NDT of Precipitation Hardened Steels Using

Fluorescent Magnetic Particle Testing

by Bob Potter*

This month's "NDT Solution" discusses the challenges in

performing fluorescent magnetic particle testing of precipitation
hardened steels. The author has provided a good overview of the
primary types, heat treatment processes and commonly found
discontinuities in this class of steel. The author has done an
excellent job of presenting the basics and made the article
interesting and useful for the engineers and inspectors involved in
NDT of precipitation hardened steels.
G.P Singh
Associate Technical Editor

INTRODUCTION

This article concentrates on test findings of an aerospace finishing processor. The

findings are reported based on historical test results supported by third party
metallography. The findings are provided to the reader to better the understanding of
magnetic particle testing (MT). One of the greatest challenges of testing aerospace
parts using fluorescent MT is the testing of precipitation hardened stainless steels. Due
to the nature of precipitation hardened steel manufacturing and subsequent refining,
heat treating and cold working practices, it is imperative that the inspector have a basic
knowledge of precipitation hardened steel production to accurately test and classify the
associated discontinuities. Many discontinuities, when properly classified, are
acceptable and do not affect part design function. Common discontinuities associated
with precipitation hardened steels that are detected with MT include ferrite stringers,
metallic and nonmetallic inclusions and segregation.

Precipitation hardened steels are a popular design choice in the aerospace

sector.

Precipitation hardened steels, unlike ferritic, austenitic and martensitic steels, achieve
both high strength and corrosion resistance using age tempering techniques. These
steels are classified as either martensitic or semiaustenitic. Both types play key roles in
the final heat treat condition and in discontinuity formation. Austenite is a solid solution,
usually of carbon or iron carbide and is stable only at high temperatures. The presence
of certain alloying elements, such as nickel and manganese, stabilizes the nonmagnetic
austenite. Martensite is a phase formed by transformation of austenite during the
cooling of the metal. It is the hardest constituent of precipitation hardened steel and is
produced by rapid cooling following the heat treat cycle. Martensite is magnetic, with
moderate to high permeability. Conversely, semiaustenitic steels are semimagnetic, with
low permeability. Most precipitation hardened steels are supplied in the annealed
condition (condition A) to facilitate subsequent machining, forming and hardening
operations. Each of the precipitation hardened steels has a range of heat treatments
that produce an equally wide range of strength, hardness, microstructure and magnetic
permeability.
Hardening by aging is primarily accomplished after rapid cooling or cold working (ASM
International, 1976). As an example, 17-7PH is aged using a solution anneal
temperature of 1450 K (2150 F) for 4 h and by being air cooled. This process is
followed with a 1350 K (1975 F) heat for 4 h, air cooling, a 1120 K (1550 F) heat for 24
h, air cooling and finally a 1060 K (1440 F) heat for 16 h and air cooling to complete the
precipitation hardening process. Solution heat treatment is the process of heating an
alloy to a suitable temperature, holding it at that temperature long enough to allow one
or more constituents to enter into solid solution and then cooling it rapidly enough to
hold the constituents in solution.
Precipitation hardened steels are a popular design choice in the aerospace sector. This
is due to their high strength, corrosion resistance and mechanical properties. The
following provides primary features, heat treat options and magnetic permeability of the
most common precipitation hardened steels used in aerospace (Department of
Defense, 1993).

PRIMARY FEATURE OF PRECIPITATION HARDENED STEELS

Martensitic
15-5PH steel transforms to a low carbon martensite, supersaturated with copper in the
annealed condition. It is commonly refined by using vacuum arc remelting to achieve
the desired properties and composition (free of delta ferrite). The magnetic permeability
of this material significantly varies with heat treat condition, ranging from a permeability
of 95 in condition A (solution treated) to 151 in condition H900. There are seven different
heat treatments for this steel. Common aerospace applications include valves, shafts,
fasteners, fittings and gears. Of the precipitation hardened steels tested, not only was
this steel the most common, it also possessed the lowest amount of rejectable
discontinuities.

