Meal Prep History

meal
prep
I am sure you have all heard this saying before failing to prepare is
preparing to fail. I know this may sound a bit harsh but it is SO true,
especially when it comes to preparing your meals. Most of us are
pretty busy in our day-to-day lives. Whether you are a mum, student
or working full time, it can be hard (or absolutely impossible!) to
cook all of your meals at home each day. This is where meal
preparation (aka meal prep") can quickly become your best friend!
Without meal prep, you increase your chances of eating junk or
convenience foods if you get busy or caught out without food.
So what is meal prep? Meal prep can mean different things to each
person, so it is important you find a routine that works for you.
Essentially, it should save you time in the kitchen and make it easier
for you to eat healthier during the week. You may choose to prepare
only breakfasts, dinners or even all of your meals, including your
snacks. You may need to use a little bit of trial and error to get
settled into a routine that suits your lifestyle and preferences. If you
always find yourself in a hurry to get out of the door in the morning
and your breakfast consists of a takeaway croissant, then preparing
breakfast will help you. Likewise, if you struggle to get dinner
together because you work late, you should focus on preparing
dinners.
How To Meal Prep
The first thing you need to do is invest in some good quality
containers - these can be tupperware or the glass variety. Keep in
mind that if you are going to be reheating your food in these you
want to choose ones that are BPA free and wont fall apart in the
microwave/oven. If you are going to be prepping for a few days in a
row, it can be a good idea to buy containers that are the same sizes
so they can be easily stacked and you arent playing tetris in your
fridge.
Plan
Before actually starting your meal prep, the first thing you need to
do is PLAN. If you are just starting out with meal prep, dont
overwhelm yourself! Cooking up a whole weeks worth of meals is a
big task and even the best of us can struggle with that. My biggest
tip is to ensure that it is manageable! I recommend sticking to a few
days at a time to help you get you used to the process.
Having a meal plan is super important, there is no use going to
the grocery store chucking random things in your cart and hoping
for the best when you come out. In order for your meal prep to work
you need to know what you are cooking and when. Like I mentioned
before, organising a whole week can be intimidating, so try and stick
to 3-4 days at a time if that seems more manageable. Write down
each breakfast, lunch, dinner and snack you will be eating, then
break that down into a list of ingredients, and how much of each you
will need to last over that 3-4 day period. It is best to stick to tried
and tested recipes so that you dont end up cooking a bunch of food
you dont really like the taste of.
It is also a good idea to use recipes that can be prepared in advance
and wont spoil (for the most part). For example, overnight oats are a
great breakfast recipe that can sit in your fridge for a few days.
Prep
There are SO many ways to prep your food, I will go through some
of the things that work for me, but remember you should adjust it to
suit your lifestyle. Firstly, a big thing for me is taste. Like all of
you, I love eating healthy foods that taste amazing. Unless you are a
hardcore clean eater, cooking up 2 kilos of plain chicken breast and
steamed broccoli probably wont float your boat. I love
experimenting with flavours, in particular spices and homemade
marinades and dressings. I like to accompany my lean proteins with
some sort of sauce or spice coating, or a lemon and olive oil
dressing to jazz up my veggies. Try to incorporate as much variety as
you can so that you dont get bored of eating the same thing each
day. This can be as simple as switching up your spices or protein (eg
swapping your chicken for fish) every few days.
Time
As I mentioned before, if you are new to the meal prep concept I
would recommend preparing a few days meals at a time. How much

time that you dedicate to this is completely up to you!
You can choose to dedicate a whole day to this or spread it out
nightly. Personally, I prefer to take a few hours out of my Sunday
night just so it is done and out of the way. How much prep I actually
do will also depend on what it is I am actually preparing. For
example, if there are meals/snacks that I like to eat fresh, such as a
salad or veggie sticks, then I just group them in the same containers
in the fridge and chop them up the morning of or just before I eat it.
For more complex dishes, like stir frys, I will often chop all the
veggies up so that they are ready to go when its time to cook. It is
SUPER important to write down a clear plan and do what works for
you.
Cooking
The point of meal prep is to make life easier for you during the
week, this doesnt mean you have to pre cook all of your food
though! For example, you can marinate your chicken breasts, place
them in the freezer, and defrost when youre ready to use them. The
same thing applies to homemade turkey burgers etc. Another
example is to make one larger batch of your favourite sauces and
refrigerate it, rather than make several smaller batches. I do this
with my homemade tzatziki, which I use as a snack and on top of
chicken and fish. If you like your vegetables freshly cooked, then you
can portion them out for each meal and put them in containers
ready to be steamed or cooked. If you know you will be making a
meal that requires a lot of chopping, you can do this in advance as
well. You can also wash all fruit and portion the nuts that you will be
using as snacks, so that you can easily eat them on the run. When it
comes to cooking your good carbohydrates such as quinoa, brown
rice, and wholemeal pasta, I recommend cooking these upfront as

these do take a little longer to prepare.
Planning meals in advance, learning a few cooking shortcuts, and understanding the
basics of food safety will enable you to eat better with less effort spent in meal
preparation.
Our fast-paced modern lives seem to leave less and less time for planning and cooking
meals at home. This explains the proliferation of fast food outlets across the country and
the consequent epidemic of obesity. A steady diet of fast foods is not particularly healthy
and even cheap food becomes an expensive habit if eaten on a regular basis.
Busy homemakers, students and young people starting careers and families can certainly
benefit by learning ways to simplify meal preparation. These skills will last a lifetime and
result in healthier meals at lower cost.
http://eartheasy.com/eat_simplify_meal_preparation.ht
ml
world
food
history
FoodTimelineFAQs:Mesopotamiathrough
Shakespeare.....HaveQuestions?Ask!
Safetoeat?
Cookingbegins
Firstrecipes
AncientEgypt
Biblefood:New
Testament
AncientRome
AncientCelts
Vikingfare
AngloSaxon/Normanfood
RobinHoodfoodways
Medievalfare
MarcoPolo&theMerchantsofVenice
Shakespeare'sfood(includesRomeo&
Juliet)
Oldestmenu
Mesopotamia
Safetoeat?
Howdidthefirstpeoplesknowwhichfoodswere"safe"toeat?Excellent
question!
Foodhistoriansmakeeducatedguessesbasedonancientrecordsandmodern
practices.Basedonthisevidence,theypresumefoodswereselectedorrejected
basedonobservation(theywereavoidedbytheotheranimalsinthearea)in
conjuctionwithbasictrialanderror(ifitmadethetastersick,itwasunlikely
otherspartook).Berries,nuts,fungus,andwatersourceswereespecially
complicatedandconcernful.
Mythsandlegendsperpetuatedthewarningsagainstconsumingknown
poisonousfoods.Advancesintechnologyeventuallyresultedintheability
(again,probablyamatteroftrialanderror)tomodifypotentiallyharmfulfoods
intoconsumablestaples.Meatwaspreserved;nutswereboiled,vegetables
werepeeled.Explorersthroughouthistoryemployedsimilartechniqueswhen
foragingediblesinnewenvironments.
"Consideringhowfewplantsareusedbythegreatapes...asfood,in
comparisonwiththeverygreatnumbereatenbyprimitivepeoplesinrecent
times,theexperimentalconsumptionofaneverincreasingvarietyoffood
stuffsmayberegardedasoneoftheimportantconquestsofhumanevolution.
Beforethedomesticationofanimals,itisunlikelythatpotentialvegetablefood
wouldhavebeengiventoanyotheranimalspeciesfirst,toseewhateffect
thesewouldhave(perhapsoneoftheearliestfunctionsofthedog,besides
scavenging,wasan'experimental'animaltotest'new'foodsaprocedure
knowntohavebeenpracticedinsomerecentAfricancommunities).Thus,even
withtheexerciseofconsiderablecaution,itislikelythatmanydegreesoffood
poisoning,frommildstomachdisorderstodeath,occurredbeforemanbecame
fullyawareofthelimitsofhisfoodresourcesbothplantandanimal.Itis,of
course,impossibletogaugewithanycertaintyaswhatstageinthemillionof
yearsofhumanevolutionthequestforamuchwiderfoodhorizonbegan.
Probablytheutilizationofnewvegetablefoodstuffswasagradual
development;itwouldobviouslyvaryaccordingtotheplantsavailableina
particulararea.Althoughasimpleknowledgeofedibleplantresourcescouldbe
transmittedeasilyenoughinPleistocenetimes,itseemsunlikelythatspecial
methodsoffoodpreparationweredevisedbeforetheNeolithicculturallevel.In
thecaseofmanioctubers,forexample,whicharerichinstarch,fatandprotein,
itisnecessarytoeliminate...hydrogencyanide.Inordertorenderthemnon
toxic,therootsneedtobeslicedorpulped,soakedinwaterforadayandthe
juicethenexpressed.Suchalong,complicatedprocedureseemsunlikelytobe
preMesothilicindate..."
FoodinAntiquity,DonBrothwellandPatriciaBrothwell[JohnsHopkins
UniversityPress:Baltimore]expandededition,1998(p.189190)
Firstcooks
Whydidhumansstartcookingtheirfood?Foodhistorians,archaeologists,
andpaleontolgistsdonothaveexactananswerduetotheageoftheevidence.
Theydo,however,havetheories.Whileroastingoveranopenfireappearsto
bethefirstmethod,boilingwasnotfarbehind.
"Forhundredsofthousandsofyearstheevolvinghumanracehadeatenitsfood
raw,butatsometimebetweenthefirstdeliberateuseoffireinAfricain
1,400,000BCorAsiain500,000BC(dependingonwhichtheoryhappenstobe
theflavourofthemonth)andtheappearanceoftheNeanderthalsonthe
prehistoricscene,cookingwasdiscovered.Whetherornotitcameasa
gastronomicrevelationcanonlybeguessedat,butsinceheathelpstorelease
proteinandcarbohydrateaswellasbreakdownfibre,cookingincreasesthe
nutritivevalueofmanyfoodsandmakesediblesomethatwouldotherwisebe
inedible.Improvedhealthmustcertainlyhavebeenoneresultofthediscovery
ofcooking,andithasevenbeenargued,bythelateCarletonCoon,that
cookingwasthedecisivefactorinleadingmanfromaprimarilyanimal
existenceintoonethatwasmorefullyhuman'.Whateverthecase,byallthe
lawsofprobabilityroastingmusthavebeenthefirstmethodused,itsdiscovery
accidental.Theconceptofroastmeatcouldscarcelyhaveexistedwithout
knowledgeofcooking,northeconceptofcookingwithoutknowledgeofroast
meat.CharlesLamb'simaginarytaleofthediscoveryofroastporkisnot,
perhaps,toofaroffthemark.AlitterofChinesepiglets,somestraysparks
fromthefire,adwellingreducedtoashes,andunfamiliarbutinterestingsmell,
acrispanddelectableassaultonthetastebuds...Takenbackafewmillennia
andrelocatedinEuropethiswouldtranslateintoapieceofmammoth,venison
orsomethingofthesortfallinginthecampfireandhavingtobeleftthereuntil
theflamesdieddown.Buthoweverpalatableasizzlingsteakiniceage
conditions,theshrinkagethatresutsfromdirectroastingwouldscarcely
recommenditselftothehardworkedhunter,sothatanaturalnextstep,for
toughroots...asformeat,wouldbeslowercookingintheembersoronaflat
stonebythesideofthefire.Althoughtheaccidentaldiscoveryofroasting
wouldhavebeenperfectlyfeasibleintheprimitiveworld,boilingwasamore
sophisticatedproposition."
FoodinHistory,ReayTannahill[ThreeRivers:NewYork]1988(p.1314)
[NOTE:Thisbookcontainsmuchmoreinformationonearlycooking
techniquesthancanbeparaphrasedhere.Yourlibrarianwillbehappytohelp
youfindacopy.]
"Homoerecutusmayhaveusedfiretoaverylimitedextentsome300,000
yearsago,buttheevidenceissparseandquestionable.Fire'sgeneraluse,
accordingtobothpaleontologicalandarchaeolgicalrecords,beganonlyabout
40,000to50,000yearsago...Theuseoffire,extendedtofoodpreparation,
resultedinagreatincreasofplantfoodsupply.Allofthemajordomesticated
plantfoods,suchaswheat,barley,rice,millet,rye,andpotatoes,require
cookingbeforetheyaresuitableforhumanconsumption.Infact,inarawstate,
manyplantscontaintoxicorindigestiblesubstancesorantinutrients.Butafter
cooking,manyoftheseundesirablesubstancesaredeactivated,neutralized,
reduced,orreleased;andstarchandothernutrientsintheplantsarerendered
absorbablebythedigestivetract.Thus,theuseoffiretocookplantfoods
doubtlessencouragedthedomseticationofthesefoodsand,thus,wasavitally
importantfactorinhumanculturaladvancement."
