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CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY

(QSD 182)

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Concrete block is usually considered a modular product. The Government's construction
agencies, however, are aware of the costliness to the concrete masonry industry of buying the
molds needed to produce concrete block in hard metric sizes and are attempting to minimize
this expense. Inch-pound (soft-converted) block substitutions are recommended in all cases in
which concrete block is used as a backup or infill material and in which architectural
considerations otherwise permit.
Concrete block in a hard metric size will only be specified in a federal construction project in
cases in which the block will be located in an architecturally exposed area or will be required to
fit together with other modular metric components. The concrete block must also be found to be
available at a reasonable cost.
The Corps of Engineers has stated that approximately 60 percent of the cost of a
concrete block wall is labor, 25 percent is the concrete block, and 15 percent is for other
materials such as mortar and reinforcement. In projects for which concrete block in a hard
metric size is needed, allowing inch-pound (soft-converted) block may save on the cost of the
block, but would substantially increase the amount of cutting and trimming and would
unreasonably increase labor costs. Therefore, in certain circumstances, it is logical and cost
effective for the Government to specify concrete block in a hard metric size.
Total installed cost should be the determining factor in the selection of concrete block.
Most often, concrete block is used as a back-up or infill material; when this is the case, inch-
pound block substitutions are recommended. Where concrete block in a hard metric size is
considered for use as an architectural material or as a primary structural system, cost and
availability should be determined in advance to judge the appropriateness of such use.c

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a A concrete block is primarily used as a building material in the construction of walls.
Concrete masonry unit (CMU).

a A concrete block is one of several precast concrete products used in construction.

a Most concrete blocks have one or more hollow cavities, and their sides may be cast
smooth or with a design.

a In use, concrete blocks are stacked one at a time and held together with fresh concrete
mortar to form the desired length and height of the wall.

a These early blocks were usually cast by hand, and the average output was about 10
blocks per person per hour.

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a Today, concrete block manufacturing is a highly automated process that can produce up
to 2,000 blocks per hour.

a The shapes and sizes of most common concrete blocks have been standardized to
ensure uniform building construction.

a The most common block size in the United States is referred to as an 8-by-8-by-16
block, with the nominal measurements of 8 in (20.3 cm) high by 8 in (20.3 cm) deep by
16 in (40.6 cm) wide.

a This nominal measurement includes room for a bead of mortar, and the block itself
actually measures 7.63 in (19.4 cm) high by 7.63 in (19.4 cm) deep by 15.63 in (38.8
cm) wide.

a Many progressive block manufacturers offer variations on the basic block to achieve
unique visual effects or to provide desirable structural features for specialized
applications.

a Another block design, called a split-faced block, includes a rough, stone-like texture on
one face of the block instead of a smooth face. This gives the block the architectural
appearance of a cut and dressed stone.

a Concrete blocks were first used in the United States as a substitute for stone or wood in
the building of homes.

a The homes built of concrete blocks showed a creative use of common inexpensive
materials made to look like the more expensive and traditional wood-framed stone
masonry building.

a This new type of construction became a popular form of house building in the early
1900s through the 1920s.

a While many houses used the concrete blocks as the structure as well as the outer wall
surface, other houses used stucco or other coatings over the block structure.

a c !"#c$% &'c("c)*+c(,#c-*c+',.!'c# c',)/%*#c'# !c#0#/"'÷

à rock-faced

à granite-faced

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à rusticated

 




