Electrochemistry

Form 4 Chemistry Chapter 6: Electrochemistry
Electrolytes and Non-electrolyte

1. An electrolyte is a chemical compound which conducts
electricity in the molten state or in an aqueous
solution and undergoes chemical changes.
2. Examples of electrolytes are sodium chloride solution,
sulphuric acid, molten lead (II) bromide.
3. Examples of non-electrolytes are iron, naphthalene, latex
and sugar solution.
Electrolysis
Electrolysis is a process of decomposition of an
electrolyte by an electric current.
1. During electrolysis, anion move towards the anode and

cations move towards the cathode.
2. Graphite or platinum is usually used as electrodes
because they are inert.
Electrolysis of Molten Lead (II) Bromide
1. Solid lead (II) bromide, its ions are unable to move.

When the solid melt, cations and anions are freely move.
2. Cations (lead ions) move to the cathode (negative
electrode) while the anions (bromide ions) move to the
anode (positive electrode).
3. Cations are discharged by accepting electrons
(reduction).
Pb2+ + 2ePb
4. Anions are discharged by losing electrons (oxidation).
2BrBr2 + 2e-
Overall chemical reaction equation

Pb2+ + 2ePb
2BrBr2 + 2ePb2+ + 2BrBr2 + Pb
5. At anode, pungent brown gas that changes damp blue
litmus paper to red is evolved.
6. At cathode, shiny grey metal is deposited.
Exercises
Write the products, ionic equations and observation for
the electrolysis below
1. Molten zinc chloride
Cathode
Anode
Overall Reaction
2. Molten copper (II) oxide

Cathode
Anode
Overall Reaction
Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions

1. An aqueous solution usually consists of two type of
cations and anions. Despite the cation and anion of the
salt, the water molecules ionizes to produce hydrogen
ions and hydroxide ions.
2. For example, potassium bromide solution consists of K+,
Br-, H+ and OH- ions.
3. During electrolysis of an aqueous solution, 2 types of
cations will move the cathode while anions will move to
anode. However, only one type of cation and anion will
be selectively discharged.
4. The factor that determine the types of ions to be
discharged at electrodes are:
a) Position of ions in the electrochemical series
b) Concentration of ions in the solution
c) Type of electrodes used
Position of ions in the electrochemical series
The lower the position of the ion in the

electrochemical series, the easier the ion will be
discharged.
Example: Electrolysis of copper (II) sulphate by using
inert electrode
Types of ions
Anode
Cathode
Overall Equation
Products:
10
Effect of concentration of ions in the solution

1. When the concentration of a particular type of ion is
high, that ion will more likely to be discharged in
electrolysis irrespective of its position in the
electrochemical series.
2. Usually, in the electrolysis of concentrated halide
(Cl-/Br-/I-) solutions, the concentration of the halide is
always higher than the hydroxide ion. Hence halide ions
will be selectively discharged at the anode.
Example: Electrolysis of concentrated sodium
chloride solution
11
Types of ions
Anode
Cathode
Overall Equation
Products:
12
Generally, in the electrolysis of halide solution using

carbon electrodes:
a) A concentration of more than 0.5M halide solution is
concentrated solution whereby the halide ions will be
selectively discharged at the anode.
b) A concentration of less than 0.005M halide solution is
considered a dilute solution whereby the hydroxide
ions will be selectively discharged at the anode.
c) Electrolysis of a solution with a concentration of
between 0.005M to 0.5M may result in two types of
products which are oxygen and halogen at the anode.
13
Effect of types of electrodes used

1. The common materials used as electrodes are carbon and
platinum because they are inert.
2. If other metal electrodes are used other than carbon or
platinum, the products of anode will be affected.
3. Instead of anion getting discharged, the reactive
electrode at the anode will be corroded (oxidized).
Example: Electrolysis of Copper (II) Sulphate
Solution using Copper Electrodes
14
Types of ions
Anode
Cathode
Overall Equation
Products:
15
Exercises
Determine the products and write the ionic equation for
the following electrolysis processes.
1. Electrolysis of sulphuric acid using carbon electrode
Types of ions
Anode
Cathode
Overall Equation
Products:
16
2. Electrolysis of silver nitrate solution using copper

electrodes
Types of ions
Anode
Cathode
Overall Equation
Products:
17
3. Electrolysis of copper (II) nitrate using carbon

electrodes
Types of ions
Anode
Cathode
Overall Equation
Products:
18
4. Electrolysis of concentrated potassium bromide solution