17-4PH steel has a composition similar to that of 15-5PH. It is a special chromiumnickel-copper alloy that achieves its strength and hardness through a combination of a
martensitic transformation and precipitation hardening. Much like 15-5PH steel, the high
percentage of copper content permits it to be hardened at low temperatures. At 1310 K
(1900 F), the material is austenitic but undergoes transformation to martensitic at
approximately 405 K (270 F). It has several of the same properties of 15-5PH steel,
only it may contain delta ferrite. In fact, of the precipitation hardened steels tested in this
study, this steel possessed the highest percentage of rejects. This is directly attributable
to the lack of proper classification of the principal discontinuity observed - ferrite
stringers. This is of concern to the NDT inspector because ferrite stringers have similar
indication characteristics to nonmetallic inclusions and segregation. The magnetic
permeability of this material remains consistent among the heat treat conditions ranging
from 71 in the H1150 condition to 136 in the H1075 condition. This steel is usually
produced in air melt furnaces and does not receive a secondary remelt. There are eight
different heat treatments for this steel. As with 15-5PH, this alloy is normally supplied in
the annealed or solution treated condition (condition A). Common aerospace
applications include hinges, structural parts and fasteners.

Semiaustenitic
13-8PH steel has high transverse toughness, good resistance to stress corrosion
cracking and high strength by a single low heat treatment. It is produced by vacuum
induction melting plus consumable electrode vacuum arc remelting. Common
aerospace applications include landing gears, structural sections, valves and shafts.
Based on a review of test history, this steel presented very few rejectable discontinuities
and was not included in this study.
17-7PH steel has high strength and moderate corrosion resistance. Aluminum is added
to this material to enhance weld slag formation during arc welding. The magnetic
permeability of this material significantly varies with heat condition ranging from a
permeability of 1.4 in condition A to 208 in condition TH1050. This steel is usually
produced in an air melt furnace. Common aerospace applications include springs and
washers. As with 13-8PH steel, this steel was not tested in this study due to low test
frequency.

INHERENT PROCESSING
The inherent processing of precipitation hardened steel originates in either standard air
melt or vacuum induction melt furnaces. At this stage, key alloy elements such as
chromium, nickel, molybdenum and manganese are added. Typical chemical
compositions and resulting mechanical properties of the common aerospace
precipitation hardened steels are listed in Table 1 (ASM International, 1976).

1 Typical properties of precipitation hardened streets

Precipitation
rdened Steels

Carbon

Chromium

Nickel

5-5 Martensitic

0.07%

15.0%

4.0%

7-4 Martensitic

8 Semiaustenitic

7 Semiaustenitic

0.07%

0.05%

17.0%

13.0%

4.0%

8.0%

Molybdenum

Other Elements

2.5 to 44.5% copper

0.30 cadmium
and tantalum

1030 MPa
(150 000 lb/in.2)

4.0% copper, 0.15

to 0.45 cadmium
and tantalum

1380 MPa
(200 000 lb/in.2)

Ultimate Tensile Strength

Hard

38

44

2.3%

45
1380 MPa
(200 000 lb/in.2)

0.09%

17.0%

7.0%

1.0% aluminum

85
8960 MPa
(1 300 000 lb/in.2)

During steel production, the molten steel is either continuously cast or cast using
traditional ingot casting methods. For continuously cast steels, the liquid steel is tapped
into a water cooled copper mold and begins to solidify as it travels down a conveyor
system for subsequent hot working (rolling or extrusion) to the desired shape. This
method provides good refinement but may contribute to the discontinuities described
herein. With the conventional cast system, the molten metal is poured into stationary
molds to form ingots. The ingots are then placed into an intermediate hold area for
subsequent rolling into the desired shape. Conventionally cast products usually receive
a homogenization treatment prior to rolling to improve the microstructure and thus
reduce or eliminate several of the discontinuities identified with MT.
Air heat treating requires the steel to contain a sufficient amount of carbon and other
alloying elements to harden fully during cooling (Boyer, 1984). Vacuum heat treating is
performed to prevent contamination from air as well as to remove gases already
dissolved in the metal. The solidification may also be carried out in a vacuum or at low
pressure. The choice of the heat treat process is one of economics.
As previously stated, precipitation hardened steels are produced in either standard air
melt or vacuum induction furnaces. Some of the steels, such as 15-5 and 13-8, receive
additional refinement by the vacuum arc remelt process. In fact, 13-8 typically receives
two vacuum arc remelts. The vacuum arc remelt process improves the homogeneity,
fatigue and fracture toughness and the cleanliness of the steel and significantly reduces

discontinuity formation. Due to the vacuum arc remelt process, there are fewer
discontinuities identified with 13-8 and 15-5 than with the other precipitation hardened
steels. As with the initial melt, the decision to use the vacuum arc remelt process is one
of economics.

TEST CHALLENGES
Figure 1 provides a test breakdown by steel type. All of the parts tested were aerospace
related. It should be noted that 17-4, while only accounting for 23% of the precipitation
hardened steels tested in this study, accounted for 84% of the rejects. Of the
discontinuities identified with 17-4, less than 1% were considered to be a result of
secondary processing.