The concrete commonly used to make concrete blocks is a mixture of powdered portland
cement, water, sand, and gravel.
This produces a light gray block with a fine surface texture and a high compressive
strength. A typical concrete block weighs 38-43 lb (17.2-19.5 kg).
In general, the concrete mixture used for blocks has a higher percentage of sand and a
lower percentage of gravel and water than the concrete mixtures used for general
construction purposes. This produces a very dry, stiff mixture that holds its shape when
it is removed from the block mold.
If granulated coal or volcanic cinders are used instead of sand and gravel, the resulting
block is commonly called a cinder block.
This produces a dark gray block with a medium-to-coarse surface texture, good
strength, good sound-deadening properties, and a higher thermal insulating value than a
concrete block. A typical cinder block weighs 26-33 lb (11.8-15.0 kg).
Lightweight concrete blocks are made by replacing the sand and gravel with expanded
clay, shale, or slate. Expanded clay, shale, and slate are produced by crushing the raw
materials and heating them to about 2000°F (1093°C). At this temperature the material
bloats, or puffs up, because of the rapid generation of gases caused by the combustion
of small quantities of organic material trapped inside.
A typical light-weight block weighs 22-28 lb (10.0-12.7 kg) and is used to build non-load-
bearing walls and partitions. Expanded blast furnace slag, as well as natural volcanic
materials such as pumice and scoria, are also used to make lightweight blocks.
In addition to the basic components, the concrete mixture used to make blocks may also
contain various chemicals, called admixtures, to alter curing time, increase compressive
strength, or improve workability.
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We can summarize that the constituent of blocks consists of materialcc

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Cements used in construction are characterized as 1+"*/%, or ! !21+"*/%,.

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The most important use of cement is the production of mortar and concrete²the
bonding of natural or artificial aggregates to form a strong building material which is
durable in the face of normal environmental effects.
Concrete should not be confused with cement because the term )!#crefers only to
the dry powder substance used to bind the agregate materials of concrete. Upon the
addition of water and/or additives the cement mixture is referred to as concrete,
especially if aggregates have been added.

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à Cement is made by heating limestone with small quantities of other materials (such
as clay) to 1450°C in a kiln, in a process known as calcination. The resulting hard
substance, called 'clinker', is then ground with a small amount of gypsum into a
powder to make 'Ordinary Portland Cement', the most commonly used type of
cement (often referred to as OPC).
à Portland cement is a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar and most non-speciality
grout. The most common use for Portland cement is in the production of concrete.
Concrete is a composite material consisting of aggregate (gravel and sand), cement,
and water. As a construction material, concrete can be cast in almost any shape
desired, and once hardened, can become a structural (load bearing) element.
Portland cement may be gray or white.

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à These are often available as inter-ground mixtures from cement manufacturers, but
similar formulations are often also mixed from the ground components at the
concrete mixing plant.

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à Contains up to 70% ground granulated blast furnace slag, with the rest Portland
clinker and a little gypsum. All compositions produce high ultimate strength, but as
slag content is increased, early strength is reduced, while sulfate resistance

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increases and heat evolution diminishes. Used as an economic alternative to

Portland sulfate-resisting and low-heat cements.

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à Contains up to 30% fly ash. The fly ash is pozzolanic, so that ultimate strength is
maintained. Because fly ash addition allows a lower concrete water content, early
strength can also be maintained. Where good quality cheap fly ash is available, this
can be an economic alternative to ordinary Portland cement.

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à Includes fly ash cement, since fly ash is a pozzolan, but also includes cements made
from other natural or artificial pozzolans.

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à Addition of silica fume can yield exceptionally high strengths, and cements
containing 5-20% silica fume are occasionally produced. However, silica fume is
more usually added to Portland cement at the concrete mixer.

  
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à Are used for decorative purposes. In some standards, the addition of pigments to
produce "colored Portland cement" is allowed. In other standards (e.g. ASTM),
pigments are not allowed constituents of Portland cement, and colored cements are
sold as "blended hydraulic cements".

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p 33 %*!2%,)c)!#' Mixtures of ground pozzolan and lime are the cements used
by the Romans, and are to be found in Roman structures still standing (e.g. the
Pantheon in Rome). They develop strength slowly, but their ultimate strength can be
very high. The hydration products that produce strength are essentially the same as
those produced by Portland cement.
%*.2%,)c)!#' Ground granulated blast furnace slag is not hydraulic on its own,
but is "activated" by addition of alkalis, most economically using lime. They are similar to
pozzolan lime cements in their properties. Only granulated slag (i.e. water-quenched,
glassy slag) is effective as a cement component.