CambridgeWorldHistoryofFood,KennethF.KipleandKriemhildConee
Ornelas[CambridgeUniversityPress:Cambridge]2000(p.1571)
"Justaswedonotknowhow,whereorbywhomefirewasfirstdomesticated,
wecannotreallytellanythingaboutthewayfoodwascookedinthemost
distantPaleolothicperiod.Wecanonlybaseconjecturesonthecustomsof
existingprimitivepeoples.Bonesandwalnutorhazelnutshellshavebeen
foundonexcavatedsites,butthereisnomeansofknowingwhethertheyare
theremainsofcookedmeals,thedebrisoffireslitforheat,oreventhe
remnantsofincinceratedrawwastematter...[researchers]areinclinedtothink
themeatwasroasted,fromtheevidenceofMousterainsitesinSpainandthe
Dordogne..."
HistoryofFood,MaguelonneToussaintSamat[Barnes&Noble:NewYork]
1992(p.90)
"Foodhaslongbeenbakedincoalsorunderheatedrocks,steamedinside
animalstomachsandleaves,boiledinrockpotsbyheatedstones,andsoforth.
Anovencouldbeassimpleasaholeintheground,oracoveringofheated
stones.However,improvedtexturesandflavoursmaynothavebeenthereason
firewasfirstcontrolled.Peoplecouldhaveemployedfiretokeepwildbeastsat
bay,totrapthem,toscarethemoutortocreateopengrassland,wheretender
shootsandleaveswouldbemoreaccessible.Peoplehavelongusedfireto
hardenwoodenweapons,andtokeepwarmatnight.Buteventheseuses,while
notcookinginthenarrowsense,improvethecooks'supplies,expandingthe
humanniche."
AHistoryofCooksandCooking,MichaelSymons[Universityof
Chicago:Urbana]2000(p.221)
"FrenchprehistorianCatherinePerlesacceptsthatwesharemanyaspectsof
feedingwithotheranimals:otheranimalscarryfoodtotheirlairsortransform
itbeforeconsumption.However,shesays,wetransformfoodonadifferent
level.Thehumanspeciespreparesitsfoodbyheat...andcombines
ingredients...Sheproposesthattheculinaryactdistinguishesthehumanspecies,
andisnotjustasymbolof,butafactorin,thatveryhumanisation...Cookingis
highlyintentional...theculinaryactisessentiallysharing."
AHistoryofCooks(p.213)
Boiling
Foodhistoriansgenerallyagreethefirstcookingmethodwasroastingoveran
openfire.Discoveryisattributedtohappyaccident.Boilingwasnoaccident.It
wasacarefullyconsideredprocessachievedwithtoolscraftedspecificallyfor
thepurpose.
Discovery&earlyprimitivemethods
"Althoughtheaccidentaldiscoveryofroastingwouldhavebeenperfectly
feasibleintheprimitiveworld,boilingwasamoresophisticatedproposition.
Accordingtoconventionalwisdom,prehistoricmanwenttoagooddealof
troubleforhisboileddinner.Firsthedugalargepitinthegroundandlinedit
withflat,overlappingstonestopreventseepage.Thenhepouredinlarge
quantitiesofwater,presumablytransportedinskinbags.Otherstoneswere
heatedinthecampfireandmanhandledbysomeunspecifiedmeans(possibly
onthebatandballprinciple)intothewatertobringittoasimmer.Thefood
wasthenaddedand,whileitwascooking,morehotstonesweretippedinfrom
timetotimetokeepthewateratthedesiredtemperature.itispossible.Thereis
nolawthatsaysthinghavetobedonetheeasyway,andthemethodisstill
usedbymoderntribals.But,intermsofdiscover,itmakessenseonlyifthe
ideaevolved,imitatively,insomeisolatedpartorpartsoftheworldblessed
withhotspringsasinNewZealand'sNorthIsland.Hotwaterbeingarare
naturalphenomenon,bothideaandmethodwouldsubsequentlyhavetobe
disseminatedbymigratingtribeswhichcouldexplainwhythereisno
indicationofthetechniquebeingusedbefore5000BC.Onereasonforthe
anthropologicalpopularityofthepitboilingtheoryisthebeliefthatuntilthe
adventofpottery,cookingpotentialwasseverelyrestricted;that,lacking
containersthatwerebothheatproofandwaterproof,boilingwasimpossible
exceptbythepitmethod.Butthatisnotthecase.Severalperfectlyviable
alternativecontainershavebeenavailableforthousandsofyears,andtheidea
ofboilingcouldwellhavebeensuggestedbythefactthatwhenmeator
vegetableswithahighwatercontentwerecrammedintooneofthese
containersoverthefire,theysweatedoutanappetizingliquid.Inmanypartsof
theworldlargemolluscorreptileshellswereusedforcookingin,astheystill
wereontheAmazoninthenineteenthcentury...InAsiatheversatilebamboo
suppliedhollowsectionsofstemthatcouldbestopperedwithclayandoneeng,
filledwithchoppeduprawingredientsandalittleliquid,thenstopperedagain
attheother.ThemethodisstillusedinIndonesiatoday.IntheTehuacan
ValleyofCentralAmerica,inabout7000BC,thepeoplewholivedinrock
sheltersandgatheredwildmaizefortheirfoodhadalreadybeguntousestone
cookingpots.These,oncemade,werecitedinthecentreofthehearthand,too
heavytomove,lefttherepermanently.Longbeforetheadventofpotteryand
bronzetherewasonekindofcontainerthatwaswidelydistributed,naturally
waterproof,andheatproofenoughtobehungover,ifnotin,thefire.Thiswas
ananimalstomach...Withtheadventofcooking,thenotionofsimmeringthe
contentsofthestomachinthestomachbagitselfwouldemergequite
naturally...Byabout13,000BCleatherworkingtechniqueshadimprovedso
muchthatskinshadcometoreplacemanyoftheoldercontainers.Afterskins
samepottery,whichwassucceededbybronzeandtheniron,fromwhichmost
cookingpotscontinuedtobemadeuntilthetwentiethcentury."
FoodinHistory,ReayTannahill[ThreeRiversPress:NewYork]1988(p.
1416)
Ancientcivilizations
"Boilingorstewingwasdoneinsmallpotsplacednearthefireorincauldrons
suspendedoverafirebychainsattachedtoabeamorhungfromatripod
formedbythreepolesjoinedattheapex.Meatwasprobablyboiledfirst,with
thevegetablesaddedlater.Abasicpeasantdishwaspottagemadefromgrains,
beans,orlentils.Alargecauldroncouldeasilyholdapig,whichwasadesired
dishoftheCelts.Apicius[AncientRomancookbookwriter]advisedthat
cranesshouldbeboiledina'largesaucepan.'Acauldronwouldbeidea...The
Egyptiansusedcauldronsorlargestraightsidedpotssupportedonstones,ora
tripodsetoverapanofglowingcharcoal."
FoodintheAncientWorld,JoanP.Alcock[GreenwoodPress:WestportCT]
2006(p.105106)
NativeAmerican
"'...beforetheEuropeansbroughtthemkettlesorpotsfromacrosstheocean
theymadeuseofearthenvessels,whichtheymanufacturedwithsomeskill,
givingthemasphericalformatthebottomandconsiderablewidthatthetop;
andafterhavingdriedtheminthesun,theyburnttheminaslowfiremadewith
bark.Themoremigratorytribespossessedonlywoodencookingutensils,less
fragile,buteasieroftransportation.Theycookedtheirfoodintheseby
throwingintothewater,oneaftertheother,heatedstones.Thisgradually
heatedthewater,andcausedittoboilsufficientlytosatisfypeoplewhowere
accustomedtopartlycookedfood.'...InformantsatGrandeRiverandelsewhere
statethatboilingwassometimespracticedbyplacingabarkvesselindirect
contactwiththefire...'theycookedtheirmeatinabarkkettle,whichtheymade
byusingaflintaxeorchiseltoseparatethebarkfromanelmtree.Theytied
thelargepiecesofbarktogetherattheendswithstripsofinnerbark,makinga
dishlargeenoughtoholdthemeat,withwaterenoughtoboilit.Thisbark
kettlewassuspendedbetweentwosticksoverthefire,andbeforethekettlewas
burntthroughthemeatwascooked.'...thegreaterpartofthefoodsusedbythe
Iroquoisseemstohavebeenpreparedbyboiling."
IroquoisFoodsandFoodPreparation,F.W.Waugh,facsimile1916edition
[UniversityPressofthePacific:HonoluluHI]2003(p.5455)
Recommendedreading(generalhistoryofcooking):
FoodinHistory/ReayTannahill
HistoryofFood/MaguelonneToussaintSamat
Food:ACulinaryHistory/Flandrin&Montanari
CambridgeWorldHistoryofFood/Kiple&Ornelas
TheKitcheninHistory/MollyHarrison
AncientMesopotamianfoods
Thereareseveralsourcesyoucanusetofindinformationonthefoods,
agriculturalpractices,anddiningcustomsofancientMesopotamia.Mostofthis
information(thecrediblesourcesyourteacherwillaccept)isstillcontainedin
books.DidyouknowAncientMesopotamiaisalsocreditedforthefirstwritten
recipes?
Somenotestogetyoustarted:
"TherawmaterialsoftheSumeriandiet...werebarley,wheatandmillet;chick
peas,lentilsandbeans;onions,garlicandleeks;cucumbers,cress,mustardand
freshgreenlettuce.BythetimeSumerwassucceededbyBabylonaspecial
delicacyhadbeendiscoveredthatwasdispatchedtotheroyalpalacebythe
basketful.Truffles.Everydaymealsprobablyconsistedofbarleypasteor
barleycake,accompaniedbyonionsorahandfulofbeansandwasheddown
withbarleyale,butthefishthatswarmedintheriversofMesopotamiawerea
nottoorareluxury.Overfiftydifferenttypesarementionedintextsdating
before2300BC,andalthoughthenumberoftypeshaddiminishedin
Babyloniantimes,thefriedfishvendorsstilldidathrivingtradeinthenarrow,
windingstreetsofUr.Onions,cucumbers,freshlygrilledgoat,muttonandpork
(notyettaboointheNearEast)weretobehadfromotherfoodstalls.Meatwas
commonerinthecitiesthaninthemoresparsleypopulatedcountryside,sinceit
spoiledsoquicklyintheheat,butbeefandvealwereeverywherepopularwith
peoplewhocouldaffordthem...althoughmostbeefislikelytohavebeentough
andstringy.Cattlewerenotusuallyslaughtereduntiltheendoftheirworking
lives...Probablytendererandcertainlymorecommonwasmutton.The
incomerswhohadfirstputtheSumerianstateonitsfeetwereoriginallysheep
herders..."
FoodinHistory,ReayTannahill[ThreeRivers:NewYork]1988(p.47)
[NOTE:Thisbookhasmuchmoreinformationthancanbetranscribedhere.
Yourlibrariancanhelpyoufindacopy.]
"Mesopotamianfoodisknownfromarchaeologyandwrittenrecordson
cuneiformtablets,includingbilingualSumerianAkkadianwordlists.These
sourcesindicatetheimportanceofbarleybread,ofwhichmanykindsare
named,andbarleyandwheatcakes,andgrainandlegumesoups;ofonions,
leeksandgarlic;ofvegetablesincludingchatemelon,andoffruitsincluding
apple,figandgrape;ofhoneyandcheese;ofseveralculinaryherbs;andof
butterandvegetableoil.Sumeriansdrankbeeroften,wineseldomifatall;
winewasbetterknowninnorthernMesopotamiaandinlateritems.Animal
foodsincludedpork,mutton,beef,fowlincludingducksandpigeons,andmany
kindsoffish.Meatsweresalted;fruitswereconservedinhoney;variousfoods,
includingapples,weredried.Akindoffermentedcauseisidentifiedin
Akkadiantexts."
FoodintheAncientWorldFromAZ,AndrewDalby[Routledge:London]
2003(p.216)
"GardensinfertileMesopotamiaflourished,andonionsandleeksandgarlic
wereamongstthemostfrequentlycultivatedplants.Theyweregrowninthe
gardensofKingMerodachMaladanIIofBabylon,andUrNammuofUr(2100
BC)recordsthatbyconstructingatempletoNannarhesavedhisgarden,
whereingrewonionsandleeks...ThecucumberwasmuchcultivatedinEgypt
inPliny'sdayandknowninearlyMesopotamiafarearlier,beingrecordedas
growinginthegardenofUrNammuatUr."
