Thermal Physics

THERMOMETRY
Thermometry is a science that deals with the study, design and calibration of temperaturemeasuring device called thermometers.
Each division in the temperature scale is called a degree ().
Requirements in the design of thermometers:
1. Thermometric property
This is the property of the material that varies with temperature such as
expansion of liquid, resistance of the substance, colors and radiation emitted, etc.
2. Standard Temperature
a. Lower Fixed Point it refers to the temperature at which the solid and the liquid
phase coexists.
b. Upper Fixed Point it refers to the temperature at which the liquid and the vapor
phase coexists.
Temperature Scales
1. Celsius Scale
2. Fahrenheit Scale
3. Absolute Temperature Scale
a. Kelvin Scale
b. Rankine Scale
Comparison of the different Temperature Scales

steam point

ice point

100C

212F

373 K

672 R

0C

32F

273 K

492 R

Note: The ratio and proportion method is used to shift from one unit to the next.
Relationship between Celsius scale and the Fahrenheit scale
If we consider two specific temperatures (i.e., the ice point and the steam point), the
numerical readings are obviously different but the distance between the two points is the
same for the two temperature scales.
steam
point

ice
point

100
C

212F

t C t F = temperature difference
t C t C 0C

t F t F 32F
0C

Celsius Scale

32
F
Fahrenheit Scale

Thermal Physics
By ratio and proportion,

t C 0C

t F 32F

100C 0C 212F 32F

tC
t 32
F
100
180
The link between the Celsius scale and the Fahrenheit scale is given by the equation below,

tC

5
t F 32
9

ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE SCALES

The absolute zero of temperature represents the lowest possible temperature at which
motions of the particles cease. Zero degree Celsius, which is the ice point of water, may
give a wrong impression of the absolute zero of temperature. Therefore, there is a need to
establish the absolute temperature scale.
a. Kelvin Scale, TK t C 273
b. Rankine Scale ,

steam point

ice point

TR t F 460

100C

212F

373 K

672 R

0C

32
F

273 K

492 R

- 273C

- 460F

0K

0R

absolute zero
Celsius Scale

Fahrenheit Scale

Kelvin Scale

Rankine Scale

Comparison of the four Temperature Scales

THERMAL EXPANSION/CONTRACTION
A phenomenon where in the dimensions of the body change whenever there is a change in
temperature.
The change in temperature acts as a driving force.
The change in dimension of the body depends on the following:
1. original dimension ( length, area or volume)
2. change in temperature, t
3. coefficient of expansion
The coefficient of expansion of the material reflects the rate at which a material changes its
dimension when there is a temperature change. The unit of coefficient of expansion is
1 / C (per Celsius-degree).

Thermal Physics

Expansion of Solids
A. Linear Expansion
The linear expansion or contraction of the body refers to the change in length due to the
change in temperature.
Consider a rod whose initial length is Lo at initial temperature t o . After heating the rod
to final temperature

t f , the final length is L f . The change in the length is L L f Lo .

at

at
The change in length can also be expressed in terms of the coefficient of linear
expansion of the material,

L Lo t
B. Area Expansion
The area expansion or contraction of the body refers to the change in area due to the
change in temperature.
For derivation of formula purposes, consider a rectangular sheet whose initial area is
Ao Lo Wo at initial temperature t o . After heating the rectangular sheet to final
temperature

t f , the final area is A f L f W f . The change in the area is A A f Ao .

Af

Ao

at t f
heating

at t o

As an alternate formula to solve for the change in the area of the material,
coefficient of area expansion is used,

the

A Ao t
C. Volume Expansion
The volume expansion or contraction of the body refers to the change in volume due to
the change in temperature.
For

derivation

of

formula

purposes,

consider

cube

whose

initial

volime

is

Vo Lo Wo H o at initial temperature t o . After heating the cube to final temperature

t f , the final volume is V f L f W f H f . The change in the volume is V V f Vo .

at

heating

at

Thermal Physics

In terms of the coefficient of volume expansion is used, the change in the volume of
the material is given by the equation,

V Vo t
Summary of Equations:
Parameters

Linear

Area

Volume

Lo

Ao

Vo

L Lo t

A Ao t

V Vo t

L f Lo 1 t

A f Ao 1 t

V f Vo 1 t

initial dimension
coefficient
expansion
change in
dimension

of

final dimension

HEAT
The term heat refers to the transfer of thermal energy from a body of high temperature to a
body of low temperature.
units of heat:
SI

CGS

Joule

calorie

note: 4.186

English System
BTU (British Thermal Unit)

J = 1 cal

If the transfer of energy is by virtue of the temperature difference, the heat involved is
called sensible heat.
Sensible Heat
where:

Q mct

m is the mass of the substance

c is the specific heat capacity of the body. Specific heat capacity refers to the
amount of heat necessary to change the temperature of a unit mass of a
substance by one degree.
t is the change in temperature

units of specific heat capacity

SI

J
kg C

CGS

cal
g C

The specific heat capacity is an intrinsic property of the substance. Each substance has a
unique value of specific heat capacity.
substance

specific heat capacity

water

cal
g C
cal
0.50
g C
cal
0.48
g C

ice
steam

1.00

Thermal Physics
If the substance undergoes a change of phase without changing its temperature ( t
the heat needed is called latent heat.

5
0 ),

Latent Heat
where:

Q mL
m is the mass of the substance
L is the heat needed to change the phase of a unit mass of the substance with
no remarkable change in its temperature.

units of latent heat

SI

CGS

J
kg

cal
g

The latent heat of fusion of ice is 80 cal/g and the latent heat of vaporization of water is 540
cal/g.
LAW of HEAT EXCHANGE
At thermal equilibrium,

Qloss Qgained 0
The equation above is a manifestation of the Conservation of Energy.

HEAT TRANSFER
Modes of Heat Transfer:
CONDUCTION is a method of heat transfer from molecule to molecule with negligible
movement.
CONVECTION is a transfer of heat by actual motion of a fluid from one region of space to
another.
If the fluid is circulated by a blower or pump, the process is called forced convection; if the
flow is caused by difference in density due to thermal expansion, the process is called
natural or free convection.
RADIATION is a type of heat transfer that depends on electromagnetic waves with no need
for matter to be present in the space between bodies.

Thermal Physics

CONDUCTION
Consider a slab,
For a steady flow,

where:
= rate of heat transfer or heat current
= cross-sectional area
= thickness of the slab
= higher temperature

at

at

= lower temperature
= thermal conductivity

The thermal conductivity of a substance is a measure of its ability to conduct heat.

Combination of Materials:
Series

Parallel

2
1

2
1

CONVECTION
Convective heat transfer is a very complex process and there is no simple equation to
describe it.

Q
h A T
t

4
5

where:
H rate of convective heat transfer
T temperatur e difference between the surface
and the main body

of fluid

A surface area
h

is a cons tan t det er min ed by exp eriment that depends

on the properties of the fluid and the shape and
orientatio n of the surface

Thermal Physics

RADIATION

H
where:

Q
A e T 4
t

H rate of radiation from a particular surface

T absolute temperatur e of radiating surface
A surface area
e emissivity (depends on nature of surface )

Stefan Boltzman cons tan t

5.67 x10 8

W
m2 K 4

Note: black body has emissivity equal to unity.

Radiant power emitted by an object of temperature
temperature

T1 located in an environment of

T2 is
Pnet A e T14 T24
where:

Pnet = the net rate of loss ( or gain ) of energy by radiation

T1 = absolute temperature of radiating body
T2 = absolute temperature of surroundings