Form 4 Biology Chapter 6: Nutrition (b)

The Human Digestive System

Form 4 Biology Chapter 6: Nutrition (b)

Mouth
Perform mechanical digestion by using teeth. Cut the food into smaller
pieces so that the surface area is larger for digestion. Starch is mainly
digested by salivary amylase into maltose.
Glands: Salivary glands
Secretion: Saliva
Amylase
Starch + water

Maltose

Form 4 Biology Chapter 6: Nutrition (b)

Stomach
Main organ that digest protein. It consists of a mucus inner layer which
protect itself from the action of hydrochloric acid and enzyme. Because
of the mucus layer, absorption of nutrients is limited. The function of
hydrochloric acid is (a) stop the catalysing action of salivary amylase
on carbohydrate (b) prepare an acidic medium for pepsin to
function (c) kill all microorganisms

Glands: Stomach
Secretion: Gastric juice
Pepsin
Protein + water

polypeptide

Rennin
Caseinogen

Casein

Form 4 Biology Chapter 6: Nutrition (b)

Duodenum
It is the first section of small intestine and also the shortest part.
Glands: Pancreas
Secretion: Pancreatic juice
Pancreatic amylase
Starch + water

Maltose

Trypsin
Polypeptide + water

peptide

Lipase
Fat + water

Fatty acids + glycerol

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Form 4 Biology Chapter 6: Nutrition (b)

Function of gallbladder
Gallbladder stores bile salt produced by liver. Bile salt emulsifies oil by
breaking down large oil droplets into smaller one. This is to increase the
total surface area which is easy for lipid digestion by lipase. The bile is
alkali so it can neutralise the acid from the stomach.

Form 4 Biology Chapter 6: Nutrition (b)

Ileum
Ileum is the last section of small intestine that is about 2 to 4m long. The
pH is usually between 7 and 8.
Glands: Small intestine
Secretion: Intestinal juice
Maltase
Maltose + water

glucose

Sucrase
Sucrose + water

glucose + fructose

Lactase
Lactose + water

glucose + galactose

Erepsin
Peptide + water

amino acids

Form 4 Biology Chapter 6: Nutrition (b)

Digestion in Ruminants and Rodents

Form 4 Biology Chapter 6: Nutrition (b)

Form 4 Biology Chapter 6: Nutrition (b)

Comparison Between The Digestive Process in Humans, Ruminants

and Rodents

Form 4 Biology Chapter 6: Nutrition (b)

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Form 4 Biology Chapter 6: Nutrition (b)

Problems of Food Digestion

Incomplete Digestion of Food
1. Incomplete digestion of food causes indigestion.
2. Cause of indigestion:
a) Swallowing food without sufficient chewing
b) Eating too much
c) Intake of too much of fatty and spicy food
d) Excessive consumption of alcohol
e) Underscretion of certain digestive enzymes
f) Insufficient bile salts
g) Swallowing too much air while eating

3. Effect
a) The absorption of nutrients decreases
b) Uncomfortable in the abdomen such as nausea, bloating and
frequent burping
c) The release of internal toxins which increase the load to the kidneys,
liver and immune system.

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Form 4 Biology Chapter 6: Nutrition (b)

Gallstones Preventing the Flow of Bile

1. Bile contains water, cholesterol, fats, bile salts, proteins and bilirubin.
2. If the liquid bile contains too much cholesterol. Bile salts or
bilirubin, it can harden into gallstone.
3. When gallstones get stuck in any of the ducts that carry bile from the
liver to the small intestine, they block the flow of bile.
4. It may also block pancreatic duct causing gallstone pancreatitis.

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Form 4 Biology Chapter 6: Nutrition (b)

ABSORPTION AND ASSIMILATION

Adaptations of the Digestive System for Absorption
1. Absorption of digested food:
(a) takes place in the small intestine
(b) starts in the duodenum and is completed in the ileum
2. The adaptations of the small intestine to absorb digested food are:
(a) A large surface area with
i. Small intestine is long
ii. wall of the small intestine is folded inwards
iii. the inner surface of the small intestine is covered with fingerlike projections called villi.
iv. the epithelial cells of each villus are covered with microvilli.
(b) the microvilli is one-cell thick
(c) a comprehensive network of blood capillaries (capillary
network) within each villus to transport away absorbed nutrient
molecules all over the body.
(d) the lacteal within each villus transports away fatty acids,
glycerol and oil-soluble vitamins.