FoodinAntiquity:ASurveyoftheDietofEarlyPeoples,DonBrothwelland
PatriciaBrothwell[JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress:Baltimore]expanded
edition1998(p.109,124)
"Thestaplecropofancientfarmersaroundtheworldwasalwaysgrain...In
Mesopotamia,thechiefcropwasbarley.Riceandcornwereunknown,and
wheatflourishedonasoillesssalinethanexistsinmostofMesopotamia.Thus
barley,andthebreadbakedfromitsflour,becamethestaffoflife.
Mesopotamianbreadwasordinarillycoarse,flat,andunleavened,butamore
expensivebreadcouldbebakedfromfinerflour.Piecesofjustsuchabread
were...foundinthetombofQueenPuabiofUr,storedtheretoprovideher
spiritwithsustenenceintheafterlife.Breadcouldalsobeenrichedwithanimal
andvegetablefat;milk,butter,andcheese;fruitandfruitjuice;andsesame
seeds....ThegardensofMesopotamia,wateredbyirrigationcanals,werelush
withfruitsandvegetables...Amongthefruitswereapples,apricots,cherries,
figs,melons,mulberries,pears,plums,pomegranats,andquinces.Themost
importantfruitcrop,especiallyinsouthernMesopotamia,wasthedate.Richin
sugarandiron,dateswereeasilypreserved.Likebarley,thedatepalmthrived
onrelativelysalinesoilandwasoneofthefirstplantsfarmers
domesticated...Asforvegetables,theonionwasking,alongwithitscousin,
garlic.Othervegetablesincludedlettuce,cabbage,andcucumbers;carrotsand
radishes;beetsandturnips;andavarietyoflegumes,includingbeans,peas,and
chickpeas...Curiously,twomainstaysoftheMediterraneandietolivesand
grapes...wereseldomfoundinMesopotamiancuisine...toappreciate
Mesopotamiandailylifeourimaginationmustbreathinthepungentaromaof
theseasoningsthatoncerosefromancientstovesandfilledtheair...Coriander,
cress,andsumin;fennel,fenugrek,andleek;marjoram,mint,andmustard;
rosemaryandrue;saffromandthyme...Cumin...Sheepplayedanimportantrole
intheMesopotamianeconomy...Likegoatsandcows,ewesproducedmilkthat
wasconvertedintobutterandcheese,butsheepwerealsoslaughteredformeat.
Beefwasinshortsupply...porkfrompigs[suppelmentd]...Gamebirds,deer,
andgazellewerehuntedaswell.Onfarms,domesticatedgeeseandducks
suppliedeggs...andfromcanalsandprivateponds,camesome50typesoffish,
astapleoftheMesopotamiandiet.Generally,meatswereeitherdried,smoked,
orsaltedforsafekeeping,ortheywerecookedbyroasting,boiling,broiling,or
barbecuing."
HandbookofLifeinAncientMesopotamia,StephenBertman[Factson
File:NewYorkNY]2003(p.291293)
RECOMMENDEDREADING
CookinginAncientCivilizations/CathyK.Kaufman(includes
modernizedrecipes)
Flannery,KentV.1965.Theecologyofearlyfoodproductionin
Mesopotamia.Science[magazine]147:12471256.
Food:ACulinaryHistory,JeanLouisFlandrin&MassimoMontanari,
chapter2:TheSocialFunctionsofBanquetsintheEarliestCivilizations
(Mesopotamianfeasts)(p.327)
TheOldestCuisineintheWorld:CookinginMesopotamia,JeanBottero
(includesmodernizedrecipes)
WEBSITES
Sumeria,Babylonia,Judea,PurdueUniversitylecturenotes
Babylonia,CatholicEncyclopedia
AboutMesopotmiabanquets(withpicture)
ANCIENTMESOPOTAMIANRECIPES
FoodhistorianstracetheearliestwrittenrecipestothesecondmilenniumBC.
However,itwasmanycenturiesafterwardthatusablerecipes(listsof
ingredients,really,nocookingtimesandmeasurementslikewehavetoday)
weretranscribedforposterity.Thismeanswhatweknowaboutthefoodsof
Mesopotamiaareeducatedguessesbasedonscientificarchaeologicaland
biologicalevidence.Noteshere:
"Mesopotamianrecipecollections,threecuneiformtabletsatYaleUniversity
containingrecipesinAkkadian.Probablyoriginatingfromsouthern
MesopotamiaintheseventeenthcenturyBC,thesearetheoldestknownfood
recipesanywhereintheworld."
FoodintheAncientWorldFromAZ,AndrewDalby[Routledge:London]
2003(p.217)
"TheearliestknownrecipesdatefromMesopotamiainthesecondmillennium
BCE.Itwouldberash,however,toconcludethattheMesopotamiansinvented
cooking.Theysimplyhadreasonstowritedowntheirrecipesandwerethe
first,alongwiththeEgyptians,topossessthemeanstodoso;withoutwriting,
recipescannotsurvive.Yettheabsenceofwrittenrecipesdoesnotruleoutan
interestingastronomicmattersoftheexistenceofsophisticatedculinary
techniquees.Forexample,theancientEgyptiansapparentlyfeltnoneedto
writedowntheirrecipes,yetwefindinstructivetracesoftheircooking
methodsintombsdatingfromasearlyasthefourthmillennium."
Food:ACulinaryHistory,JeanLouisFlandrin&MassimoMontanari
[ColumbiaUniversityPress:NewYork]1999(p.1617)
"BabyloniancookerybywhichismeantthatoftheMesopotamiansinwhatis
calledtheOldBabylonianperiod,hasbeenthesubjectofrecentresarch,based
onastudyofthreetabletsofancientcuneiformtext.These,whicharedatedto
around1700BCandwereprobablyfoundinthesouthofMesopotamia,
constitutebetweenthemacollectionofrecipes,perhapstheoldestsurviving
one.EvelinevanderSteengivesreasonsforthinkingthattheserecipeswere
intendedforuseinareligiouscontext;andthatwhatwouldotherwisebe
puzzlingreaturesofthemcanbeexplainedontheassumptionthattheyareall
forversionsofameatinsaucedishwhichwouldbeservedtoagodinhis
temple,accompaniedbybread(probablymixedbarleyandwheat)anddate
cakes,etc.Thegod(probablyMardukinthisinstance,ashewasthecitygodof
Babylon)wouldeatbehindclosedcurtains.Leftoverswouldgototheking.It
wasonlyin1995thatBotteropublishedafulltranslationandcommentary;and
discussionwillnodoubtcontinue.Itdoesseemclear,however,thatthese
fragmentsofevidenceshouldnotbeinterpretedasreflectingthefoodofthe
commonpeopleofthetime."
OxfordCompaniontoFood,AlanDavidson[OxfordUniversity
Press:Oxford]1999(p.47)
Whatwastheoldestmenu?FirstrecipesontheInternet?
Needtomakesomethingforclass?
"Sasqu(PorridgewithDates)
SasquisacreamporridgedescribedinthepalacerecordsatMari.Itcouldbe
madefromgroundemmerorbarleycookedofasoupyconsistencywithmilk,
oil,orwater.Dateswereaddedonritualoccasionforelitetables...
2cupsmilkorwater
3/4cupbarleyflour
Saltanddatesyruptotaste
3/4cupchoppeddates
1.Placethebarleyflourinasaucepan.Slowlywhiskinthemilk,stirring
constantly.Bringtoaboil,reducetheheat,andcookfor5minutes.
2.Seasonwithsaltanddatesyrup.Turnintoservingcupsandscatterwiththe
choppeddates."
CookinginAncientCivilizations,CathyK.Kaufman[Greenwood
Press:WestportCT]2006(p.14)
"PalaceCake
RecordsfromUridentifycakes'forthepalace'ascontaining1silaofbutter,
1/3silaofwhitecheese,3silaoffirstqualitydates,and1/3silaofraisins.A
silaequaledalittlemorethan3cups.Thisrecipehasbeenscaledbackbyone
thirdtomakethequantitiesmoremanageable,butitisextremelyrichdueto
thelargeportionsofbutter.Presumablytherewouldbeflourandother
ingredientsthatacompetentbakerwouldinfertoassemblethiscake.Thedried
fruitswillsticktothebottomofthepan;ifyouwanttounmoldthecakeafterit
cools(ratherthanserveitfromthepan),linethebottomofthepanwithbaker's
parchment,or,tobemoreauthentic,grapeleaves.Invertthecakeontoaplate
andpeelofftheleaves...
3cupsdates,finelychopped
1/3cupraisins
2teaspoonsgroundfenneloraniseed
1/3cupcottagecheese
1cup(2sticks)butter,meltedandatroomtemperature
2eggs,beatentogether,atroomtemperature
2/3cupmilk,atroomtemperature
11/2cupsallpurposeflour
1.Preheattheovento325degreesF.Combinethedates,raisins,andspiceand
scatterina10inchcakepan.
2.Pressthecottagecheesethroughastrainertobreakupthecurds.Combine
thecheesewiththemeltedbutter,eggs,andmilkandslowlystirintotheflour,
moisteningthoroughly.Pourthebatteroverthedriedfruitsandbakefor4555
minutes,oruntilatoothpickinsertedintothecenterscomesoutclean."
ibid(p.3222)
"DriedFruitCompote
Dates,figs,andgrapesandsomethingcalledcandywereofferedeverydayto
thegodsofUruk.Softeningdriedfruitswouldmakethemeasiertochew,and
advantageinaneraofprimitivedentistry.
1/2cupdriedfigs,quartered
1/2cupdriedsourcherries
3/4cupdriedapricots,sliced
2tablespoonspomegranatemolasses
2tablespoonsdatesyrup
Water,asneeded,tocoverthedriedfruits.
Combinealloftheingredientsinasaucepanandbringtoaboil.Simmeruntil
tender,about10minutes.Removethefruitwithaslottedspoonandreserve.
Reducethecookingliquidbyboilingtoalightsyrup.Combinewiththe
poachedfruits."
ibid(p.34)
AboutAncientMesopotamianrecipes(includestwo)
AncientEgypt
"Egyptiancivilizationprobablybeganabout3100B.C.,followingapredynastic
periodfrom5500B.C.duringwhichtimehuntergathererssettledin
agriculturalvillagesandanimalsandpeoplemigratedintotheregionfrom
westernAsia...Duringthistime,asrevealedbyevidencefromsitesinthe
Fayumregion,thepopulationsupporteditselffirstbyhuntingthemanywild
speciesthatlivedinandaroundtheNile.Theseincludedwildfowl,fish,pigs,
cattle,antelope,andgazelle.Asthepopulationbegantoestablishagricultural
communities,thewildpigsandwildcattleweredomesticated.Huntingbecame
moreofasportforthewealthythanameansforobtainingfood,although
poorerpeoplecontinuedtohuntgameandwildfowl,andtosnarefishto
augementtheirmainlycerealandleguminousdiet.Cattle,sheep,andgoats
weremoreusefultothepoorfortheirmilk,cheese,andbutterthanfortheir
meat.Agriculturalcommunitiesgrewgrainsaswellaslegumes,andthese
becamethemajorcropsoftheNilevalley.Theyprovidedthetwomainstaples
ofEgyptianlifebreadandbeer.Grainwasusedasacurrency,somethingwith
whichtobarterortopaytaxesandwages.ThemaingraincultivatedinEgypt
untilthefourthcenturyB.C.wasemmer;barleywasalsogrownandwas
probablythegrainofthepoor.ProductionofthesegrainsthroughoutEgyptian
historywasthemainagriculturalactivityandprovidedthebasicdietofbread
fortheEgyptians...Grainwasalsousedtomakepottageorthickensoupor
addedtopulses,forlentils,peas,andfenugreekwerealsocommonatthistime,
andwerethemostimportantpulsesuntilfavabeanswereintroducedinthe
FifthDynasty.Honeyordatesmightbeusedtosweetenthebread...dateswere
culitvatedand...alsousedtoproduceasugarydrink...othersourcesoffoodwere
lotusandaquaticplantseeds...Melons,watermelons,andchufa,oryellow
nutgrass,weregrown.Breadasalsousedtomaketheotherstaple,beer,which
waspartofthedailyrationgiventosoldiersandworkers....Themakingofbeer
waswoman'swork...Wineseemsalsotohavebeendrunkatthisearlyperiod."
