Engineering Analysis with Boundary Elements 42 (2014) 27

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Engineering Analysis with Boundary Elements

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enganabound

The simulation of laminated glass beam impact problem by developing

fracture model of spherical DEM$
Wei Gao, Mengyan Zang n
School of Mechanical and Automotive Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, People's Republic of China

art ic l e i nf o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Received 7 April 2013
Accepted 14 November 2013
Available online 15 December 2013

A fracture model suitable to spherical discrete element method (DEM) is presented based on the concept
of the cohesive model. In this fracture model, there are three types of interaction between discrete
elements, namely connection, cohesion and contact. When fracture criterion is met, the type of
interaction between the corresponding discrete elements translates from connection to cohesion. The
cohesive traction is obtained from the opening displacement of the elements according to the cohesive
model. In order to analyze laminated glass impact problem, the combined DE/FE method is employed, as
DEM is suitable to simulate glass while FEM is applicable to model the polyvinyl butyral (PVB) lm and
impact body. The algorithms of the fracture model are implemented into the in-house developed code,
named CDFP. This developed code is applied to simulate the fracture process of automobile laminated
glass beam subjected to impact and the results are compared with those obtained by experiment.
& 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
Finite element method
Discrete element method
Fracture model
Cohesive model
Laminated glass

1. Introduction
Automobile laminated glass, which is pressed from two pieces
of glass plate and one piece of polyvinyl butyral (PVB) lm under
high temperature, is one of important parts of automobile. The
mechanical property of automobile laminated glass, especially the
fracture property, is very important for passenger's safety from
many trafc accidents. So a number of investigations have been
conducted on the impact fracture of automobile laminated glass.
Dharani et al. [1] studied the dynamic response of automobile
laminated glass subjected to impact of the human head model by
using dynamic non-linear nite element method. Flocker and
Dharani [2] investigated the inuence of cone crack of the impact
side on the mechanical property of the laminated glass. Seshadri
et al. [3] studied the post-glass fracture behavior of laminated
plates. Xu et al. [4] studied the crack propagation mechanism of
windshield plate subjected to impact of a model head-form at lowspeed by using XFEM. The research mentioned above is done
based on nite element method, originally based on continuum
mechanics. DEM, originally based on non-continuum mechanics, is
considered as an effective numerical method to simulate the
fracture and damage process of brittle material [5]. So some
researchers studied automobile laminated glass by using discrete
element method. Oda, Zang et al. simulated the impact problems

This work was supported by the International Cooperation Project of the

Ministry of Science and Technology of China (No. 2008DFA51740), the National
Natural Science Foundation of China (Nos. 10972079 and 11172104).
n
Corresponding author. Tel.: 86 139 22252102.
E-mail addresses: hbweigao@126.com (W. Gao), myzang@scut.edu.cn (M. Zang).

0955-7997/$ - see front matter & 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enganabound.2013.11.011

of automobile laminated glass by using DEM. They established a 2D

discrete element model of laminated glass beam and got a number
of useful research ndings [6,7]. Then, Zang and Lei established a 3D
discrete element model and simulated the process of laminated
glass plane subjected by rigid sphere in term of MohrCoulomb
criterion [8,9]. When the criterion is met, the type of interaction
between the corresponding discrete elements translates from connection to contact instantaneously, namely translate from continuum to non-continuum. To maintain the stability of numerical
calculation, the radius of discrete element should be small enough.
The cohesive model is a material separation model which has
been successfully applied to simulating the fracture of brittle
material in FEM. Recently, Kim et al. [10] applied cohesive model
to 2D discrete element to simulate the fracture process of concrete
by utilizing the commercial discrete element software (PFC-2D).
To avoid too small size of DE mentioned above and describe the
fracture process veritably, a fracture model for 3D discrete element
based on cohesive model is presented. After that, a corresponding
numerical analysis code, which is programmed by using Fortran95
language and the object oriented analysis (OOA) method [11], is
implemented into the in-house developed code, named CDFP
[9,12]. The developed code is applied to analyze the fracture
process of laminated glass beam subject to impact. The calculated
results are compared with those obtained through experiment.