Figure 1 - Precipitation hardened steels tested by material type

Precipitation hardened steels have unique permeability properties. During production,

there is a transformation from austenitic to martensitic (AK Steel, 1999). Second, when
cold working steel that contains austenite, a ferromagnetic martensitic phase forms. As
the steel is cold worked it becomes harder. This is contrary to the property of
ferromagnetic materials in which the permeability decreases with increased hardness.
Hence, the permeability increases with precipitation hardened steels when the steel is
cold worked and becomes harder. Table 2 provides the mechanical properties of 17-4
and the resulting permeabilities.

2 Properties of 17-4 precipitation hardened steel

ndition

Tensile Strength

1100 MPa

Hardness

Permeability at 8 kA/m
(100 Oe)

35 Rc

74

Permeability at 16 kA/m
(200 Oe)

48

Permeabi
at Saturat

95

(160 000 lb/in.2)

45 Rc

90

56

135

43 Rc

38 Rc

37 Rc

88

52

136

35 Rc

59

136

71

1450 MPa
(210 000 lb/in.2)

1380 MPa
(200 000 lb/in.2)

1280 MPa
(185 000 lb/in.2)

1210 MPa
(175 000 lb/in.2)

1100 MPa
(160 000 lb/in.2)

From a test standpoint, precipitation hardened steels require a higher magnetic force to
achieve a desired flux density (American Society for Nondestructive Testing, 1989; Betz,
1967). While traditional calculations provide a good starting point for establishing the
required test amperage, adequate field strength is usually higher then calculated and
should be validated with either a digital hall effect probe or notched shims (ASTM
International, 2001). The difficulty in establishing a repeatable technique is directly
related to the alloy and heat treat condition. For example, the magnetic force to test a
part produced from 17-4 in condition A would be less than that for conditions H1075 and
H1150. When viewing Table 2, note that condition H900 has been cold worked, received
subsequent heat treatments and, thus, has a higher permeability than the solution
annealed (condition A) condition.

DISCONTINUITY CHARACTERIZATION
The following discontinuities may result during inherent processing of precipitation
hardened steels and be detected during MT. From the ingot stage, they may travel
through subsequent heat treatment, cold working and processing only to be detected
during final end product testing. The discontinuities identified with MT primarily occur on

the short longitudinal face. Figure 2 provides the grain directions and principal faces
discussed.

Figure 2 - Grain direction and orientation (SL=short longitudinal, ST=short transverse,

LT=longitudinal transverse).

Segregation or "banding" is an inherent discontinuity of the hot mill producer (Van Aken,
2002). It is principally caused by alloying elements in the material that haven't properly
gone into solution. In past years, it was economically feasible to homogenize steel
ingots in soaking pits, but today it is no longer practical as most steels are continuously
cast and soaking pits would add cost and time to the process. Due to significant
differences in permeability, this discontinuity type is very pronounced, sharp and usually
runs through the center third of the part (Figure 3). Bands may wrap around the edges
to the short transverse face. Segregation indications (Figure 4a) may be visually
validated by using marbles etch and visually testing the area with 10x magnification.
The indications will appear at 10x as gray shaded lines. Segregation indications differ
from other inherent indications, such as ferrite stringers and nonmetallic inclusions, in
that segregation may appear on multiple faces of the part. In addition, segregation is
affected by etchants and will appear as valleys when viewed at 10. The part shown in
Figure 3 is 17-4 round stock. The indication is alloy segregation. Note the orientation,
sharpness and spacing of the indications. These indications were confined to an area
51 mm (2 in.) circumferentially and ran the entire length of the part. Figure 4b is a cross
sectional view of the indications. Note the pronounced band and pattern compared to
Figures 3 and 4a. The band was approximately 0.03 mm (1 x 10 -3 in.) deep. When this
discontinuity was identified during MT, generally there were parts in the production (test)
lot that were free of the discontinuity and dispositioned as acceptable. Microhardness
testing of this discontinuity did not reveal significant differences between the banded
and nonbanded area.