Types of ions
Anode
Cathode
Overall Equation
Products:
19
5. Electrolysis of magnesium chloride using carbon

electrode
Types of ions
Anode
Cathode
Overall Equation
Products:
20
Electrolysis in Industries
Extraction of Reactive Metals Using Electrolysis
1. Bauxite is the major ore of aluminium consisting of

aluminium oxide.
2. Cryolite (Na3AlF6) is added to aluminium oxide to lower
its melting point from 2000 oC to about 950 oC.
3. Molten aluminium oxide is electrolysed using carbon as
electrodes in the electrolytic cell.
4. Molten aluminium oxide dissociates into aluminium and
oxide ions
Al2O3
2Al3+
+ 3O2a) At cathode: Al3+ discharge to form aluminium metal
b) At the anode: O2- ions discharge to form oxygen gas
5. The carbon anode is required to be replaced from time to
time because the oxygen gas generated oxidised the
carbon anode to form carbon dioxide.
21
Extraction of Sodium Metal from Sodium Chloride
1. Sodium chloride is the most abundant and cheapest

sodium compound.
2. Electrolysis of molten sodium chloride is carried out
using iron as cathode and carbon as anode as in figure
above.
3. Calcium chloride is added to lower the melting point of
sodium chloride.
4. Molten sodium chloride dissociates into ions as follows
NaCl
Na+ + Cla) At the cathode: Na+ ions discharge to form sodium
metal. Sodium metal is less dense and floats on the top
of the electrolyte to be collected.
b) At the anode: Cl- ions discharge to form chlorine gas.
Chlorine gas is a useful by-product.
22
Purification of Metals Using the Electrolysis
Anode: Impure copper

Cathode: Pure Copper
Electrolyte: Copper (II) ion solutions such as copper (II)
nitrate
23
Observation
Inference
At the anode
At the cathode
Colour of electrolyte
24
Electroplating of Metal Using Electrolysis

1. Electroplating is a process carried out to coat the surface
of metal objects with a thin and even layer of another
metal.
2. Two main aims of electroplating metals are
a) To prevent corrosion
b) To improve the appearance.
3. An even and lasting layer of metal can be produced if

a) The surface of the object to be electroplated is first
polished using sandpaper.
b) A low electric current is used to that electroplating out
slowly during the electroplating process
c) The object to be plated is rotated steadily during
electrolysis
25
Voltaic Cells
Simple Cells
1. A simple voltaic cell can be made by immersing two
different types of metals in an electrolyte and connecting
the two metals by wires in external circuit.
2. In a simple voltaic cell, electrons flow from one metal to
another metal through the connecting wires in the
external circuit.
3. The more electropositive metal at a higher position in
the electrochemical series will release electrons and thus
acts as negative terminal (anode) of the voltaic cell.
4. The less electropositive metal will accept electrons and
acts as the positive terminal (cathode).
5. A continuous flow of electrons from the negative
terminal to the positive terminal of the cell through the
external circuit produces an electric current.
6. The flow of electric current can be detected by the light
bulb or the deflection of a galvanometer needle.
7. The potential difference (voltage) of the cell is the
electromotive (e.m.f) that move the electrons and can be
measured by a voltmeter.
8. The further the distance between the positions of two
metals in the electrochemical series, the bigger the
voltage of the cell. For example, a magnesium/copper
cell will produce a higher current voltage than
zinc/copper cell.
26
1.
According to reactivity series, magnesium is more

reactive than copper metal.
2. Therefore magnesium is served as anode (negative
terminal) while copper acts as cathode (positive terminal)
3. At anode, oxdation occur
Mg
Mg2+ + 2e4. Magnesium sulphate solution contains magnesium ion,
sulphate ion, hydrogen ion and hydroxide ion. Hydrogen ion
and magnesium ion are attracted to cathode.
5. At Cathode, hydrogen ions are discharged because it is
lower in electrochemical series.
2H+ + 2eH2
6. As a result, magnesium electrode becomes thinner while
colourless gas bubbles are released at copper electronde.
27
Different type of Voltaic Cells