2. The theory of discrete element method

In the present work, the spherical DEM is used. The basic idea
of the spherical DEM is to divide the structure into a set of rigid

W. Gao, M. Zang / Engineering Analysis with Boundary Elements 42 (2014) 27

spherical elements, namely discrete elements; there are one or

more forces acting on each element, and the motion of elements is
governed by Newton's second law. The response of the whole
structure is described through the motion of each element in the
structure. The equations for the translational and rotational
motion of element i, with no damping are
!
2
Ni
d ui
mi

g
f ik Ri
1
2
dt
k1
Ii 

Ni
di
r ik  f ik K i
dt
k1

where Ni is the total number of the neighboring elements of

element i; mi and I i denote the mass and the inertia tensor
of element i respectively; ui is the displacement of the mass
center of element i, and g is the body force acceleration; i is the
rotational velocity of the element; f ik is the force acted on element
i by its neighboring element k, and r ik is the arm of force f ik to the
mass center of element i; Ri and K i are the external forces and
moments of element i respectively. The external forces include the
combined force, the contact force, the exterior applied force and so
on. The spherical elements are linked with each other by one
normal spring and two tangential springs. The connective force
between the two adjacent elements, f ik , is calculated by the
relative displacements and the spring constants of the elements.
It is worth noting that in Eqs. (1) and (2) not only the translational
and rotational degrees of freedom are uncoupled, but also the
three rotational degrees of freedom are uncoupled, as the reference axes for calculating angular momentum and the components
of inertia tensor are coincident with the principal axes of inertia.
According to dynamics of rigid bodies, however, since the principal
moments of inertia of the discrete element with other shapes are
not equal, the three rotational degrees of freedom may be coupled,
even if the reference axes are coincident with the principal axes of
inertia. Since the kinematic equations of the spherical discrete
element are uncoupled as mentioned above, and the combined
discrete/nite element method proposed in this paper is aimed at
simulation of dynamic problems, the Central Difference Method
(CDM) is adopted both in FE calculation region and DE calculation
region. CDM is only numerically stable if the time step is less than
the critical time step. The critical time step can be obtained
according to the methods proposed in paper [13,14].

3. The combined DE/FE method

The basic idea of the combined DE/FE method is to decompose
the calculation domain into discrete element areas and nite
element areas to calculate, as shown in Fig. 1. In the gure, the
volume of the solid is divided into two parts, a (FE part) and b
(DE part). FE part is analyzed by nite element method, while DE
part is calculated by discrete element method. Sab denotes the
interface between part a and part b. The interaction between DE
part and FE part is processed by a penalty function method [9,15].
Treatment of combining between spherical discrete elements and
interface of FE region is shown in Fig. 2. In the gure, D is the mass
center of a discrete element. N 1 ; N 2 ; N3 ; N4 are the nodes of a nite
element, while N 1 ; N 4 are on the interface. Bd ; Be denote the
combined point on DE and surface of FE respectively. At the initial
time, combined points Bd ; Be coincide with each other shown in
Fig. 2(a). Because a penalty function method is employed to
process the interface interaction, the displacement continuity is
only approximately met. In other words, combined points Bd ; Be
may not coincide exactly with each other when structure deforms
as shown in Fig. 2(b). The combined force between the spherical

Fig. 1. Solution domain divided into two subregions.

Fig. 2. Spatial conguration of FE-DE combination model: (a) at the initial time;
(b) at other time.

discrete element and surface of a nite element can be calculated

as follows:
f b b kb Ab
d

where f b is the combined force acting on the discrete element by

the surface. b denotes the penalty factor. A is the combining area
of the discrete element. In the present investigation, the cubic
arrange discrete element model is employed. So the combining
area is A 4r 2 . kb minke ; kd is interface stiffness. Here, ke
Ee =1 2e , and kd Ed =1  2d where Ee and Ed are Young's
modulus of the materials in FE and DE subdomains, respectively;
e and d are Poisson's ratio of the materials in FE and DE
subdomains, respectively. b is the vector between combined
points, such as the vector from Bd to Be shown in Fig. 2(b), and
can be calculated as follows:

b ptd  pte

where ptd , pte are the position vectors of the combined point on
discrete element and nite element at time t respectively. The
position vector of the combined point on DE can be obtained by
the following expressions:
ptd ptc Rtd

where ptc is the position vector of the mass center of the DE at time t;
Rtd denotes the vector from the mass center to the combined point
on the DE at time t. Here, et et  t t t  et  t =
J et  t t t  et  t J is the unit vector from the mass center of
the DE to the combined point which is bound to the
DE. t and r are the rotational velocity and radius of the DE
respectively.