/4"'/%-*#+c)!#' These contain about 80% ground granulated blast furnace

slag, 15% gypsum or anhydrite and a little Portland clinker or lime as an activator. They
produce strength by formation of ettringite, with strength growth similar to a slow
Portland cement. They exhibit good resistance to aggressive agents, including sulfate.
5*%,/)c*%/),!*#c)!#'care hydraulic cements made primarily from limestone and
bauxite. The active ingredients are monocalcium aluminate CaAl2O4 (CA in Cement
chemist notation) and Mayenite Ca12Al14O33 (C12A7 in CCN). Strength forms by hydration
to calcium aluminate hydrates. They are well-adapted for use in refractory (high-
temperature resistant) concretes, e.g. for furnace linings.

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Ú Ì"*6% is rock that is of a specific particle size range.

Ú Gravel is an important commercial product, with a number of applications. Many roadways
are surfaced with gravel, especially in rural areas where there is little traffic. Globally, far
more roads are surfaced with gravel than with concrete or tarmac

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Ú Multiple types of gravel have been recognized, including:

Ã
*!&c."*6%: gravel intermixed with sand or clay.

Ã
!c."*6%: a bed of gravel located on the side of a valley above the present stream
bottom, indicating the former location of the stream bed when it was at a higher level.

à *.c."*6%: a surface accumulation of coarse gravel produced by the removal of finer

particles.

à p*1c."*6%: also known as "pay dirt"; a nickname for gravel with a high concentration of
gold and other precious metals. The metals are recovered through gold panning.

à p*cÌ"*6%: gravel that consists of small, rounded stones used in concrete surfaces.
Also used for walkways, driveways and as a substrate in home aquariums.

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¦ Sandstone composed mainly of quartz grains

¦ Sandstones fall into several major groups based on their mineralogy and texture.

à Quartz arenites are made up almost entirely of quartz grains, usually well sorted and
rounded. These pure quartz sands result from extensive weathering that occurred before
and during transport and removed everything but quartz, the most stable mineral.
à Arkoses are more than 25 percent feldspar.T he grains tend to be poorly rounded and
less well sorted than those of pure quartz sandstones. These feldspar-rich sandstones
come from rapidly eroding granitic and metamorphic terrains where chemical weathering
is subordinate to physical weathering.
à Lithic sandstones contain many lithic fragments derived from fine-grained rocks, mostly
shales, volcanic rocks, and fine-grained metamorphic rocks.
à Graywacke is a heterogeneous mixture of lithic fragments and angular grains of quartz
and feldspar, and/or grains surrounded by a fine-grained clay matrix. Much of this matrix
is formed by relatively soft fragments, such as shale and some volcanic rocks, that are
chemically altered and physically compacted after deep burial of the sandstone
formation.

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Sandstone patterns on a
Sandstone with iron A sandstone quarry at A natural sandstone
Jodhpur, India chamber wall in Petra
oxide bands formation composed of
cemented quartz sand

(D) 3*#"

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Ú Water is the another important material to form the blocks

Ú The function of water is to mix another material that form blocks like cements,gravel and
sandstone
Ú The insufficient of using of water in making of blocks will causes the blocks become
unstable
Ú In conclusion, the using water must be balance/parallel with the quantity of another
material in order to from very strong/stable blocks

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#/*%c*!+c ),!*%c,3'. Concrete blocks come in specific sizes. The 3/8-inch mortar joint
has been adopted as the standard-size joint for joining blocks. The actual dimensions of the
block are fractional; when combined with a 3/8-inch mortar joint, the dimensions will come out
even in inches or nominal sizes. Therefore, a 15 5/8-inch stretcher block with a 3/8-inch mortar
joint equals 16 inches. The same explanation holds true for heights and widths.

14,*%c,3'c*!+c*4' Blocks come in both heavyweight and lightweight materials with

full- and half-length sizes. The three-core block can also be obtained as two-core blocks. Figure
2.1, illustrates some of the typical sizes and shapes of concrete blocks.