2005(p.1368)
"ItisclearthattheEgyptiansenjoyedtheirfood.Noblesandpriestswere
particularlywellserved,withatleastfortydifferentkindsofbreadandpastries,
someraised,someflat,someround,someconical,someplaited.Therewere
somevarietiesmadewithhoney.Otherswithmilk,stillotherswitheggs.And
tombexcavationsshowwhatawiderangeofotherfoodstuffsthegreathadset
beforethemevenasearlyasthebeginningofthethethirdmillenniumBC
barleyporridge,quail,kidneys,pigeonstew,fish,ribsofbeef,cakes,stewed
figs,freshberries,cheese...Muchtimewasspentorganizingsupplies.Until
about2200BCtheEgyptiansperserveredwithattemptstodomesticatea
numberofanimalsliketheibex,oryx,antelopeandgazelle,andthen,
abandoningthisfruitlessoccupation,turnedtothemoreentertainingpursuitsof
huntinginthemarshlandpreserves,collectingexoticvegetableslikewild
celery,papyrusstalksandlotusroots,trappingbirdsandgoingfishing.The
Nilemarshesandcanalscontainedeel,mullet,carp,perchandtigerfish...The
originsofsaltingasapreservationprocessremainobscure.AlthoughinEgypt
therewasapositivelinkbetweensalt'suseinpreservingfoodforthelivingand
embalmingthebodiesofthedead.Preservationbydryingpresentsfewer
questions,ifonlybecausefigs,datesandgrapesfallenfromthetreeorvine
woulddrythemselvesonthehotsandysoil,andnolengthyperiodof
experimentwouldbeneededtoestablishthatfish,forexample,respondedwell
tothesametreatment...Thepeasants'food,liketheirwayoflife,wasmore
circumscribedthanthatofthegreatofficials...Theirstandardfaremayhave
beenale,onionsandcommonflatbread...boughtfromastallinthevillage
street,buttheycouldlookforwardtoquitefrequentdaysofplentywhenthey
feastedonthesurplusfromtemplesacrificesoroneofthegreathighfestivals.
Theyatepork,too."
FoodinHistory,ReayTannahill[ThreeRiversPress:NewYork]1988(p.
534)
[NOTE:Thesebookscontainmuchmoreinformationthancanbeparaphrased
here.Yourlibrarianwillbehappytohelpyoufindacopies.]
HowdidAncientEgyptianspreservetheirfood?
AncientEgyptiansemployedavarietyofmethodsforfoodpreservation.Great
siloswereconstructedtopreservegrainforlongperiodsoftime.Fish,meat,
vegetablesandfruitswerewerepreservedbydryingandsalting.Grainswere
fermentedtocreatebeer.
"Thereisevidencethatasearlyas12,000B.C.,Egyptiantribespeopleonthe
lowerNiledriedfishandpoultryusingthehotdesertsun.Areaswithsimilar
hotanddryclimatesfounddryingtobeaneffectivemethodof
preservation...Herodutus,writinginthefifthcenturyB.C.,describeshowthe
Egyptiansandtheirneighborsstilldriedfishinthesunandwindandthen
stroredthemforlongperiods."
Pickled,PottedandCanned:HowtheArtandScienceofFoodProcessing
ChangedtheWorld,SueShepard[Simon&Schuster:NewYork]2000(p.31)
"...theBabyloniansandEgyptianspickledfishsuchassturgeon,salmon,and
catfish,aswellaspoultryandgeese.Sometimessaltwasrelativelyeasyto
extract;inotherpartsitwasmoredifficult."
ibid(p.76)
"Salthasbeenusedtopreservefishsinceancienttimes,possiblyevenbefore
meatwascured.TheearlyMesopotamiancivilizationsreliedonastapledietof
saltfishandbarleyproridge...Fishcuring,depictedinthetombsofancient
Egypt,wassohighlyregardedthatonlytempleofficialswereentrustedwith
theknowledgeoftheart,anditissignificantthattheEgyptianwordforfish
preservingwasthesameasthatusedtodenotetheprocessofembalmingthe
dead."
ibid(p.79)
"Forthousandsofyearsthesurvivalandpowerofatribeorcountrydepended
onitsstocksingrain.Harvesting,processing,andstoringgrainstockswasof
hugeimportance,andwarwasdeclaredonlyafterharvest...Oneoftheearliest
recordsoflargescalefoodpreservingwasinancientEgypt,whereitwas
enourmouslyimportanttocreateadequatestocksofdriedgraintoinsure
againstthefailureoftheNiletofloodseasonally.Hugequantitiesofgrainwere
storedinsealedsilo,wheretheycouldbekeptforseveralyearsifnecessary.
Recordsfrom2600B.C.showthattheannualfloodingoftheNileproduced
surplusesofgrainthatwerestoredandkepttofeedbuildersofirrigation
schemesandpyramidtombs.TheGreatPyramidofCheopsatGizawasbuilt
around2900B.C.byslavesfedwithstoresofgrainandchickpeas,onions,and
garlic."
ibid(p.51)
"Driedsaltfishwaspartofasoldier'srations.Roefromthemullet,aperiodic
visitortothecanalsoftheNile,wasalsoextractedduringthedryingprocessof
thefish,tobepressedintolargeflatcakesandpreserved."
Food:ACulinaryHistory,JeanLouisFlandrin&MasimoMontanari
Meals&diningcustoms
"InEgyptbanquetsstartedintheearlyormiddleafternoon,butfewdetailsare
availableabouttheeatingofordinarymeals.ThebasicEgyptianmealwasbeer,
bread,andonions,whichthepeasantsatedaily,probablyasamorningmeal
beforetheylefttoworkinthefieldsoronworkscommandedbythepharaohs.
Anothersimplemealwouldbeeateninthecooloftheevening,probablyboiled
vegetables,bread,andbeer;possiblywildfowl...Thewealthywouldexpectto
eattwooreenthreemealsadaycomprisingvegetables,wildfowl,fish,eggs,
andbeef.Butter,milk,andcheesewerealsoeasilyobtainable.Dessertwouldc
onsitsoffruitgrapes,figs,dates,andwatermelons.InaSaqqaratombofthe
SecondDynasty,afullmealwasfoundthathadbeenlaidoutforanunnamed
noble.Itincludedpotteryandalabasterdishescontainingaporridgeofground
barley,aspitroastedquail,twocookedlamb'skidney's,pigeoncasserole,
steweddish,barbecuedbeefribs,trianguarloavesofbreadmadefromground
emmer,smallroundcakes,adishofstewedfigs,aplateofsidderberries,and
cheese,allaccompaniedbyjarsthathadoncecontainedwintandbeer.Inthe
OldKingdom,theEgyptiansarearoundasmalltableafewincheshigh,using
theirfingerstoeat.Normallydisheswereplacedinthecenterofthetable,and
eachpersonsittingarounddippedberadoraspoonintoit.Thelowerclasses
continuedthisformofeatingintheNewKingdom,buttheupperclassesthen
preferredtositontallcushionedchairs.Servantsbroughtaroundwaterinsmall
bowlstothatguestscouldwashtheirhandsbeforeandduringthemeal."
2005(p.1812)
"TheEgyptianBanquet.ForEgyptianpeasantsthereweresomefeastdays,as
attheNewYearandafterharvestandlocalreligiousfestivals,butthepeasants
preferredtobeofferedsportsandpastimesratherthanelaboratedining.Meat
wasprobablygiventothemafterreligioussacrifices.Dinnerpartiesor
banquetsappeartohavebeenoneofthefavoriteentertainmentsforthemiddle
andupperclassesoftheEgyptians,butliteraryevidenceisscarce.Thereisno
wordforbanquetinEgyptian...Theinformationforfeastsorbanquetscomes
almostentierlyfromscenesfoundintombs.IntheOldKingdomtheyseemed
tobemainlyfamilygatherings...BanquetsintheNewKingdomweremore
elaborate,withfamilyandguestsenjoyingthemeal.Pharaohsgaveofficial
banquets...Banquetsusuallybeganinmidafternoon...Thetombscenesshowthe
guestsbeinggreetedbytheirhostsandservantscomingforwardtooffer
garlandsofflowers.Nextbasinsofwaterareofferedforthegueststowash
theirhands...Tombscenesshowmenandwomenonalternatepanelsasifthey
ateinseparategroupsorinseparaterooms...Guestscould...beseatedon...
[chairs]...stoolsorcusions...Theyatefromsmalltables,butsidetableswere
seeminglyloadedwithfoodinthealmostbuffetstyle,althoughservantswould
bringthefoodtotheguestsandofferthemnapkinstowipetheirmouths.Jugs
andbasinswereplacedonstandsnearby,readyforwashingofhandsand
feet...Themainfoodwouldbebread,fruits,pulses,andvegetables.Fruits
wouldhaveincludeddates,figs,melons,andpossiblyfruitsimportedfrom
othercountries.Meatcouldbeinabundanceatbanquets.Wholeoxenwere
roasted;ducks,chickens,geese,andpigeonswereserved.Fishseemstohave
beenlesspopular...Honeywasapreciousfood,mainlythepreserveofthe
wealthy,andthereforeexpectedatfeasts.Jarsunderneaththetableheldbeer,
wine,andfermentedfruitdirnks...Toastsweredrunktothegoddess
Hathor...Themealwouldbeaccompaniedbymusic...Afterthemealtheremight
bestorytellingoracrobats."
2005(p.188191)
"CuisineandSocialClass.EliteEgyptiansatethreedailymeals:morning,
evening,andnight.Laborersprobablyatetwicedaily...Socialsuperiorsmight
includelowerstatusdinersatbanquets,withdifferentfoodsofferedtoeach
guestdependignonhisorherrank.tablewaresvariedfrommagnificentgold,
alabaster,andclassfortheelitestoearthenwareandbasemetalsforworkers.
Spoonsandknivesappearedthetable.Highstatusbanquetswereoften
segregatedbygener...Thegendersmixedatfamilymeals,regardlessofstatus.
Egyptiansburiedfoodwiththeirdeadtoensureacomfortableafterlife.
Diversityindietwasamarkofwealth...Beerandbreadappearedoneveryone's
tableandwerethemostcommonformofpayment..."
CookinginAncientCivilizations,CathyK.Kaufman[Greenwood
InancientEgypt,whatwouldpharaohfeedhisguests?
Sameasmostrulers,theverybesthislandandwealthhadtooffer.And???
Plentyofit!
"TheAncientEgyptianslivedwell.Althoughtheyleftnorecipebooks,wecan
stillgetagoodideaofwhatthepharaohsandtheirpeoplemayhaveeatenfrom
thewallpaintingsintheirtombs,themealstheyburiedwiththedeadtoensure
thattheydidnotgohungryinthenextworld,andfromthetalesoftravellers
suchastheGreekHerodotus."
FoodFitforPharaohs:AnAncientEgyptianCookbook,Michelle
BerriedaleJohnson[BritishMuseumPress:London]1999(p.7)
ThefeastgivenbyKingMereptahinhiseighthyearfortheFestivalofOpet
servedtheseitems:fish(filletedandsalted),oxen,ducks(spitroasted),oryx,
gazelle(bastedinhoney),beans,sweetoils(forsauces),celery,parsley,leeks,
lettuce,bread,pommegranates,grapes,jujubes,honeycakes,headsofgarlic,
figs,beerandwine.
AncientLives:DailyLifeinEgyptofthePharaohs,JohnRomer[Holt,
RinehartandWinston:NewYork]1984(p.513)
"Atypical,lavishbanquetconsistedofagroupsittingonthefloororat
individualroundtables.Oftentheyreposedonlowchairsorstoolsunderwhich
layabasinforwashingtheirhands,sometimeswithapetcatormonkeybeside
it.Menandwomenatetogether,bothdressedinflowinglinengownsthat
reachedthefloorThewomenheldlotusflowersinonehandfortheperfume
andworeaperfumeconeontheirheadmadeofafattysubstancethatreleaseda
pleasingaromaasheatfromtheheadslowlymelteditduringthecourseofthe
evening.HeapsoffoodcompletelycoveredthesmalltablesTherewerebreads
ofseveralshapesandvarieties,wholeroastedtrussedfowlandjointsofmeat,
severalkindsofvegetablesandassortedfruit...Atanactualbanquet...various
courseswouldhavebeenservedoneafteranotherincontainers.Plateswerenot
used,butceramicbowls,ormorelikelyatsuchformalaffairs,blueglazedand
paintedfaiencedisheswouldhaveheldthefood.Cupsofsimilarmaterialstood
readyforwineandwerecontinuallyrefilledfromlargepitcherscarriedby
circulatingservantgirls."
DailyLifeoftheAncientEgyptians,BobBrierandHoytHobbs[Greenwood
[NOTE:thisbookhasa"meaty"chapteronperiodfoodstuffs(p.99115)and
severalreferencesforfurtherstudy.]