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Form 4 Biology Chapter 6: Nutrition (b)

The Structure of Villus

1. A villus is covered with epithelium. In the middle of a villus is a milky

white structure called lacteal. The lacteal is continuous with lymphatic
vessels.
2. Surrounding each lacteal is a network of blood capillaries. The blood
capillaries of all villi drain into a vein called the hepatic portal vein.
3. Water & water-soluble substances such as simple sugars (glucose,
fructose and galactose), amino acids, mineral ions vitamin B and C
are absorbed into the blood capillaries. The hepatic vein then carries
these food substances to the liver.
4. Fatty acids and glycerol diffuse into the epithelial cells of villi where
they combine to form fat droplets. The fat droplets are then deposited
into the lacteal, giving it a milky appearance.
5. Other lipids such as cholesterol and lipid-soluble vitamins such as
vitamin A, D, E and K are also deposited into the lacteal.
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Form 4 Biology Chapter 6: Nutrition (b)

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Form 4 Biology Chapter 6: Nutrition (b)

Absorption in the Colon

1. The colon:
(a) has no digestive activity
(b) has no villi but the epithelium lining of its mucosa is for
absorption
2. The colon absorbs
(a) water
(b) vitamins, including biotin, folic acid, vitamin K, and several B
vitamins produced by bacteria.
(c) electrolytes/minerals like sodium and chloride
3. Nutrients absorbed are transported to the liver via the hepatic portal
vein.

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Form 4 Biology Chapter 6: Nutrition (b)

Functions of the Liver

1. Functions of liver:
(a) Remove and stores iron and vitamins A, D, E, and K
(b) Makes plasma protein (albumin, globulin, fibrinogen, prothrombin
and haemoglobin)
(c) Detoxifies poisonous substances (e.g. alcohol, drugs, traces of
insecticides, herbicides and other toxic chemicals)
(d) Maintain a constant blood glucose
(e) Converts amino acids to glucose (when body runs out of glucose)
(f) Maintain a constant blood amino acid level (excess amino acid is
converted into urea, while remainder of amino acid is changed into
carbohydrate)
(g) Regulation of lipids (excess lipids are removed from the body,
changed into carbohydrates or sent to fat storage sites)
(h) Removes haemoglobin molecules that are old or die (haemoglobin
is converted into bile pigments while the iron is saved up)
(i) Produce bile
(j) Produce heat
(k) Produce cholesterol

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Form 4 Biology Chapter 6: Nutrition (b)

Assimilation of Food
The Process of Assimilation in the Liver
Amino Acids
Amino acids have to pass through the liver before they reach the blood
circulatory system.
The liver synthesizes plasma proteins from amino acids.
Plasma proteins have various functions, for example, blood clotting and
osmoregulation.
When a short supply of glucose and glycogen occurs, the liver converts
amino acids into glucose.
Excess amino acids connot be stored in the body and are broken down in
the liver through a process called deamination.
During deamination, urea, the common nitrogenous waste product of
humans, is produced and transported to the kidneys to be excreted.

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Form 4 Biology Chapter 6: Nutrition (b)

Glucose
Glucose in the liver is used for respiration. According to the needs of the
body, excess glucose is converted into glycogen and stored in the liver.
When the blood sugar level falls and the body, the stored glycogen is
converted back into glucose.
Once the glycogen store in the liver is full, excess glucose is converted
into lipids by the liver.

Lipids
Lipids which enter the heart through the subclavian veins are transported
in the bloodstream to body cells.

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Form 4 Biology Chapter 6: Nutrition (b)

The Process of Assimilation in the Cells

Amino acids
Amino acids which enter the cells are used for the synthesis of new
protoplasm and the repair of damaged tissues.
They are also important building blocks in the synthesis of enzymes and
hormones.
Amino acids are also used in the synthesis of proteins of plasma
membrane.

Glucose
When the glucose molecules reach the body cells, they are oxidized to
release energy during cellular respiration.
Energy is required for the various chemical processes which take place
in the cell, for example, in muscle contraction and synthesis of proteins.
Excess glucose is also stored as glycogen is a long-chained
carbohydrate molecule that is insoluble in water.

Lipids
Lipids such as phospholipids and cholesterol are major components of
plasma membranes
Fats that are stored around organs act as cushions that protect organs
from injuries.
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Form 4 Biology Chapter 6: Nutrition (b)

Excess fats are stored in the adipose tissue underneath the skin as
reserve energy.
When the body lacks glucose, fats are oxidized to release energy.

FORMATION OF FAECES AND DEFECATION

Colon
1. The intestinal contents consist of a mixture of water, undigested food
substances, dead cells and dead bacteria and indigestible fibre.
2. Movement of undigested materials is helped by peristalsis.
3. The colon reabsorbs almost 90% of water and minerals into the
bloodstream.
4. The remaining will form the faeces.

Rectum
1. The faeces pass to the rectum for temporary storage.
2. As the faeces accumulate, pressure in the rectum increases, causing a
desire to expel the faeces from the body.

Defecation
1. The elimination of faeces is known as defecation.
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Form 4 Biology Chapter 6: Nutrition (b)

2. The muscles around the anus, the opening of the rectum will contract
and eject the faeces via the anus.

Defecation Related Problems

Constipation
Condition where faeces becomes hard, dry, and difficult to pass and
bowel movements do not happen very often.