Figure 2.1 Types of Concrete Blocks

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¦  5
  A stretcher block is the most commonly used block in construction. It is
laid with its length parallel to the face of the wall.
¦ 5   A corner block is used for corners at simple window and door openings.
¦ Double Corner or Pier. A double-corner or pier block is used for constructing piers
pilasters or for any other purpose where both ends of the block would be visible.
¦
c  A bull-nose block serves the same purpose as a corner block, but it is
used where round corners are desired.
¦ ½ 
. A wood-sash jamb block is used with a stretcher and a corner block around
elaborate window openings. The recess in the block allows room for the various casing
members, as in a double-hung window.

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% & The most common concrete block is the hollow, load-bearing stretcher
block, which is 8 by 8 by 16 inches nominal size, but 7 5/8 by 7 5/8 by 15 5/8 inches actual size.
The heavyweight load-bearing stretcher block weighs from 40 to 50 pounds.

In Figure 2.2, the cores taper toward the top of the block, providing a wider face shell. Always
lay this block with the wider face up to allow for a greater area on which to lay a bed of mortar.

Figure 2.2 Hallow load-bearing stretcher block




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The production of concrete blocks consists of four basic processes: mixing, molding,
curing, and cubing. Some manufacturing plants produce only concrete blocks, while
others may produce a wide variety of precast concrete products including blocks, flat
paver stones, and decorative landscaping pieces such as lawn edging. Some plants
are capable of producing 2,000 or more blocks per hour.

The following steps are commonly used to manufacture concrete blocks:-

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à 1. The sand and gravel are stored outside in piles and are
transferred into storage bins in the plant by a conveyor belt as they
are needed. The portland cement is stored outside in large vertical
silos to protect it from moisture.
à 2. As a production run starts, the required amounts of sand, gravel,
and cement are transf erred by gravity or by mechanical means to a
weigh batcher which measures the proper amounts of each material.
à 3 .The dry materials then flow into a stationary mixer where they
are blended together for several minutes. There are two types of
mixers commonly used. One type, called a planetary or pan mixer,
re se mb le s a sh a llo w p a n wit h a lid . Mi xin g b la d e s a re a t t a che d t o a
vertical rotating shaft inside the mixe r. The other type is called a
horizontal drum mixer. It resembles a coffee can turned on its side
and has mixing blades attached to a horizontal rotating shaf t inside
the mixer.
à 4. Af ter the dry materials are b lended, a small a mount of water is
added to the mixer. If the plant is located in a climate subject to
temperature extremes, the water may f irst pass through a heater or
chiller to regulate its temperature . Admixture chemicals and
coloring pigments may also be added at this time. The concrete is
then mixed for six to eight minutes.

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à 5. Once the load of concrete is thoroughly mixed, it is dumped into

an inclined

bucket conveyor and transported to an elevated hopper. The mixing

cycle begins again f or the next load.

à 6. From the hopper the concrete is conveyed to another hopper on

top of the block machine at a measured f low rate. In the block
machine, the concrete is forced downward into molds. The molds
consist of an outer mold box containing several mold liners. The
liners determine the outer shape of the block and the inner shape of
the block cavities. As many as 15 blocks may be molded at one
time.
à 7. W hen the molds are full, the concrete is co mpacted by the weight
o f t he u p p e r mo ld h e a d co min g d o wn o n t h e mo ld ca vit ie s. Th i s
compaction may be supplemented by air or hydraulic pressure
cylin d e rs a ct in g o n t h e mo ld h e a d . Mo st b lo ck ma ch in e s a l so u se a
short burst of mechanical vibration to f urther aid compaction.
à 8. The compacted blocks are pushed down and out of the molds
onto a flat steel pallet. The pallet and blocks are pushed out of the
machine and onto a chain conveyor. In some operations the blocks
then pass under a rotating brush which removes loose material f rom
the top of the blocks.
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à 9. The pallets of blocks are conveyed to an automated stacker or
loader which places them in a curing rack. Each rack holds severa l
hundred blocks. W hen a rack is f ull, it is rolled onto a set of rails
and moved into a curing kiln.
à 10. The kiln is an enclosed room with the capacity to hold severa l
racks of blocks at a time. There are two basic types of curing kilns.
The most common type is a low-pres sure steam kiln. In this type,
the blocks are held in the kiln for one to three hours at room
temperature to allow them to hard en slightly. Steam is then
gradually introduced to raise the temp erature at a controlled rate of
not more than 60°F per hour (16°C per hour). Standard weight
blocks are usually cured at a temperature of 150-165°F (66-74°C),
while lightweight blocks are cured at 170-185°F (77-85°C). W hen
the curing temperature has been reached, the steam is shut off , and
the blocks are allowed to soak in the hot, moist air for 12-18 hours.
Af ter soaking, the blocks are dried by exhausting the moist air and
f urther raising the temperature in the kiln. The whole curing cycle
takes about 24 hours.

