stress range-life plot. The material properties are given in Table
Q4.
(i) Count the number of stress cycles occur per hour;
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Use rainflow counting;

4 cycles
(ii) Determine the stress amplitude and mean stress for each cycle;
Number of
Cycles

MPa

MPa

MPa

MPa

1 (0-80 MPa)

80

40

40

1 (10-60 MPa)

60

10

35

25

1 (20-100 MPa)

100

20

60

40

1 (0-120 MPa)

120

60

60

(iii) Estimate the design life of the skin-stringer assembly using the
Goodman equation?
As the S-N curve is obtained at a mean stress of 40 MPa, use the
Goodman equation and calculate the alternating stresses at mean
stress of 40 MPa. Use Minors rule for estimating the cumulative
damage and the deign life.
Number of
Cycles

MPa

MPa

Equivalent
@ 40
MPa mean
stress

Equivalent
@ 40
MPa mean
stress

Nfi

Dfi

1 (0-80 MPa)

40

40

40

80

1x107

1x10-7

1 (10-60 MPa)

35

25

24.7

49.4

6x107 1.67x108

1 (20-100
MPa)

60

1 (0-120 MPa)

60

40

84.0

9x106 1.11x107

60

Cumulative damage
Design life

42.0
63.1

126.2

1x106

1x10-6

1.23 x 10-6

0.81x106 hours
[1+4+8=13 marks]

(d) If the service conditions of the skin-stringer assembly require a service life
of 1,000,000 hours, explain whether or not this design is satisfactory?
[2 marks]
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Estimated life is

0.81x106 hours < the required service life of 1x106

Table Q4: Properties of the skin-stringer assembly

Plane strain fracture toughness KIc

40 MPam
320 MPa
450 MPa

Yield stress y
Tensile strength, UTS

Material fatigue limit fl

Fatigue crack propagation rate at R=0,
in metres per cycle and K in MPam
Fatigue threshold at R=0

140 MPa
da/dN = 8x 10-12K3
Kth = 6 MPam

140
130
120
110
100

Stress (MPa)

90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

Time (hours)

Figure Q4(a): Stress history per hour

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150
135
Stress range (MPa)

120
105

90
75
60
45
30
15
0

105

107

106

108

Nf, Cycles

Figure Q4(b): S-N curve for the skin-stringer assembly at 40 MPa mean
stress

END OF EXAMINATION PAPER

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FORMULA SHEET

Table of expressions for stress intensity factors for various cracked bodies

Crack
Stress intensity calibration, Y
configuration
Centre-crack,
length 2a, in
an
infinite
plate
in
tension
Edge crack,
length a, in a
semi-infinite
plate
in
tension
Centre-crack,
length 2a, in
plate of width
2W in tension

Single edge
crack, length
a, in a plate,
width W, in
tension
Single edge
crack, length
a, in a beam,
width W, in
pure bending

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Fatigue information

Crack propagation
law

Integration of crack
propagation law for m
2 and constant Y
Cyclic stressstrain
curve
Neubers Rule
Smith-WatsonTopper strain life
curve
END OF FORMULA SHEET

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