W. Gao, M. Zang / Engineering Analysis with Boundary Elements 42 (2014) 27

The position vector of the combined point on FE can be

calculated as follows:
pte N I ptI

where ptI is the position vector of node I of the FE surface at

current time step. NI is the value of the shape function, which is
obtained at initial, namely before the rst time step.
Based on the force interaction principle, the force acting on the
e
combined point of FE surface, f b , is
e

f b f b

The combined force acting on the surface can be distributed

over the nodes of the surface according to the following equation
[16,17]:
eI

f b NI f b

eI
fb

where
denotes the part of the combined force to be distributed
to the node with the index number I.

4. The DE/FE contact method

The DE/FE contact method based on the node-to-surface
contact method [12] is employed in this paper. The contact method
treats each spherical discrete element as a slave node and the
surfaces of the nite element domain as the master surfaces, as
shown in Fig. 3. In the gure, S is the master surface. D denotes the
mass center of the discrete element, and C is the contact point on
the master surface. The penetration vector c , between discrete
element and master surface, can be calculated by the following
equation:
(
r  J d  xc J n for J d  xc J o r
c
9
0
for J d  xc J Z r
where n d  xc = J d  xc J can be considered as the unit normal of
the master surface. Here, xc is the position vector at contact point C.
The contact force with no friction based on Hertz model can be
calculated by using penalty function method as
d
fc

c kc r

1=2

J c J

3=2

ec

10

where c denotes the penalty factor. kc min(ke,kd) is the material

parameter. Here, ke Ee =1  2e , kd Ed =1  2d , where Ed and
d are Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio of the materials in DE
domain. Ee and e are Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio of the
material in corresponding FE domain respectively. ec c = J c J
d
denotes a unit vector of the penetration vector. f c is the contact
force acting on the discrete element by the surface of FE. The contact
force can be distributed to the node by using Eqs. (7) and (8).

5. Interaction between discrete elements

Inthe traditional spherical discrete element model, the joint
types between elements can be classied into two kinds: connective models and contact models. In the connective models,
spherical element is linked by springs and there is no space
between them. The deformation compatibility conditions are
considered. Then, the connective models are usually used to solve
mechanical problems of continuum. In the contact models, which
are the typical joint type of an assemblage of blocks and granular
materials, there is no restriction of deformation compatibility
conditions. The models are usually applied to contact problems
of blocks and granular materials. In the present work, the actions
between two connect elements are calculated by using the model
proposed by Liu et al. [5,18]. In this model, the structure is divided
into a set of rigid spherical elements and the connect elements are
connected by three springs. The spring constants are derived from
the theory of continuum mechanics in a view of energy equivalence. The forces of two contact elements are calculated by using
the theory of Hertz [19].
Since the fracture process of brittle materials is in essence the
processes of the materials transferring from continuum to noncontinuum [5], it is advisable to apply a joint type to simulate the
process of transferring, namely a transition state between continuum and non-continuum. The cohesive model, which is commonly employed in FEM, is applied in this paper. When a certain
fracture criterion is met, the connective model translates into
cohesive model, which allows the crack to propagate. The forces
between the elements are obtained from the cohesive model.

5.1. Interface stress between connective elements

The interface stress between connective elements can be
calculated as follows:
sn F n =A

11

ss F s =A

12

where sn and ss are normal interface stress and tangential interface stress respectively. Fn and Fs are the normal force and
tangential force respectively. A is equivalent area between the
connective discrete elements. The connect model transfers to
cohesive model, when the fracture initiation condition is met
sn Z sc

13

where sc is the maximum cohesive strength of material.