Another type of kiln is the high-pressure steam kiln, sometimes

called an autoclave. In this type, the temperature is raised to 300-
375°F (149-191°C), and the pressure is raised to 80-185 psi (5.5-
12.8 bar). The blocks are allowed to soak f or f ive to 10 hours. The
pressure is then rapidly vented, which causes the blocks to quickly
release their trapped moisture. The autoclave curing process
requires more energy and a more expensive kiln, but it can produce
blocks in less time.

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à 11 The racks of cured blocks are ro lled out of the kiln, and the
pallets of blocks are unstacked and placed on a chain conveyor.
The blocks are pushed off the steel pallets, and the empty pallets
are fed back into the block machine to receive a new set of molded
blocks.
à 12 If the blocks are to be made into s plit-f ace blocks, they are f irst
molded as two blocks joined together. Once these double blocks are
cured, they pass through a splitter, which strikes them with a heavy
blade along the section between the two halves. This causes the
double block to f racture and form a rough, stone-like texture on one
f ace of each piece.
à 13 The blocks pass through a cuber which aligns each block and
then stacks them into a cube three blocks across by six blocks deep
by three or f our blocks high. These cubes are carried outside with a
f orklif t and placed in storage.

/*%,# 1c5 !#" %c

The manuf acture of concrete blocks requires constant monitoring to
produce blocks that have the required properties. The raw materials a re
weighed electronically before they are placed in the mixer. The trapped
water content in the sand and gravel may be measured with ultrasonic
sensors, and the amount of water to be added to the mix is automatically
adjusted to compensate. In areas with harsh temperature extremes, the
water may pass through a chiller or heater bef ore it is used.

As the blocks emerge f rom the block machine, their height may be
checked with laser beam sensors. In the curing kiln, the temperatures,
pressures, and cycle times are all co ntrolled and recorded automatically
to ensure that the blocks are cured properly, in order to achieve their
required strength.

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Ma t e r ia ls se le ct io n is a c ru cia l f a ct o r in d e t e rmin in g t h e co st ,
quality, and corrosion protection for every engineering project. The
variety of increasingly durable materials and their combinations,
coupled with the rise of new and more critical service requirements
and the demand f or lower costs, have expanded upon trial-and-
error criteria into methodical, multi-dimensional approaches to
materials selection.
Th e se le ct io n of a sp e cif ic b lo ck wa s g e n e ra lly ma d e b y t he clie n t ,
that choose it by economic reasons, instead of technical reasons.

Anticipating f uture trends and prospects, the book also examines

the f oundations to several innovative technologies, including the
potential of tailor-made materials, various types of fuel cells, and
t h e p ro pe rt ie s of FG Ms in cu rre n t a n d f u tu re me t a llic a n d n o n -
metallic systems and models. In its final chapter, the book
highlights processes that are poised for production as well as
prospects still in experimentation and testing phases.
New Ma t e ria l s, Processes, and Methods Technology provides
today's scientists, technicians, and engineering departments
devoted to resolving application requirements with perf ormance
properties using a well-executed material selection process.