Daniell Cell
1. A Daniel cell has copper metal as the positive terminal
and zinc metal as the negative terminal.
2. The zinc metal is immersed in zinc sulphate solution and
the copper metal is immersed in copper (II) sulphate
solution.
3. The two solutions of the Daniell cell are connected using
a salt bridge.
4. A salt bridge contains inert ions or salt that does not

react with the electrolyte. Example are sodium chloride,
potassium chloride, potassium nitrate, ammonium
chloride and dilute sulphuric acid.
5. A simple salt bridge can be made by immersing a piece
of filter paper in sulphuric acid or in a salt solution.
28
6. A porous pot has fine pores that allow ions to flow

through but can prevent the two different aqueous
solutions from mixing.
7. The functions of salt bridges and porous pots are to allow

the flow of ions so that the circuit is completed and to
prevent the two aqueous solution from mixing. This
will prevent displacement reaction between a more
electropositive metal and the salt solution of the less
electropositive metal from taking place.
29
Dry Cell
1. A dry cell consists of a carbon rod (positive terminal) and
a metal casing made of zinc (negative terminal)
2. The electrolyte is ammonium chloride in a form of a
paste.
3. When a dry cell is in use, the zinc metal (anode) releases

electrons and dissolves to form Zn2+ ions.
Zn
Zn+2 + 2e4. Electrons flow from the zinc metal casing through the
external circuit to the carbon rod where NH4+ ions
receive electrons to produce ammonia gas and hydrogen
gas
2NH4+ +
2e2NH3 + H2
5. When the cell produces an electric current, zinc metal
dissolves. When the zinc metal casing is perforated and
the electrolyte starts to leak, the dry cell can no longer be
used.
30
31
Lead-acid Accumulator
1. A lead-acid accumulator is made of pieces of lead plates
immersed in moderately concentrated sulphuric acid as
shown below.
2. When the accumulator is used to produce current, the

following changes occur
a) At the negative terminal, a lead atom donates 2
electrons to form a Pb2+ ion.
Pb
Pb2+ + 2eb) At positive terminal, lead (IV) oxide accepts
electrons and reacts with H+ ions in dilute sulphuric
acid to form Pb2+ ions.
PbO2 + 4H+ + 2ePb2+ + 2H2O
c) Lead(II) ions from bothe electrodes combine with
SO42- ions to produce insoluble lead(II) sulphate.
3. In this reaction, sulphuric acid is used up and water is
produced. Hence, sulphuric acid becomes more dilute
and its density decreases.
32
4. Lead (II) sulphate exist as precipitate and cover the

surface of both electrodes, further reaction is prevented
and no electric current will be produced.
5. Recharging process occurs as following
At anode (negative terminal)
PbSO4 + H+ + 2ePb + HSO4At anode (positive terminal)
PbSO4 + H2O
PbO2 + HSO4- + 3H+ + 2e-
33
Mercury Cell
1. A mercury cell consists of zinc (negative terminal),
mercury (II) oxide (positive terminal) and a mixture of
potassium hydroxide and zinc oxide as electrolyte.
2. Mercury cells are small and long-lasting producing a
constant voltage of 1.3V
3. Mercury cells are used in hearing aids, digital watches
and heart pacemakers.
34
Alkaline cell
1. Alkaline cells are non-rechargeable cells.
2. An alkaline cell consists of zinc (negative terminal),
carbon rod (positive terminal) surrounded by manganese
(IV) oxide and alkali as the electrolyte
Nickel-cadmium cell
1. A nickel-cadmium cell consists of cadmium (negative
terminal), nickel (IV) oxide, and alkali, potassium
hydroxide as the electrolyte. It is rechargeable.
35
The Electrochemical Series

1. The electrochemical series is an arrangement of elements
according to their tendencies to form ions
2. In the electrochemical Series, a metal that has a higher
tendency to ionise and form cation is placed at a higher
position in the series. Hence, metal ions at the upper
positions of the electrochemical series are less likely to
receive electrons to form metal atoms.
To Construct the Electrochemical Series Based on the