5.2. Calculation of cohesive force between DEs
Cohesive model is commonly employed in nite element
method and various models are proposed, such as exponential
cohesive model [20], bilinear cohesive model [21,22], and monotonically decreasing cohesive strength model [2325]. In the present
investigation, the cohesive model adopted is the one proposed by
Oritiz and Pandol [26]. The model relates the interface stress to the
interface separation based on effective quantities. The effective
interface separation eff is dened as
8 q
< 2 2 for 4 0
s
n
n
eff
14
: J s J
for n r 0

Fig. 3. The contact between a discrete element and a master surface.

where n and s denote normal interface separation and tangential

interface separation respectively; is the shear stress factor which
represents the mixed effect of the mode.

W. Gao, M. Zang / Engineering Analysis with Boundary Elements 42 (2014) 27

The maximum of the effective interface separation can be

obtained as follows:

t max
eff

maxt eff ; t  t eff

max

15

where t is the time step. Thus, t eff is the maximum of the

effective interface separation from the initial to current time t . At
max
initial, the value is t eff 0. Fig. 4 depicts the irreversibility of the
cohesive model. The maximum of the effective interface separation is monotonously increasing and can be employed as indicator
max
for loading or unloading. If the conditions eff eff and _ eff Z 0
are met, the loading condition is indicated. Otherwise, the unloading condition is indicated.
The effective interface stress seff is dened as
max

smax
eff
eff
seff
max
eff

max
for eff o eff or _ eff o 0

eff
seff sc 1 
c

16

17

where smax
eff sc 1  eff =c is the maximum of the effective
interface stress. So Eq. (16) can be rewritten as
!
eff eff
max
18
seff sc max 
for eff o eff or _ eff o 0
max

eff

It can be seen that Eqs. (17) and (18) can be written uniformly as
!

eff eff

c
max
eff

seff sc

for eff r eff

max

19

where sc and c is the tensile strength of material and critical

interface separation respectively.
max
According to Eq. (15), the inequality eff r eff constantly hold,
so Eq. (19) can be rewritten as
!

eff eff

c
max
eff

seff sc

20

It is worth noting that the effective interface stress seff is zero,

max
when the maximum of the effective interface separation eff is
more than critical interface separation c, namely
for eff Z c
max

seff 0;
max
for eff eff ; _ eff Z 0

21

The cohesive stress between DEs can be calculated as

sn eff

n
max
eff

ss 2 eff

s
max
eff

22

23

where sn and ss are normal cohesive stress and tangential stress

respectively. The cohesive stress which resists the opening and
sliding of the discrete elements is weakening irreversibly with
increasing interface separation, as shown in Eqs. (15)(23).
The cohesive force between DEs can be calculated as
F n sn A

24

F s ss A

25

It is worth noting that there are three main parameters

affecting the cohesive model, the maximum cohesive strength sc,
the critical interface separation c and the shear stress factor . The
maximum cohesive strength is usually assumed as the tensile
strength of material [22]. The critical interface separation can be
obtained as follows:

c 2Gc =sc
Fig. 4. Relationship between effective traction and separation.

26

where Gc denotes critical energy release rate.

Fig. 5. The cracks occurrence and propagation of the automobile glass beam obtained by experiment. (a) time interval for taking phone is 20 s and (b) time interval for
taking phone is 100 s.

Fig. 6. The model of laminated beam. (a) Diagram model and (b) DE/FE discretization model.

W. Gao, M. Zang / Engineering Analysis with Boundary Elements 42 (2014) 27

The corresponding numerical analysis code, which is programmed by using Fortran95 language and the object oriented
analysis (OOA)method [11], is implemented into the in-house
developed code, named CDFP.