Recommendedreading
CookinginAncientCivilizations/CathyK.Kaufman(includes
modernizedrecipes)
"TheAncientEgyptians'Diet,"LifeoftheAncientEgyptians,Eugene
Strouhal(generalnotes)
"FoodCultureofAncientEgypt,"Food:ACulinaryHistory,JeanLouis
Flandrin&MassimoMontanari(scholarlyobservations)
FoodFitforPharaohs:AAncientEgyptianCookbook/Michelle
BerriedaleJohnson(modernizedrecipes)
FoodintheAncientWorld,JoanP.Alcock(ingredients&dining
customs...excellentforgrades612)
Pharaoh'sKitchen/MagdaMehdawyandAmrHussein(historic
ingredientnotes&modernizedrecipes)
EgyptianFlatBread
Makesabout8pitta
500g/11/2lbspeltorotherstrongbreadflour(brownorwhite)
1/2tspsalt
7g/1/3ozsacheteasyblenddriedyeast(1packet)
300ml/1/2pint/11/2cupstepidwater(onethirdboilingtotwothirdscold)
Mixtheflourwiththesaltandyeastinalargebols.Makeawellinthecentre
andourinthewater.Graduallydrawtheflourintothewaterandmixtoasoft
dough.Kneadbyhandonaflouredboardfor15minutes,orfor10minutesina
foodprocessorfittedwithadoughhook.Pouralittleoilintothebottomofa
bowl,rollthedoughinitandcoverthebowlwithacleandampclothorcling
film.Putinawarmplacefor11/22hoursoruntilthedoughhasalmost
doubledinsize.Removethedoughfromthebowland'knockback'orpunchit
down.Kneaditagainforanother34minutes,thencutintoeightpieces.Ona
flouredboard,flattenouteachpieceintoaround(about5mm/1/2inchthick)
withyourhandorarollingpin.Transfertoaflouredbakingtrayandbakeina
preheatedhotoven(220degreesC/425degreesF/Gasmark7)for810
minutes.Donotopentheovendoorwhilethebreadisbaking.eachbread
shouldpuffup,leavingapocketinthemiddle.Removefromtheovenandcool
slightlyonawirerack."FoodFitforPharaohs:AnAncientEgyptian
Cookbook,MichelleBerridaleJohnson[BritishMuseumPress:London]1999
(p.61)
SesameRings
Makes2rings
500g/11/2lbstrongwhitebreadflour
1/2tspsalt
1tspsugar
7g/1/3ozsacheteasyblenddriedyeast(1packet)
300ml/1/2pint/11/2cupstepidwater(onethirdboilingtotwothirdscold)
2tbspoliveoil
1egg
sesameseedsforsprinkling
Mixtheflour,salt,sugarandyeastinalargebowlandmakeawellinthe
centre.Pourinthewaterandoilandgraduallydrawintheflour.Kneadona
flouredboardfor15minutes,orfor10minutesinafoodprocessorfittedwitha
doughhook.Pouralittleoilintoabowl,rollthedoughinitandcoverthebowl
withacleandampclothorclingfilm.Putinawarmplacefor11/22hoursor
untilthedoughhasalmostdoubledinsize.Takethedoughoutofthebowl,
'knockback'orpunchitdownandkneadagainforafurther5minutes.Cutthe
doughinhalfandrolleachhalfintoasausageshapethatyoucanformintoa
ringwithadiameterofabout20cm/8in,about5cm/2inthick.Laytherings
onanoiledbakingtray.Beattheeggwtih2tbspwaterandglazethetopsofthe
rings.Sprinklegenerouslywithsesameseedsandbakeinapreheatedhotoven
(220degreesC/425degreesF/GasMark7)for10minutes,thenreducethe
heatto150degreesC/300degreesF/GasMark23forafurther15minutes.
Removefromovenandcoolonawirerack."
ibid(p.62)[OURNOTE:Youcanalsokneadthisbreadyourself.Youdo
nothavetohaveafoodprocessorand/ordoughhook.]
Biblefoods:New&OldTestaments
Biblebasedcookbooks(historynotes&modernizedrecipes)
TheGoodBookCookbook,NaomiGoodmanetal.
TheBibleCookbook:LoreofFoodinBiblicalTimesplusAdaptationsof
AncientRecipes,DanielS.Cutler
FoodandFeastsofJesus:InsidetheWorldofFirstCenturyFarewith
MenusandRecipes,DouglasE.NeelandJoelA.Puch
Loaves&Fishes:FoodsfromBibleTimes,MalvinaKinard&Janet
Crisler
CookingwiththeBible:BiblicalFood,Feasts,andLore,AnthonyF.
Chiffolo&RaynerW.Hesse,Jr....includesextensivenoteson
ingredients
Scholarlyreading(Christian)
[alloftheseworksarescholarlyandcontainextensivefootnotes/bibliographies
forfurtherstudy]
Food&FaithinChristianCulture,editedbyKenAlbalaandTrudy
Eden
GraceBeforeMeals:FoodRitualandBodyDisciplineinConvent
Culture,PatriciaCurran<liHolyFeastandHolyFast:TheReligious
SignificanceofFoodtoMedievalWomen,CarolineWalkerBynum</li
FoodinAntiquity(general)
FoodandSocietyinClassicalAntiquity,PeterGarnsey
excellentoverviewofthetopic,includesdiet,foodsupply,economy,
health,taboos.
TheCambridgeWorldHistoryofFood,Kiple&Ornelas
historyofspecificfoodsandcuisinebyregion;foodprejudicesand
taboos.
Food:ACulinaryHistory,Flandrin&Montanari
severalchaptersonclassicalfood
FoodintheAncientWorldFromAZ,AndrewDalby
alphabeticalarrangement,notestoclassicalauthors,biblical
referencesandcontemporarystudies.Alsoincludesgeneralnoteson
agricutlureandtrade.
Bibleplants(edible&not)
DictionaryofBiblePlants,Musselman
Figs,Dates,LaurelandMyrrh:PlantsoftheBibleandtheQu'ran,
Musselman
PlantsoftheBible.
WhatdidtheVikingseat?
Commonfoods&farmingtechniques
Foodpreservation
Everydaymeals
Vikingfeasts
Additionalresources(online&books)
Commonfoods&farming
"ThemainitemsintheVikings'dietwerewholemealbreadmadefromryeand
oats,porridgecontainingoatmealandbarley,eggs,milk,cream,butterand
cheese.Theyatemutton,goats'flesh,horseflesh,beefandpork;inthefar
north,themeatofreindeer,polarbears,whalesandsealscouldbeobtained.
Herring,haddock,codandeelswerefavouritedelicacies.Themostcommonly
eatenvegetableswerecabbages,wildgreens,andonions.Forfruittheyhad
applesandallkindsofberriesandnuts.Theydrankgreatquantitiesofmilk,
buttermilkandwhey,aswellasaweakbeerbrewedfrombarleyandamuch
strongermeadmadefromfermentedhoneandwater.Manykindsofwinewere
importedfromEuropeandfarawayByzantium.Thefoodwascookedoverthe
openfireinthemiddleofthehall.Meatswereeitherroastedonthespit,boiled
ingreatcauldronsorfriedindeeppans.Breadtheoatcakeswerebakedonflat
stoneslaidacrossthefirepit...archaeologistshavefoundstoneovenswhere
foodwascookedbetweenlayersofredhotstones.TheVikingsenjoyedplain
foodandpreferredboiledtoroastorfriedmeattheheroesinValhallafeasted
offboiledpork.Theylovedrichstewsmadeupofallthescrapsandleftovers.
Theirfoodwassweetenedwithhoneyandflavoredwithpepperandmanyother
spices,importedfromtheEast...Farmingtookmuchofthetimeofmost
Vikings.Theygrewrye,barleyandoatsinsmallhomefieldswhichwere
enclosedbydrystonewalls...Theyhadsmallvegetablepatchesandorchardsof
appletrees...Theybredsheep,goats,cattleandchickens.Cattlewerebyfarthe
mostimportantastheyprovidedsomuchoftheirfoodaswellashidesfor
bootsandclothes...theywentouthuntingforelk,wildboar,deerandeven
bear...Fowlingwasanotherfavouritepasttime,andsourceoffood.Muchof
theirtimewasspentfishinginthefjordsoratsea.Theycaughtherringinthe
Baltic,codandhaddockintheAtlantic,andwhales,sealsandwalrusesinthe
coldnorthernseas...Theycollectedseaweedandspreaditovertheirfieldsasa
manure.Seaweedwasalsostoredandgiventothecattleduringthewinter,and
whentimeswerebad,theVikingsateitthemselves."
TheVikings,MichaelGibson[WaylandPublishers:London]1972(p.2933)
"Milkfromcows,sheep,orgoatswasdrunkorusedinthepreparationof
variousdishesorprocessed.Itwasoftenseparatedintocurdsandwheyor
buttermilkandmadeintobutterorcheese...meatcameprimarilyfromdomestic
animals:pigs,cows,sheep,lambs,boats,andhorses.Theslaughteringof
animalstypicallytookplaceinthefall,sothattheywouldnothavetobefed
duringthewinter.Hensandgeeseofferedthepossibilityoffreshmeat
throughouttheyearand...providedeggs.Otherbirdsandanimalswerehunted.
Theseincludedseabirdsofallkinds,hares,rabbits,wildboar,elk,deer,seals,
whales...reindeer.Bothwhaleandsealmeatwereconsidereddelicacies...The
meatwaspreparedinavarietyofways.Itmightbeboiledinacauldronofiron
orsoapstonesuspendedovertheopenfirefromatripodorhungonchainsfrom
aroofbeam.Forpreservation,meatwaspickledinwheyorbrine,smoked,
dried,orsalted.Saltwasobtainedfromboilingseawaterorseaweedafter
whichthecrystalsweregathered...fishplayedanimportantpartinthediet.Cod
andcoalfishwerethemostimportantfishinNorway,westernJutlandin
Denmark,andtheNorsecoloniesintheNorthAtlantic.IntheBalticandinthe
Danishwaters,herringwasthemostimportantfish.Whennoteatenfresh,
herringwastypicallysalted,whereascodwas...winddried.Thedriedcodwas
calledstockfishbecauseithungoverarod,orstock,whiledrying...Freshwater
fish...salmon,perch,andpikewasalsoconsumed,aswasshellfish...shrimp,
mussels,andoysters...Barleyasthemaincereal...inIcelanditwasprobablythe
onlygraincultivated.Itwasusedformakingporridgeandforbakingbread.
Maltedbarleywasusedformakingale,towhichhopsmightbeaddedfor
flavor.Rye...wascommonlyusedforbakingbread,aswasoat,whichwasalso
usedforporridge.AlthoughwheatwasgrowninScandinavia,itappearsto
havebeenrareandexpensive,and'whitebread'wasprobablyaluxuryreserved
forthewealthy...Somebreadswereunleavenedwhileotherswereleavened
withyeast.Barleyisthemainingredient,butsomebreadsaremixedwithother
grains,linseed,peaflour,orpinebark...Vegetables,fruits,berries,andnuts
providedimportantnutritionalsupplements.Themostcommonvegetables
wereprobablycabbages,onions,peas,beans,beets,andendives,whichwere
alllocallygrown...fruits,suchasapples,pears,cherries,plums,blueberries,
cloudberries,raspberries,blackberries,andstrawberries,werefoundinlarge
areasofScandinaviaandcouldbepickedwherevertheygrew.Thewereeaten
rawordriedandmayalsohavebeenusedtomakefruitwine...Theonlywild
nutknowninScandinaviaintheVikingagewashazelnut.Shellsofwalnuts
havebeenfoundinexcavations,butthesenutsarebelievedtohavebeen
imported....Toseasonthefoods,salt,herbs,andspiceswereused.Cumin,
mustard,andhorseradish...parsley,dill,cress,mint,marjoram,thyme,angelica,
andwildgarlicmayprobablyhavebeenadded.Othermoreexoticspecies
wouldhavebeenimported.Honeywasthetraditionalsweetenerandwasused
asabaseforsweet,fermentedmead."
DailyLifeoftheVikings,KirstenWolf[GreenwoodPress:WestportCT]
2004(p.8283)
HowdidtheVikingspreservetheirfood?
"TheVikinginvaderscamefromaregionwhereconditionshadfavoreddrying
asamethodoffoodpreservationformtheearliesttimesofsettlementin
Scandinavia.Thelong,coldwintershadmadefoodpreservationapriority,and
theabundantsupplyoffish,togetherwiththecold,dryair,fosteredalongand
resilientpracticeofdryingfish.Evenwhileatsea,theVikingscrucifiedtheir
catchesofcodintheriggingoftheirshipstodryinthefreezingseawindsuntil
thefishwereashardaplanks.IntheLofotenIslandsinnorthernNorway,
wheretheGulfStreamdeliversgiantshoalsoffish,theystillhangsidesofcod
onhighhurdlesinthecold,springairtodryuntilexceedinglyhardandamost
indestructible.TheNorwegianshavesuccessfullyexportedthisresulting
stokkfisk(stockfish)formanyyears."