Potential Difference (Voltage Difference)
Problem statement
How to construct the electrochemical series based on the
measurement of the potential difference between pairs of
metals in simple voltaic cells?
36
Hypothesis
A metal that serves as the negative terminal of a cell is
placed at higher position in the electrochemical series.
The bigger the voltage difference of the voltaic cells, the
further apart the position of the two metals in the
electrochemical series.
Variables
MV: Pairs of metals as electrodes
RV: Voltage values of voltaic cells
CV: Type and concentration of electrolytes
Apparatus
Voltmeter, beaker, connecting wires with crocodile clips
and sandpaper.
Materials
Sodium chloride solution of 1M, pieces of copper, zinc,
magnesium, iron, aluminum and silver metals.
Procedure
1. Pieces of zinc, magnesium, iron, aluminium and silver
metals are polished with sandpaper.
2. A piece of zinc metal and a piece of copper metal are
connected to a voltmeter by the connecting wires with
crocodile clips.
3. The two metals are then dipped in the sodium chloride
solution in a beaker.
4. The highest cell voltage obtained is recorded.
37
5. The direction of the flow of electrons is also noted to

determine the terminals of the voltaic cell. Electrons flow
from the negative terminal to positive terminal. If the
voltmeter reading shows a negative value, the metal pairs
connected to the terminal should be reversed.
6. Zinc metal is then replaced by other metals in turn:
magnesium, iron, aluminum and silver. The highest cell
voltage of every pair of metals is recorded.
Result
Pairs of
Positive
metals
terminal
Negative
terminal
Potential
difference (V)
Zn / Cu
Copper
Zinc
1.1
Mg / Cu
Copper
Magnesium
2.7
Fe / Cu
Copper
Iron
0.8
Al / Cu
Copper
Aluminium
2.0
Ag / Cu
Silver
Copper
1.1
38
Example
The table shows information about three simple cells
Metal pairs
Potential
Positive
difference (V) terminal
P and Q
1.7
P
Q and S
2.1
S
R and S
0.6
R
What is the potential difference of the metal P and R?
39
An experiment is carried out to measure the potential

difference produced in voltaic cells made from metal
electrode pairs. The results of the experiment is recorded
in the table below.
Metal pairs
Negative
Potential
terminal
difference (V)
Q-P
Q
2.7
R-P
R
1.1
S-T
S
1.3
S-P
S
2.1
a) What is the order of metals from the most
electropositive to the least electropositive?
b) What is the potential difference of a voltaic cell made
of metal electrode pair Q-T?
40
The table below shows information about three voltaic

cells. Metal P, Q, R and S are used as electrodes in the
cells.
Negative
Positive
Voltage
terminal
terminal
P
Q
0.9
R
Q
1.3
R
S
2.1
What is the order of the metals from the most
electropositive to the least electropositive?
41
To construct the electrochemical series from

displacement reactions
Problem Statement
How to construct the electrochemical series based on the
ability of a metal to displace another metal from its salt
solution?
Hypothesis
A metal that can displace another metal from its salt
solution is placed at a higher position in the
electrochemical series. The greater the number of metals
that can be displaced by a metal from their solutions, the
higher its position in the electrochemical series.
Variables
MV: Different types of metal and their salt solutions.
RV: Deposition of metals or colour change in the salt
solutions
CV: Concentration of nitrate salt solutions.
Apparatus
Test tubes, test-tube rack and sandpaper
Materials
Pieces of Mg, Zn, Fe, Sn, Pb and Cu metal, solution of
copper (II) nitrate, lead (II) nitrate, tin (II) nitrate, iron
(II) nitrate, zinc nitrate and magnesium nitrate.
42
Procedure
1. Pieces of Mg, Zn, Fe, Sn, Pb and Cu metals are polished
with sandpaper.
2. 10ml of 0.5M solution of copper (II) nitrate, lead (II)
nitrate, tin (II) nitrate, iron (II) nitrate, zinc nitrate and
magnesium nitrate are placed into separate test tubes.
3. A piece of magnesium metal is placed in the solution of
every test tube except that of its salt solution.
4. Observations are made after a while to check if
a) There is any colour change in the solution
b) There are any solid deposits on the magnesium
metal
c) Magnesium metal dissolves
5. If any of the above occurrences is observed,
displacement reaction has taken place. A tick symbol is
marked in the table of results
6. If there is no noticeable observation, a cross symbol is
marked at the table to indicate that displacement reaction
did not take place.
7. The experiment is repeated using different metals and
fresh solutions of ions. The results of the experiment are
shown in the table below.
43
Result
Metal / Cu(NO3)2 Pb(NO3)2 Sn(NO3)2 Fe(NO3)2 Zn(NO3)2 Mg(NO3)2
solutio
n
Mg
Zn
Fe
Sn
Pb
Cu
44
Exercises
Table below shows the voltages obtained from three
voltaic cells using different pairs of metals.
Voltaic
Metal
Voltage
Positive
cell
pairs
(V)
electrode
1
X-Y
1.2
X
2
X-Z
0.9
X
3
Y-W
0.4
Y
a) Based on the observation above, arrange the metals, W,
X, Y and Z in an ascending order according to their
electropositivy.
b) A voltaic cell is made from metal Z and metal W. Which
metal will become the negative terminal of the cell?
Predict the voltage of the cell.
c) Predict what will happen if
i) Metal Y is immersed in a solution of Z salt
ii) Metal X is immersed in a solution of Y salt
iii)
Metal W is immersed in a solution of X salt
45