Figure 3 - Banding detected with magnetic particle testing

(a)

(b)

Figure 4 - Banding viewed at: (a) 10x following marbles etch; (b) cross section at 50x

The preceding part was tested at different ampere settings and the indications were as
brilliant at half of the technique validated current value as at full current value. The parts
were also fluorescent penetrant tested following proper cleaning procedures using a
type I - method A - level 3 penetrant and a nonaqueous (form d) developer. The
indications were not detected with fluorescent penetrant testing, but as noted above,
were detected with visual testing following the marbles etch.
A subset of the preceding is microsegregation. A relatively high temperature gradient
must be maintained during the melting process of the ingot to achieve a directed
dendritic primary structure. The growth direction of the dendritics is a function of the
metal pool profile during solidification. As pool depth increases with the melt rate, the
growth of the directed dendritics can come to a stop. The ingot core then solidifies
nondirectionally. With the increased dendritic arm spacing, microsegregation originates.
This discontinuity is similar to segregation/banding in that it is generally limited to the
center third of the part and may wrap around corners. This discontinuity is
multidirectional and usually is present in dense patches. When testing at half the
technique validated current value, the indications may diminish in fluorescence
brilliance. Studies have shown that microsegregation has minimal effect on mechanical
properties and may be considered an acceptable discontinuity.
Ferrite stringers are inherent discontinuities that are a result of ferrite not going
completely into solution. This discontinuity is particularly common in 17-4 plate and bar
stock (round and rectangular) due to refinement practices. The solid ferrite becomes
elongated when the bar or plate is further rolled into the desired shape. These
indications are principally identified in the short longitudinal face (Figure 5a) and run in
the long axis. During metallography, microhardness readings were taken in the
discontinuity area and in areas of stringer free material. There were no appreciable
differences. Ferrite stringers are rarely detected with MT in the short or long transverse
faces of the part due to directional orientation. The indications may be accompanied
with banding (microsegregation) as shown in Figure 5b. The part in Figures 5a and 5b
was manufactured from 17-4 bar and was supplied in heat condition H1150. Note that
the indications are dense and consistent across the entire length and width of the part.
The indications were as brilliant at half of the technique validated current value as at full
current value. The indications were not detected with fluorescent particle testing nor
were they identified during a 10x magnified visual test following marbles etch. When this
discontinuity was identified during MT, generally the entire production (test) lot was
rejected.

(a)

(b)

Figure 5 - 17-4PH steel: (a) manufactured from bar stock; (b) ferrite stringers with
banding at 200x on the short longitudinal face.

Figure 6 is a part manufactured from 17-4 plate supplied in heat condition A. The MT
indications were dense, fuzzy and concentrated in the center of the part. They were
present in lesser detail across the entire length and width of the part. The indications
were not quite as brilliant at half of the technique validated current value as at full
current value. The parts were tested again using fluorescent penetrant testing and 10x
magnified visual testing following marbles etch. No indications were observed. This may
be attributed to the heat treat condition. The part underwent metallographic analysis to
confirm the discontinuity type and orientation. With the exception of the concentration of
the discontinuities in the center of the part, the results were similar to that of the bar
stock example.

Figure 6 - Part manufactured from 17-4 plate stock

Nonmetallic inclusions are another inherent discontinuity of precipitation hardened steel.

Nonmetallic inclusions are a result of deoxidizers that are added to the molten steel that
were not dissolved or removed during the original cast. They may also be a result of
improper homogenization. This discontinuity is common in 17-4 plate and bar stock
(round and rectangular) materials. The inclusions become elongated when the bar or
plate is rolled into the desired shape. These indications are principally identified in the
short longitudinal face (Figure 7). During the metallographic analysis, microhardness
readings were taken in the discontinuity area and in areas of inclusion free material. The
appreciable differences confirmed why this discontinuity results in a reduction in fracture
fatigue and should be rejected. Nonmetallic inclusions are rarely detected with MT in the
short or long transverse faces of the part due to directional orientation. The indications
were not as brilliant at half of the technique validated current value as at full current
value. The indications were detected with fluorescent penetrant testing and were also
visible at 10 magnification. This may be attributed to the inclusions being torn or pulled
out of the base material during the machining operation. When this discontinuity was
detected with a test lot, the entire lot was usually rejected. Nonmetallic inclusions are
usually not enhanced using etchants for visual testing.

Figure 7 - Short longitudinal view nonmetallic inclusion (200x).

CONCLUSION
The challenges of performing fluorescent magnetic particle testing on precipitation
hardened stainless steels demand an informed inspector. By having a basic knowledge
of the steel's history and associated discontinuities, the inspector is able to make sound
classification decisions. The preceding examples may serve as an aid in this endeavor.
While this study shares one processor's experience, reference photographs and
reproducible techniques enhance the test organization's ability to make sound testing
classifications.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Special recognition goes to Chris Taylor and Adam Zellner of the Metal Finishing
Company for their dedication and hard work in magnetic particle testing. Also, special
recognition to Nick Roark of Arrow Laboratory for sharing his vast experience and
expertise in metallurgical testing and analysis.