Pickled,PottedandCanned:HowtheArtandScienceofFoodPreserving
ChangedtheWorld,SueShepard[Simon&Schuster:NewYork]2000(p.37)
"Meatandfishwerepreservedbysmoking(thesmokyupperreachesofthe
longhousehelpedtokeepmeathungtherefromspoiling),picklinginbrineor
whey(inwhichthelacticacidpreventedfoodspoilage),salting,ordrying.
SmokedlambhangingfromthekitchenbeamsinthelonghouseatEirksstair
isshowntotheleft.Despiteitsthoroughlyunappetizingappearance,themeatis
delicious.Ontherightarefishdryingoutdoorsinanopenshedinmodern
Iceland.Thedry,coldwindsremovethemoistureandpreservethefish."
SOURCE:Hurstwic
"WithnofridgesorfreezersourVikingfamilyhastotakespecialmeasuresto
stoptheirfoodgoingbad.Meatandfishcanbesmokedorrubbedwithsalt.
Fruitcanbedried;grainsaremadeintobreadorale.Dairyproducesuchas
milkismadeintocheese.Cookingthemeatwillmakeitlastalittlelonger,
makingsausageswillmakeitlastlongerstill."
SOURCE:VikingFood/RussellScott[BBC]
Everydaymeals
"VikingageScandinaviansatetwomealsaday,oneonthemorningandonein
theevening.Thefoodwasservedinthemainhall,andpeopleatesittinginthe
raisedplatformsalongthelongwallsofthehouse.Welltodopeopleprobably
hadtablesandtablecloths.Peoplenormallyatewiththeirfingersoffflat
woodentrenchers.Asortbladedknife,whichtheytypicallycarriedaround
withthem,wasusedtochopupfood.Somefoods,suchasporridge,soups,and
stews,wereservedinwoodenbowlsandeatenwithspoonsofwoodorantler.
Aleandmeadweredrunkfromthehornsofcattle,whichmightbeornamented
withmetalmounts...Otherbeveragesweredrinkfromwoodencupsorsilver
bowls.Thelatterwereprobablyreservedforwine.Glasses,whichhadtobe
imported,wereuncommonandusedonlybywealthypeople.Thetypesoffood
consumed...variedfromregiontoregionanddependeduponavailable
resources,butitisreasonabletoassumethatthedietwasbasedprimarilyon
dairyproduce,meat,andfish."
2004(p.81)
Feastingtime
"Feastscalledformoreelaboratepreparation:'Theladyofthehousespreadan
embroideredclothofwhitelinenonthetableandplacedloavesofwhite
wheatenbreadonit.Thenshesetoutmanydishesoffinehamandroasted
fowlsaswellassilverjugscontainingwine.Theyate,drankandtalkeduntil
thedaywasdone."
TheVikings,MichaelGibson[WaylandPublishers:London]1972(p.31)
"FeastingwasthemostcommonsocialdiversionintheVikingage.Itprovided
respitefromlaborandopportunitiesforphysicalrelaxation.Thefeastsincluded
seasonalcelebrationsandcommemorationsofpersonalevents.Inoriginboth
wereassociatedwithpagansacrifices,andalthoughChristianleaderstriedto
purgetheseceremonialfeastsofpaganelements,theyretainedthetimingof
themandassociatewithcommemorativedaysofChristianityorthefeastdays
ofsaints...thesizeandgrandeurofthefeastdependedontheoccasionandthe
host'ssocialandeconomicstatus.Aroyalfeastwouldnodoubthavebeenquite
extravagantwithanelaboratespreadoffoodanddrinkandlastedseveral
days...Thefeastsprobablydidnotdiffersubstantiallyfromthoseheld
elsewhereinEurope,butthereisreasontobelievethattheywererowdierand
involvedheavierdrinking...Whenthedrinkinghornwaspassed,amancould
notrefuseunlesshewasoldorsick."
2004(p.144145)
Additionalhistory
VikingFood/BBC(includesfeastnotes)
Vikingcooking/Hurstwic
ArchaeologicalFindingsofNinthandTenthCenturyViking
Foodstuffs/SCA
WhatdidtheVikingseat?/Vikinganswerlady
RunningahouseholdintheVikingera(withmodernizedrecipes)
Recommendedreading
AnEarlyMeal:AVikingAgeCookbook&CulinaryOdyssey/DanielSerra&
HannaTunberg
...excellentintroductiontotheingredients,cookingtechnology,anddining
customsoftheVikings.Includesmodernizedrecipes.FoodCulturein
Scandinavia/HenryNotaker
...basicoverviewofcookingmethods,ingredients&diningcustoms
Libellusdeartecoquinaria:AnEarlyNorthernCookeryBook/editedand
translatedbyRudolfGrewe&ConstanceB.Hieatt
...AcademictreatisefeaturingcommentaryofamedievalScandinavian
cookbook.Includesindexofutensils,procedures,ingredientsanddishes.
Original(transcribed)recipeshere.
AngloSaxonandNormanBritainFoods
ThefoodofAngloSaxonEnglandwasanecclecticmixofinvadercuisine.
BronzeageCelts,AncientRomans,Scandinaviansand
conqueringNormansplayedmajorroles.
AboutAngloSaxonfood
Foodanddrink
Feastingandfasting
Ovenbuilding&breadmaking
RECOMENDEDREADING:
BritishFood:AnExtraordinaryThousandYearsofHistory,Colin
Spencer
Chapter2:"AngloSaxonGastronomy
AHandbookofAngloSaxonFood:ProcessingandConsumption,Ann
Hagen
commodities,preservationtechniques,cookingmethods,dining
customs&feastinstructions
ASecondHandbookofAngloSaxonFoodandDrink:Productionand
Distribution,AnnHagen
agriculturalmethods,foodsupply,foodtaboos,trade/imports,
measures,hospitality
TastesofAngloSaxonEngland,MarySavelli
recipesadaptedformodernkitchens
ATasteofHistory:10,000YearsofFoodinBritain,PeterBrearsetal
goodforRomanerafoodsandcookingtechniques
FoodandDrinkinBritainFromtheStoneAgetothe19thCentury,C.
AnneWilson
arrangedbygeneralfoodcategories(cereals,dairy,etc.)
PartThree:LateClassicaltotheEarlyMiddleAges,5th10th
centuries)
OxfordCompaniontoFood,AlanDavidson
entriesonCelticfeasting
ScandinavianfoodsinScotland
Accordingtothefoodhistorians,atsomepointScottishandScandinavianfood
anddiet(think:Vikings)converged,creatingsomenotableculinary
similarities:
"Scotlandtoventureanunderstatement,isnotatalldifficulttodistinguishfrom
England;thedifferenceleaptotheeyeinmanydifferentaspectsofthetwo
cultures,includingnotablyfoodandcookery.Intheseandotherrespectsthe
peopleofScotlandhavecloserlinkswithScandinaviaandFrance...thandothe
English...TheScottishlinkswithScandinaviaaremostvisibleinOrkneyand
Shetland,butcontinuetobeevidentdowntotheBorderCountry(andindeed
intothenorthofEngland,whichhasmuchincommonwiththeLowlandsof
Scotland).Thecontrastisheightenedthefurthernorthonegoes,partlybecause
ofchanginggeographicalfeatures."
Press:Oxford]1999(p.706)
"Scottishfoodderivesfromseveralcultures.FirsttheCelticculture,which
makesgooduseofoatmealandthegriddleorgirdle...Therecountries,too,
werevisitedbyNorsemenandthisledtoScandinavianmethodsofcuringand
saltingfishandalsopork.Saltedandsmokedmuttonisatraditionalfoodboth
inScotlandandScandinavia.ItisprobablythattheoriginalAberdeenAngus
cattlewereofVikingstock."
TraditionalScottishCookery,TheodoraFitzgibbon[Fontana:Suffolk]1980
(p.vii)[NOTE:TheodoraFitzgibbonhaswrittenseveralbooksonScottish
cookery.]
Recommendedreading(general)
Press:Oxford]1999
separateentriesforeachcountries(includingCelticcooking),
ingredientsandrecipes;pointstomajorculinarytreatisesineach.
CambridgeWorldHistoryofFood,KennethF.KipleandKriemhild
ConeeOrnelas[CambridgeUniversityPress:2000]
entriesbyregionandspecificfooditems;extensivebibliographyfor
furtherstudy
IntheShadowoftheBrochs,BeverlyBallinSmith
FoodinNormanBritian
TheNormanswereancientScandinavianpeoples.Theybeganinvading
England(fromtheNorth)inthe9thcentury.In1066theyconqueredEngland,
installingWilliam,DukeofNormandy,tothethrone.Whatkindoffooddidthe
Normanseat?MostlikelyanecclecticmixofancientScandinavianrecipesand
localfare.MajorculinaryinfluencesofthiseraweretheRomansandtheCelts.
"TheNormanswereacquisitve,greedyandambitious;theyabsorbedthe
cultureofothers,whetheritwasFrance,Sicily,EnglandorNorthAfrica...It
wasclearthenthatifthesepeopleslikedanewfood,flavouringsoringredient,
theywouldtakeitoverandmakeittheirown...Theearliestextantrecipeswere
writtendownsometimebefore1280,andarelikelytohavebeencourtfavorites
passeddownfrommastercooktoapprenticesoverdecades,ifnotforalmost
200years,fromthetimeoftheConqueror...Theseearlyrecipesshowahigh
degreeofgastronomicsophistication...Ofcourse,thesedishesweremadefor
thenobilitysothisisfoodforonlytwopercentofthepopulation.Animal
proteincomprisedathirdtoahalfoftheirconsumption,foreveryoneina
magnatehouseholdwouldhavehadaboutapoundofmeatoffishperday.The
factthattheserecipeswerewrittendownatallshowsthattheywereusedfor
specialcelebrations.Hereisadescriptionofaselectionofthem:
noodles,ravioli,oranges,whitepancakes,jelly(madefromanimals,notfruit),
sagesauce,nag'stail,whiteelder(chickenchunkscookedinsoupstock),veal
stews,poachedchicken,chicken,mawmenny(mincedchickenandpork
poachedwithwineflavouredwithspicesincludingclovesandfriedalmonds),
nuttarts(smallpastrieswithalmondmilkcustard),rosepottage(almondmilk
flavouredwithgroundrosepetalssprinkledwithsugar),andfoodofCyprus
(almondmilkflavouredwithgroundgingerandpistachionuts,thickenedwith
riceflour)."
BritishFood:AnExtraodinaryThousandYearsofHistory,ColinSpencer
[NOTE:Thisbookcontainsinformationoncommonfoods,courtlyfeasts,
peasantfare,andpreservationtechniques.]
WhatdidRobinHood&HisMerryMeneat?
RobinHoodisgenerallythoughttobesetinlate12thcenturyEngland,during
thereignofRichardI(theLionhearted).Foodplaysacentralroleinthesetales;
poorpeoplewerestarvingwithwealthylandownersenjoyedabundance.Robin
HoodandhisMerryMencelebratedtheirvictoriesbyfeasting.Inthiscontext,
a"feast"meanthavingenoughtoeat.
Literatureprovidesawealthofdetailwhenitcomestotellinguswhatpeople
ate.Fromthistale,wefindtheMerryMentypicallyatebread,cheeseand
portablemeatpies(pastys).Theyatetheirentiremealatonesitting,nocourses.
Theydinedoutsideandinlocalinns.Presumably,pieswerepurchased(or
stolen?)frombakeshopsorstreetvendors.Foodswereroasted,baked,boiled,
andstewed.Everyonewashedeverythingdownwithbeer,ale,andfortified
wine.
RobinHood'sfoods:
"WHENTHEfouryeomenhadtraveledforalongtimetowardSherwood
again,highnoontidebeingpast,theybegantowaxhungry.QuothRobinHood,
"IwouldthatIhadsomewhattoeat.Methinksagoodloafofwhitebread,with
apieceofsnowwhitecheese,washeddownwithadraughtofhummingale,
wereafeastforaking.""
"SoRobinstraightwaylefttheBeggar,who,uponhispart,wenttoabudding
limebushbackofthehedge,andtherespreadhisfeastuponthegrassand
roastedhiseggsuponalittlefagotfire,withadeftnessgainedbylonglaborin
thatline.AfterawhilebackcameRobinbearingagoodlyskinofaleuponhis
shoulder,whichhelaiduponthegrass...Sotheoneseizeduponthealeandthe
otheruponthepigeonpie,andnothingwasheardforawhilebutthemunching
offoodandthegurgleofaleasitlefttheskin."