Electrochemistry

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Form 4 Chemistry Chapter 6: Electrochemistry

Electrolytes and Non-electrolyte

1. During electrolysis, anion move towards the anode and

Form 4 Chemistry Chapter 6: Electrochemistry

Form 4 Chemistry Chapter 6: Electrochemistry

Electrolysis of Molten Lead (II) Bromide

1. Solid lead (II) bromide, its ions are unable to move.

Form 4 Chemistry Chapter 6: Electrochemistry

Overall chemical reaction equation

Form 4 Chemistry Chapter 6: Electrochemistry

Form 4 Chemistry Chapter 6: Electrochemistry

2. Molten copper (II) oxide

Form 4 Chemistry Chapter 6: Electrochemistry

Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions

Form 4 Chemistry Chapter 6: Electrochemistry

Position of ions in the electrochemical series

The lower the position of the ion in the

Form 4 Chemistry Chapter 6: Electrochemistry

Form 4 Chemistry Chapter 6: Electrochemistry

Form 4 Chemistry Chapter 6: Electrochemistry

Effect of concentration of ions in the solution

Form 4 Chemistry Chapter 6: Electrochemistry

Form 4 Chemistry Chapter 6: Electrochemistry

Generally, in the electrolysis of halide solution using

Form 4 Chemistry Chapter 6: Electrochemistry

Effect of types of electrodes used

Form 4 Chemistry Chapter 6: Electrochemistry

Form 4 Chemistry Chapter 6: Electrochemistry

Form 4 Chemistry Chapter 6: Electrochemistry

2. Electrolysis of silver nitrate solution using copper

Form 4 Chemistry Chapter 6: Electrochemistry

3. Electrolysis of copper (II) nitrate using carbon

Form 4 Chemistry Chapter 6: Electrochemistry

4. Electrolysis of concentrated potassium bromide solution

Form 4 Chemistry Chapter 6: Electrochemistry

5. Electrolysis of magnesium chloride using carbon

Form 4 Chemistry Chapter 6: Electrochemistry

1. Bauxite is the major ore of aluminium consisting of

Form 4 Chemistry Chapter 6: Electrochemistry

Extraction of Sodium Metal from Sodium Chloride

1. Sodium chloride is the most abundant and cheapest

Form 4 Chemistry Chapter 6: Electrochemistry

Purification of Metals Using the Electrolysis

Anode: Impure copper

Form 4 Chemistry Chapter 6: Electrochemistry

Form 4 Chemistry Chapter 6: Electrochemistry

Electroplating of Metal Using Electrolysis

3. An even and lasting layer of metal can be produced if

Form 4 Chemistry Chapter 6: Electrochemistry

Form 4 Chemistry Chapter 6: Electrochemistry

According to reactivity series, magnesium is more

Form 4 Chemistry Chapter 6: Electrochemistry

Different type of Voltaic Cells

4. A salt bridge contains inert ions or salt that does not

Form 4 Chemistry Chapter 6: Electrochemistry

6. A porous pot has fine pores that allow ions to flow

7. The functions of salt bridges and porous pots are to allow

Form 4 Chemistry Chapter 6: Electrochemistry

3. When a dry cell is in use, the zinc metal (anode) releases

Form 4 Chemistry Chapter 6: Electrochemistry

Form 4 Chemistry Chapter 6: Electrochemistry

2. When the accumulator is used to produce current, the

Form 4 Chemistry Chapter 6: Electrochemistry

4. Lead (II) sulphate exist as precipitate and cover the