6. Example: laminated glass beam subjected to impact

A laminated glass beam subjected to low velocity impact is
considered. The response of laminated glass beam to impact loading
has been investigated experimentally by Zang [27]. Because of the
capacity restriction of high speed camera, the experiment is
repeated to obtain the information of the crack occurrence and
propagation of the laminated beam. Fig. 5(a) in which the time
interval for taking photograph is 20 s shows the fracture process of
the glass layer on the impact side, while Fig. 5(b) in which the time
interval is 100 s shows the whole fracture process of the laminated
glass beam. For more detailed description on the experiment, refer
to that paper [27].
The fracture process of the laminated glass beam subjected by
an elastic body is numerically simulated by using the cohesive
model. The sizes of the beam, the support and the impact body are
shown in Fig. 6. The top surfaces of the two supports on the upside
and the bottom surfaces of the two supports on the downside are
xed. At initial, the beam is in contact with the supports without
pressure and the velocity of impact body with mass of 1 kg is
3.13 m/s. Because of the low velocity impact, the materials whose
properties are shown in Table 1 are assumed as linear elasticity.
According to Repetto et al. [28], shear stress factor is set to be
0.1 here.
The laminated glass beam is divided into three layers in the
thickness direction according to its material, where both the upper
and lower layers are glass layers with the thickness of 10.0 mm,
and the interlayer is polyvinyl butyral (PVB) lm with the thickness of 4.0 mm. The upper and lower layers are calculated by DEM,
while the interlayer is analyzed by FEM. The upper layer and the
lower layer contain 2500 elements with a radius of 1.0 mm, while
the interlayer is divided into 1000 eight-node solid elements. The
combined DE/FE method [9,15] is employed to deal with the

interaction between glass layers and PVB lm. The impact body
is divided into 54 eight-node solid elements. The contact between
DEM and FEM is processed by using the contact algorithm based
on penalty function method [12]. According to the research [12],
the penalty factor is set to be 1.0. The time integration is
performed by using the central difference method with a time
step 0:05 s.
The fracture process of the laminated beam is shown in Fig. 7.
In the gure, if the interaction betweens DEs becomes contact, the
DEs are shown more darker than other elements. It can be
observed that the rst crack occurs at time 12 s as shown in
Fig. 7(a). It is located on the bottom surface of the upper glass layer
just below the impact body. Afterwards, the cracks propagate
through the layer in a very short time. After a relatively long time,
the cracks occur on the free surface of bottom glass layer at 104 s
and penetrate through the whole layer quickly.
The impact force between the impact body and laminated glass
beam obtained by using CDFP is shown in Fig. 8. Because of energy
release of laminated glass beam while fracture, the vertical speed
of the mid-part of the beam is bigger than the impact body and
they depart from each other. So there is no contact force from
200 s to 930 s. During this time, the velocity of the mid-part of
the beam begins to decrease because of the effect of the support at
the ends of beam and PVB lm. However, the velocity of the
impact body decreases quit small and non-obviously. So they are
in contact again.
Compared with Fig. 5, it can be seen that there is difference in
the occurred time of the cracks between experiment and simulation, since the mechanical properties of PVB have great inuence

Table 1
Material parameters.
Parameter
3

Density (kg/m )
Young's modulus (GPa)
Poisson ratio
Tensile strength (MPa)
Energy release rate (N/m)

Glass

PVB

Support

Impactor

2500.0
74.09
0.2
50.0
10.0

870.0
50.0
0.48

2400.0
5.0
0.4

200.0
0.27

Fig. 8. The impact force obtained by simulation.

Fig. 7. Impact fracture process of laminated glass obtained by simulation. (a) Time 12 s, (b) time 24 s, (c) time 104 s, (d) time 118 s and (e) time 930 s.

W. Gao, M. Zang / Engineering Analysis with Boundary Elements 42 (2014) 27

on the occurred time of the cracks. However, the location and

sequence of the cracks are found to be in good agreement with
experiment. It is advisable to make the conclusion that the fracture
model can be used to investigate the fracture of automobile
laminated glass.
7. Conclusions
The results obtained in the present investigation can be summarized as follows:
(1) A fracture model for spherical discrete element method is
presented based on cohesive model.
(2) A corresponding numerical analysis code is implemented into
the in-house developed code, CDFP.
(3) The developed code is applied to analyze the fracture process
of automobile laminated glass beam. The calculated results are
compared with that obtained by experiment.
Because of the complexity of the impact fracture of laminated
glass, the present investigation is still in the stage of qualitative
analysis. In order to analyze quantitatively, there are many aspects
needed to prove, such as the more accurate physical properties of
PVB and the parameters of glass.
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