"Hesawagreatvenisonpastyandtworoastedcapons,besidewhichwasa
platterofplover'seggs;moreover,therewasaflaskofsackandoneofcanary
asweetsighttoahungryman."
"Afteratimehecameback,bearingwithhimagreatbrownloafofbread,and
afair,roundcheese,andagoatskinfullofstoutMarchbeer,slungoverhis
shoulders."
"...boiledcapons,Malmsey,whitebread,andthelike,withgreattenderness.
Quothhetohimself,"IwouldIhadWillieWynkin'swishingcoat;Iknowright
wellwhatIshouldwishfor,andthisitshouldbe."Herehemarkeduponthe
fingersofhislefthandwiththeforefingerofhisrighthandthosethingswhich
hewishedfor."Firstly,Iwouldhaveasweetbrownpieoftenderlarks;mark
ye,notdrycooked,butwithagoodsopofgravytomoistenitwithal.Next,I
wouldhaveaprettypullet,fairlyboiled,withtenderpigeons'eggs,cunningly
sliced,garnishingtheplatteraround.WiththeseIwouldhavealong,slimloaf
ofwheatenbreadthathathbeenbakeduponthehearth..."[NOTE:Malmseyis
"Astrongsweetwine,originallytheproductoftheneighborhoodof
Monemvasia(NapolidiMalvasia)intheMOrea;butnowobtainedfromSpain
andtheAzores(OxfordEnglishDictionary)]
""Ifindhereagoodlypieceofpigeonpie,wrappedinacabbageleaftohold
thegravy.HereIbeholdadaintystreakedpieceofbrawn,andhereafairlump
ofwhitebread.HereIfindfouroatencakesandacoldknuckleofham.Ha!In
sooth,'tisstrange;buthereIbeholdsixeggsthatmusthavecomebyaccident
fromsomepoultryyardhereabouts.Theyareraw,butroasteduponthecoals
andspreadwithapieceofbutterthatIsee"
"Thoushalteatsweetvenisonandquaffthestoutestale..."
"...feeduponvenisonandsweetoatencakes,andcurdsandhoney."
"Then,whilebeyondintheforestbrightfirescrackledandsavorysmellsof
sweetlyroastingvenisonandfatcaponsfilledtheglade,andbrownpasties
warmedbesidetheblaze,didRobinHoodentertaintheSheriffrightroyally."
"Atthefirewereroastingjuicysteaksofvenison,pheasants,capons,andfresh
fishfromtheriver."
"avenisonpastywithsuetandraisinsistostoutKingHarry."
""Firstly,Iwouldhaveasweetbrownpieoftenderlarks;markye,notdry
cooked,butwithagoodsopofgravytomoistenitwithal.Next,Iwouldhavea
prettypullet,fairlyboiled,withtenderpigeons'eggs,cunninglysliced,
garnishingtheplatteraround.WiththeseIwouldhavealong,slimloafof
wheatenbreadthathathbeenbakeduponthehearth..."
"Brownaleliesripeninginthecellar,hamsandbaconhanginthesmokeshed,
andcrabsarestowedawayinthestrawforroastinginthewintertime..."
"sweetcakesandbarleysugarweresold..."
"Sopresentlyasavorystewoftripeandonions,withsweetlittlefatdumplings,
wassetbeforehim,likewiseagoodstoutpottleofMalmsey..."
"...whileroastedcrabs[Smallsourapples]bobbedinbowlsofaleuponthe
hearthstone."
"...sweetlyroastingvenisonandfatcaponsfilledtheglade,andbrownpasties
warmedbesidetheblaze,didRobinHoodentertaintheSheriffrightroyally."
"Thensomebuiltgreatfiresandroastedthesteers..."
"...roastingchestnuts..."
"...Ismelledthesteamofaboiledpulletjustnow..."
SOURCE:ProjectGutenberg'sTheMerryAdventuresofRobinHood,by
HowardPyle
[NOTE:Thereareseveralversionsofthistale.Moderninterpretationscanvary
throughtime.ProjectGutenbergoffersseveral.Weusedourbrowser's"find"
featuretoidentifythefoodreferences.Searchterms:feast,food,pie,meat,
eggs,stew,soup,roast,boil,cake,bake,chicken,ham,bacon,beef.]
Medievalfare
ThestudyofMedievalcultureandcuisineisacomplicatedandfacinating
topic.Thereisplentyofinformationavailable,fromcomprehensiveacademic
sourcestosimplechildren'sbooks.Thesourcescitedhereareselected
primarilyforteachersandstudentswhowanttolearnthebasicsofEuropean
Medievalcuisine,findoutwhatwaseatenbytherichandpoor,trycooking
someauthenticrecipes,orrecreateafeastforclass.
WebsiteswithauthenticMedievalrecipes,modernredactionsandgeneral
information:
ABokeofGodeCookery,medievalcustomsandcuisine
MedievalEnglishfare
Cariadoc'sMiscellany,European&Islamiccultures13th17thcenturies
Medieval/RenaissanceFoodHomepage
CindyRenfrow'sLinksPageprimarysources,SCAcookery,supplies&
originalarticles
GastronomieMedievale,BibliotequeNationaledeFrance(enFrancais)
FoodandFeudinSagaIceland
Mongolianfood,WilliamofRubruk.
Digitizedperiodcookbooks
AFormofCury,1390
MaitreChiquart,Europeansurvey,chronologicalarrangement(in
French)
Historicculinaryandbrewingdocumentsonline,CindyRenfrow's
comprehensivelist
Medievalandearlyculinarytexts,MarthaCarlin,Universityof
Wisconsin
German,French,&Latintexts,intheoriginallanguages
Dutchtexts,inDutchandEnglish
Irishfoodbeforethepotato
RobinHood'sfood
Books:(yourlibrariancanhelpyoufindthem!)
TherearehundredsofbooksonMedievalcuisine.Ifyouarelookingforagood
overviewofthetopicwesuggest:
ABaronialHouseholdoftheThirteenthCentury,MargaretWadeLabarge
EarlyFrenchCookery,D.EleanorScully&TerenceScully
Food:ACulinaryHistory,editedbyJeanLouisFlandrin&Massimo
Montanari
FoodandEatinginMedievalEurope,MarthaCarlinandJoelT.Rosenthal,
editors
FoodandFeastinMedievalEngland,P.W.Hammond
FoodinHistory,ReayTannahill
FoodinMedievalTimes,MelittaWeissAdamson
LivingandDininginMedievalParis,NicoleCrossleyHolland
MedievalArabCookery,MaximeRodinson,A,J.Arberry&CharlesPerry
Thesebookshavebothhistorialnotesandrecipesadaptedformodern
kitchens:
FabulousFeasts:MedievalCookeryandCeremony,MadeleinePelnerCosman
MedievalCelebrations,DanielDiehlandMarkDonnelly(basichowtomanual
forreenactors)
TheMedievalCookbook,MaggieBlack
TheMedievalKitchen:RecipesfromFranceandItaly,OdileRedonet
al.(samplerecipes)
PleynDelit:MedievalCookeryforModernCooks,ConstanceB.Hieatt,et.al.,
2nded.,1996
TakeaThousandEggsorMore:ACollectionof15thCenturyRecipes,Cindy
Renfrow,2volumes
TotheKing'sTaste:RichardII'sbookoffeastsandrecipesadaptedformodern
cooking,LornaJ.Sass
Thisisbynomeansacomprehensivebibliography.Youwillfindmanymore
bookslistedontheseWebsites:
FoodBooks
GodeCookery
[NOTE:yourlocalpubliclibrariancanborrowthemforyou]
HowmuchdidfoodcostinMedievalEngland?
Foodsbysocialclass
Whatpeopleeatinallplacesandtimesdependsuponwhotheyare
(religion/ethnicity),wheretheylived(London?Seville?),andhowmuch
moneytheyhad(richpeoplealwayeatbetterthanthepoor).Mostofthepeople
livinginMedievalEnglandwereRomanCatholic.Religiousdoctrines
regardingfastandfeastdayswereobservedonalllevels.Compareandcontract
thesetwodietsfromMedievalEngland:
KING
TheFormeofCury,(cookbookofthecourtofRichardII,1390)
[NOTE:Thisinformation,alongwithoriginalandmodernizedrecipes,is
printedinthebookToTheKing'sTaste,LornaSass]
PEASANT
"Thebasicdietofthepeasantconsistedofcarbohydratesintheformofgrain,
mostlybarleyandoats,whichwerebakedorbewedintobreadandale.Protein,
intheformofmeatandeggs,wasinshortersupply,particularlyintheearlier
partofthisperiod,thethirteenthcentury.Somefruitandvegetables(suchas
beansandonions)wouldhavebeenincludedinthediet.Notallofthefoodof
thecountrydwellerwasgrown;somewasbought,inmostcasesinthe
ubiquitousfairsandmarketswhichwerefrequentlyheldintowns...Thereare
severaldescriptionsincontemporarypoemsoffoodeatenbypeasants.Thereis
alistofthefoodeatenbytheshepherdsintheShepherdsplayintheChester
MysteryCycle.Thisconsistedofbread,bacon,onions,garlic,leeks,butterand
green(fresh)cheese.Tothiswasaddedale,hotmeat(apparentlysuppliedas
partoftheirwages),apudding(typeunspecified),ajonnock'(anoatcake),a
sheep'sheadsousedinaleandsourmilk(thatiscurds).Anotherofthe
shepherdsaddedtothisfairlylargeamountoffoodapig'sfood(apparently
originallypartofasausagemixture)andathirdaddedsmokedham,othermeat
andanotherpudding.Thislistprobablydatesbacktotheoriginoftheplay
cycle,earlyinthefourteenthcentury,andhavebeenintendedtodescribethe
usualfoodofshepherdsatthattime.AnotherlistoccursinLangland'sPiersthe
PlowmanasadescriptionoffoodgiventothecharacterHunger'bythepoor
manPiersandhisneighbors.Piersfirstofalldescribedthefoodthathehadin
hiscottage:twogreencheeses,somecurdsandcream,anoatcake,andtwo
loavesofbranandbeans.Healsohasparsley,noeggsandnosaltmeat..."(P.
2628)
"Manorialservantswereoftenfedverywell.Onatleastonemanor,in1272,
theyfedonbeefandale,bothlargelyprovidedfromhomekilledorhome
brewedstock,fishintheformofherringsandcod,cheeses,andpottagemade
frompeasandbeans.Theirbreadwasmadefrombothryeandwheat...In1289
cartersonFerringManor,Sussex,hadamorningmealofryebreadwithaleand
cheese;atnoontheyreceivedbread,aleandadishoffishormeat;andinthe
eveningtheyweregivenadrinkonly.Themainmealwas,however,mor
usuallygivenintheevening.Laterservants,inthiscasecourtclerksandthe
yeomenofthehouseholdintheNorthumberlandHouseholdin1512,received
forbreakfastonmeatdaysaloafofhouseholdbread,abottleofbeeranda
pieceofboiledbeef.Itappearsthatatothermealstheyprobablyhadmuchthe
samefoodastheirfellowsof230yearsbefore,exceptthatonfleshdays'the
meatgivenwasbeefnotbacon."
FoodandFeastinMedievalEngland,P.W.Hammond[Wren's
Park:Gloucestershire]1993(p.32)
[NOTE:Thisbookcontainsfarmoreinformationthancanbeparaphrasedhere.
Askyourlibrariantohelpyoufindacopy.ChaptersThree(FoodoftheTown
Dweller),Four(FoodoftheGentry)andSeven(Feasts)providesimilar
informationforotherclassesofpeople.]
Orderinthefeast
AgrandMedievalfeastservedmanypurposes.Forthehost,itwasapublic
demonstrationofpower.Fortheguests,itwasapublicreminderoftheirsocial
status.Forthecook,itwasachancetoshowcasehisskillandclimbthecareer
ladder.Formodernscholars,itisacomplexsocioeconomictechnological
convergencepiecedtogetherwithshardsofprimaryevidence.Imagineagreat
hallwherelargenumbersofinviteddinerswereserveddifferentdishesof
varyingqualityandnumbercoursesaccordingtosocialstatus.A"commoner"
inthiscontextcouldbetheLordMayorofLondonoraforeigndignitary.Next
camethelords,ladiesandknights.Thehighestrankingfeastparticipantwas
generally,butnotalways,thehost.Leftoverfoodwassubsequentlydistributed
tothehouseholdhelpandtheirleftoversweredonatedtotheworkingtenants
livingonthehost'sproperty.Wewonder:(1)Whatdidtheonecoursestatus
dinersdowhilethekinggrazedthreeand(2)Whichfoodswereleft,andin
whatcondition,whentheywereconsumedbythelowerclasses.