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Form 4 Biology Chapter 6: Nutrition (b)

Colon cancer
A type of cancer that develops in the tissues of the colon. It is cause by
carcinogens and eating a high fat, low fibre diet.

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Form 4 Biology Chapter 6: Nutrition (b)

Haemorrhoids
Condition where the veins around the anus or lower rectum is swollen
and inflamed. It can be caused by prolonged constipation or diarrhoea.

5. The importance of high fibre diets:

(a) prevents constipation, colon cancers and haemorrhoids
(b) stimulates peristalsis
(c) helps in weight control through the stomach-full feeling
(d) reduces heart disease
(e) absorbs and eliminates toxic substances
(f) regulates glucose absorption for diabetics
(g) prevents cancers of the colon and of the rectum
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Form 4 Biology Chapter 6: Nutrition (b)

The Role of Microorganisms in the Colon

The colon plays host to two groups of bacteria:
(a) Beneficial or good bacteria
(b) Pathogenic or bad bacteria

Beneficial Bacteria
1. Examples of beneficial bacteria are Bacteroides, Lactobacillus
acidophilus and Escherichia coli.
2. Functions are:
(a) digesting fragments of carbohydrate, protein and lipid that were
not digested in the small intestine
(b) fermenting cellulose fibres that were indigestible in the stomach and
in the small intestine
(c) producing amino acids and vitamins K and B-complex.
(d) producing antibiotic that controls the growth of pathogenic bacteria

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Form 4 Biology Chapter 6: Nutrition (b)

The Effect of Antibiotics on Microorganisms in the Colon

1. Antibiotics are a group of drugs commonly taken to treat bacterial
infections.
2. Antibiotics kill bad bacteria, but good bacteria as well.
3. If beneficial bacteria is completely killed, pathogenic bacteria will
repopulate the colon rapidly, bringing about an infection.

Health Problems Related To Eating Habits

A) Gastritis
1. Gastritis is the inflammation of the lining of the stomach wall.
2. There are various causes of gastritis:
a) Irregular meals when a person skips a certain meal the stomach
will be empty. The aciic gastric juice produce by the stomach will
act on the lining of the stomach instead, gradually corroding it.
Sometimes gastric ulcers are also formed.
b) Excessive smoking
c) Alcoholism
d) Stress
e) Insufficient chewing if food is not chewed properly, the stomach
wall will be burdened to churn food more thoroughly to break up
the food.
f) Prolonged intake of drugs such as painkillers.
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Form 4 Biology Chapter 6: Nutrition (b)

g) Helicobacter pylori bacteria which break down the mucus on the

surface of stomach lining, exposing the lining to the direct action
of gastric juices.
3. Gastritis can be treated by antacids. Antacids contain alkalis which
can neutralise the hydrochloric acid in gastric juice.

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Form 4 Biology Chapter 6: Nutrition (b)

B)

Obesity

1. When a person eats more than the body needs, excess food will be stored
in the body as fats. This can lead to obesity.
2. A person is said to be obese if his/her body weight exceeds the right
weight for his/her height by 20% or more.
3. BMI (Body Mass Index) can be calculated using the following formula:

A BMI of 18.5 24.9 is considered ideal. A person is said to be obese if

his BMI is 30 or more.

4. Obesity predisposes a person to various health problems such as high

blood pressure, heart diseases and disbetes mellitus. However, obesity
can be overcome by watching ones diet and exercising regularly to help
burn off fat.

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Form 4 Biology Chapter 6: Nutrition (b)

C) Anorexia nervosa
1. Anorexia nervosa is characterised by the loss of the desire to eat, due
to an obsession of maintaining a slim body. It is more common among
young single females.
2. An anorexic intentionally starves herself and will therefore become
emaciated over time. She has a low basal metabolic rate and her
mentruation may stop
3. If untreated, an anorexic patient may ultimately die of severe
undernourishment and malfunctioning of organ systems.
4. Treament consists of psychological therapy and regulation of diets.

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Form 4 Biology Chapter 6: Nutrition (b)

Karen Anne Carpenter was an American singer and drummer who died of
anorexia nervosa in 1983. She was believed to be the first known celebrity died of
anorexia.

D) Bulimia
1.

Like anorexia nerosa, bulilia typically affects young females.

2.

It is characterised by uncontrollable overeating followed by forced

purgin or vomiting.

3.

Out of fear of being overweight, a bulimic patient who has been binging
may induce voiting by digging into her throat or by taking purgatives.
Bulimia can cause undernourishment. It can aso lead to kidney and liver
problem and hormonal imbalance.

4.

Stress and depression are among the underlying factors. Thus, the
treatment of bulimia includes medical treatment coupled with
counselling.

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