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Ú A Foursquare-style house design, appearing in the Radford

Architectural Company's 1908 catalog Cement Houses and How to
Build Them. It was one of hundreds of cancrete block house
designs off ered by the Radf ord company. They estimated that this
design could be built for about $2,250.00, much less than
traditional stone masonry houses of the time.
Ú W hen manuf acturers design a new block, they must consider not
o n ly t h e d e sire d sh a p e , b u t a lso t h e ma n uf a ct u rin g p ro ce ss re q u ire d
to make that shape.

Ú Shapes that require complex molds or additional steps in the

molding process may slow production and result in increased costs.
In some cases, these inc reased costs may off set the benef its of the
new design and make the block too expensive.

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Concrete block is an extremely flexible building material. Building with concrete block means
you have the flexibility to do just about anything you want. Whether it be a one- story home or a
three story home with such options as columns, arches, high ceilings and tall windows concrete
block provides the needed flexibility for every type of job.

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Concrete is one of the most durable materials on Earth. There¶s no rotting or wall warping. No
extensive maintenance or upkeep requirements. Your home retains it curb appeal and its value
± beautifully.c

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Concrete block homes are more energy efficient than wood homes, especially in hot, humid,
sun baked climate. That¶s because the mass factor of block acts as a reservoir to trap and store
heat from the sun, so that interiors stay cooler longer.

Another point: air infiltration from ³wall leaks´ is estimated to cause up to 39% of home energy
loss. Concrete block walls, which are more airtight than wood frame walls, seal in air
conditioned air far better ± while keeping out hot, humid air.

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Concrete block is a non-combustible material. Resistance to fire is of particular importance
since fire services in the countryside tend to be further away and take longer to arrive at the
scene of the fire. Concrete blocks are incombustible and will not burn, so the house
structure will stay intact in the event of fire. In contrast, if a timber frame structure catches fire it
will burn to the ground quickly.. In addition, concrete block significantly reduces unwanted noise
pollution.

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Wood frame homes are tasty targets for these destructive insects, but not block homes. What¶s
more, block homes are virtually immune to dry rot,

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After a hurricane passes, weather resistance may be the most important benefit to a home
buyer nowadays. In a concrete block home you and your family will enjoy increased safety and
peace of mind during dangerous weather. Moreover, block does not deteriorate in any way.

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Block walls are noted in this structure. There are many factors involved in the proper
construction of block and walls. This inspection cannot ascertain whether reinforcing bars are
properly installed or whether block cells are properly filled with concrete.

The only way to know if the reinforcing bars are properly installed is destructive testing.
Very little, if any maintenance considerations are necessary with this type construction. If
efflorescence, a "whitish" material, is seen on the wall, we could expect a water problem on the
opposite side, especially if the wall has earth against it, such as in basement construction.

The waterproofing agent used may be breaking down or the wall may be cracked. This
inspection will not ascertain whether water problems exist in this type construction if the
problems are not readily visible. Contact the inspector for further information regarding this
inspection limitation if necessary.

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¦ www.hometips.com
¦ www.ehow.com
¦ www.concretebolckshome.com
¦ www.askthebuilder.com
¦ http://en.wikipedia.org
¦ http://commons.wikimedia.org
¦ http://cementamericas.com/mag/cement_chinas_cement_demand/
¦ http://www.litebuilt.com/table3.htmlc
¦ http://www.concreteresources.net/categories/4F26A962-D021-233Fc
¦ æ
  
 . http://hypertextbook.com/facts/1999/KatrinaJones.shtml.c
¦ http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/infrastructure/materialsgrp/silica.htmæ
  
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¦ http://hypertextbook.com/facts/1999/KatrinaJones.shtml.c

 
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 Hornbostel, Caleb. 

 

   
 John W iley
and Sons, Inc., 1991.
 Koski, John A. "How Concrete Block Are Ma d e . "  


 October 1992, pp.374-377.
 Schierhom, Carolyn. "Producing Structural Lightweight Concrete
Block." 


   February 1996, pp. 92-94, 96, 98, 100-
101.
 W a rd e ll, C. "O p e ra t io n Fo u n d a t io n . "        
 
 De ce mb e r
1995, p. 31.
 Yeaple, Judith Anne. "Building Blocks Grow Up."   


June 1991, pp. 80-82. 108.

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