"ThetableofcontentsofB.L.MSSloane1201,whichcanbedatedtoc1470,
divides...thepottagesintothoseforthefirstcourseandthoseforthesecond.All
thesemanuscriptsconfirmtheexistenceofaperfectlyrationalservingorderin
medievalEngland:theyeartybasicsfirst,andthenforthoseluckenoughtobe
servedfurthercoursesmoreinterestingdishes,withtheraredelicaciesand
daintiessavedfortheendofthemeal.Itistruethatatleasttwolatercoronation
feastmenusareanomalousinthateveryoneofthethreecoursesendswitha
fritter;perhapsthoseresponsibleforplanninggreatfeastsinEnglandattheend
ofthe15thcneturywerebeginningtooverelaborateandwerelosingtrackof
theessentialprinciplesinvolved.ThecoronationfeastofRichardIII,oneofthe
thosewithafritterineverycourse(ifonlyfortheking'stable),gotsooutof
controlthatthelastofthethreeelaborateplannedcoursescouldnotbeserved.
Thosewhowonderwhattheloweronthesocialladdergottoeatwillfindit
instructivetoexaminethemenusforthatfeast.Thedifferencebetweenranks
arefarmoremarkedthanthosebetweentheking'stableandtheknight'stable
inthemenusfromMSL.Onlythekingwasservedthreecourses:lordsand
ladiesweretobeservedonlytwo,andcommonersone,althoughthe
commonersinvolvedweresuchdignitariesasthemayerofLondon.Theorder
ofservingwasroughlyequivalentforthekingandforthelordsandladies,but
thelatergotlesserdelicaciesforexample,theyweretobeservedlambandkid
atthepointwherethekingwastohavetheultimatepiecederesistance,a
peacock.Commonersweretohaveonlythesimplestandgenerallyheartiest
dishes,includingonewhichdoesnotappearatallonthemorearistocratic
menus:roastbeef.Perhapsthissuggestsonereasonwhyroastbeefisnot
mentionedinthevollectionofMSB:itmaynothavebeenconsidered
aristocraticenoughtobeworthbotheringwith.Ourcollectionwasobviously
intendedforahouseholdofuncommonpretensions,andincludessomedishes
whichare...extremelycomplicatedtoprepare."
AnOrdinanceofPottage:Aneditionofthefifteenthcenturyculinaryrecipes
inYaleUniversity'sMSBeineck163,editedbyConstanceB.Hieatt[Prospect
Books:Devon]1988(p.1718)
[NOTE:Thisbookoffersthreesamplemenus:FortheKnight'sTable,Forthe
King'sTablewithsugarandassortedspices,andFortheKing'sTableonFish
Day(p.110).Includesoriginaltranscribed&modernizedrecipes.]
PlanningaMedievalfeast?
Mostofthesourceslistedabovewillprovideyouwithsamplemenusand
authenticrecipesredacted(adapted)tomodernkitchens.Oventemperatures
andstandardmeasurementswillsaveyoualotoftimeandaggravation!Onthe
otherhand,ifyouaretrulycourageousyoucantrydecidinghowmuchbutteris
thesizeofa[medieval]hen'seggandguesswhenthefoodisdone(oventemps
&timingdidnotappearinrecipesatthetime).Whenyoupresentyourfoodto
theclassincludeBOTHoriginalrecipe(ortranslationifitwasoriginally
writteninanotherlanguage)andthemoderninterpretation.Thiswillgiveyour
classmatesanideaofhowrecipeshavechangedthroughtime.
Basicnotes:despitewhatweseeinthemovies,MedievalEuropeansdidnot
dineonhugeturkeylegs(turkeysarea"newworld"food!andwerenot
introduceduntilthe16thcentury).Liquidyfoods(soups,stews)wereserved
in"breadtrenchers"orbowlsmadeofbread.Peopleoftencarriedtheirown
knives&spoons,forkswerenotconsideredstandardutensilsinMedieval
Europeanculture!
Feasts
Medievalfeast
AChaucerianfeast.
Medievalweddingfeast
GodeCookeryoffersprofessionalcateringservicesforMedieval/Renaissance
feastsandspecialevents.Serveitforth!
SocietyforCreativeAnachronism
TheSocietyforCreativeAnacronismisanorganizationdedicatedtorecreating
Medievallife.Someofthemembersofthisorganizationspecializeincookery.
Ifyouarenewtothisgroupandneedtodocumentthefoodsyouarecooking
foraneventpleasecontactyourKingdomofficialsandaskthemfortheofficial
SCAguidelines.Wecanhelpyoufindsources/additionalinformationrequired
forthisresearch.IfyouareateacherandwouldliketoconnectwithaMedieval
cook(perhapshe/shemightgiveademonstrationforyourclass?),findyour
nearestkingdomanddropthemanote.
Shakespeare'sfood
Commonfoods
Diningcustoms&recipes
ElizabethanstyleChristmasdinners
Peasantfood
FoodinShakespeare'sliterature
Romeo&Juliet'sfood
MerchantsofVenice
WhatdidtheyeatattheGlobeTheater?
HowtomakeanElizabethancookbook
Tudoreradesserts(historic&modernized)
Recommendedreading
COMMONFOODSIN16THCENTURYENGLANDWhatpeopleeatin
alltimesandplacesdependuponwhotheyare(religious/ethnicheritage),
wheretheylive(city,countryside)andhowmuchmoneytheyhave(wealthy
generallyhavemorechoicesthanpoor).Thiswascertainlytrueofthefolks
livinginShakespeare'sBritain.Then,asnow,itisalmostimpossibletorelay
whatthe"average"personateatanyonegivenmeal.Choicesvariedaccording
toseason,year,location,andcircumstance.Wedoknow,however,which
foodswerecommonlyavaialabeinTudorEngland.Noteshere:
"Ingeneralterms,thefoodstuffsenjoyedinsixteenthcenturyEnglandwere
almostidenticaltothoseofthemedievalperiod.Roastandboiledmeat,
poultry,fish,pottages,frumenty,bread,ale,wineandtoamuchlesserextent,
fruitandvegetables,formedthebasisofthedietoftheupperclasses.Therange
andqualitiesofthesecomestiblesarebestdescribedinAndrew
Boorde'sCompendyousRegymentorDyetaryofHealthof1542,wherehe
writesofvenison:
Alordesdysshe,goodforandEnglissheman,foritdothanymatehymtobe
asisheis,whicheis,strongandhardy...;BeefisagoodmeateforanEnglysshe
man,sobeitthebeestbeyonge,&thatitbenotknowflesche;yfitbe
moderatlypowdered[i.e.salted]tahtthegrooseblodebysaltmaybe
exhaustyd,itdothmakeanEnglysshemanstronge;Vealisgoodandeasily
digested;Broawn[boar'smeat]isanusualmeateinwinteramongesEnglisshe
men;Baconisgoodforcartersandplowmen,thewhichebeeverlabouringein
theearthordunge...Idosaythatcoloppes[slicesofbacon]andeggesisas
wholesomeforthemasatalowecandellisgoodforablereyedmare...Potageis
notsomochusedinalCrystendomasitisusedinEnglande.Potageisamdeof
thelyquorinwhichflesheissoden[boiled]in,withputtyngtochoppedherbes
andotemelandsalt.Frymenteismadeofwheteandmylke,inthewhciheif
flesshebesoden...itdoenourysshe,anditdothstrenghtaman.Ofallnacyons
andcountres,EnglandisbesteservyedofFysshe,notonelyofalmannerof
seefysshe,butalsooffresshesaterfysshe,andalmanerofsortesofsalte
fysshe.'
Healsoadvisedhisreaderstoeatvegetablessuchasturnips,parsnips,carrots,
onions,leeks,garlicandradishes,andfruitintheformofmellowredapples.
Evenso,rawvegetablesandfruitwerestillregardedwithgreatsuspicionby
mostTudordiners,whopreferredtofollowtheadvicegivenintheBokeof
Kervyngeof1500:Bewareofgreensallets&rawefruytesfortheywyllmake
yoursoverayneseke.'Itwasforthisreasonthatthesaleoffruitwasbannedin
thestreetsduringtheplagueof1569.Inaditontotheapples,pears,plums,
cherriesandwoodlandstrawberrieswhichhadbeengrownhereforcneturies,
newfruitsfromsouthernEuropewerenowintroducedintothegardensofthe
wealthy.Theseincludedquinces,apricots,raspberries,redandblackcurrants,
melons,andevenpomegranates,orangesandlemons.Thelastwerenever
reallysuccessfulhowever,andcitrusfruitscontinuedtobeimportedfrom
Portugal,thebitterSevilletypeoforangenowbeingjoinedbytheimproved
sweetorangescarriedfromCeylonintoEuropebythePortuguese,and
thereforeknownasPortingales.Driedfruits,suchasraisins,currants,prunes,
figsanddates,togetherwithalmondsanwalnuts,werealsoimprotedinlarge
quantitiedtoservetheluxurymarket.Asaresultofthemidsixteenthcentury
SpanishexploitationoftheirgreatSouthAmericancolonies,anumberofrare
andexoticvegetablesslowlybegantoarriveinElizabethanEngland.Tomatoes
orloveapples'camefromMexico,andkidneybeansfromPeru,forexample,
whilethepotatooriginatedfromChileandtheAndes.Centuriesweretopass
beforethetruevalueofthesenewfoodswasfullyappreciated,however,and
theycontinuedtobeservedlargelyasunusualdelicaciesinthewelltodo
households.AmuchmorepopularintroductionformtheNewWorldwasthe
turkey,anativetoMexicoandofCentralAmerica,whichhadalreadyfoundits
waytotoEnglishtablesbythe1540s...Ofallthechangesconcerningfoodin
thesixteenthcentury,themostimportantandinfluentialwasthegrowing
popularityofsugar.Now,inadditiontotheoldestablishedsourcesofsupplyin
MoroccoandBarbary,increasingquantitieswerecomingintoEuropefromthe
newPortugueseandSpanishplantationsintheWestIndies...Fromthe1540sa
refineryinLondonwascarryingoutthefinalstagesofpurification,converting
thecoarsesugarintowhitecrystallineconesweighinguptofourteenpounds.
Thesecouldthenbeusedtoprepareagreatvarietyofsweetmeats,crystallized
fruits,preservesandsyrups,inadditiontobeingemployedinseasoningmeat,
fish,andvegetables."
"TudorBritain,"PeterBrearsin:ATasteofHistory:10,000YearsofFoodin
Britian[EnglishHeritage:London]1993(p.139143)
WhatdidTudorperiodpeopleeatforbreakfast?
Diningcustoms&recipes
FoolesandFricassees:FoodinShakespeare'sEngland,fromtheFolger
Library.
OftheFoodandDietoftheEnglish,Holinshed'sChronicles,1577
LifeinElizabethanEngland:Whatweeat
DinneratCowdrayHouse,1595
FoodinTudorEngland
Renaissancefairemenus(includesseveralmodernizedrecipes)
Websiteswithrecipes
Cariodoc'sMiscellany,originalrecipeswithmoderninstructionsfroma
varietyofculturesandcuisines.
Shakespeareanfeast,tipsforplanningyourownparty!
FOODINSHAKESPEARE'SLITERATURE
TheBardhimselfreferencedfoodthroughouthisplays.Forexample,inThe
Winter'sTaleActIVSceneiiiLines3649theClownplansthismenu:
"Letmesee:whatamItobuyforoursheepshearingfeast?Threepoundof
sugar,fivepoundofcurrants,rice...Imusthavesaffrontocolorthewarden
[winterpear]pies;mace;datesnonethat'soutofmynote;nutmegs,seven;a
raceortwoofginger,butthatImaybeg;fourpoundsofpruins,andasmanyof
raisinso'th'sun."
Wanttomakearicepuddingsimilartotheonementionedhere?Trythis
adaptedrecipefromGervaseMarkham'sTheEnglishHuswife,1615[NOTE:if
youdon'thavesuetyoucanusebutter].
IfyouarehungryforextracredituseaShakespeareanconcordance(abookthat
listseverytimeawordisusedinhisworks)orcheckthissitetolocate
referencestoselectedfoods(apples,rice,milk,cheese),recipes(pie,pudding,
salad)andfeastmenus.Bringsomethingauthentictoclass.Besuretoinclude
thecitationtotheplayandacopyoftherecipe.Needsomethingveryeasy?
Assumingyouwanttobringasweetdessert,trythese.(skipthealcohol
[sack/sherry]ifyouareunder21).Over21?WerecommendthebookWinein
Shakepeare'sDaysandPlays,AndreSimon,1964.
ROMEO&JULIET'SFOOD
ThisplaytakesplaceinVerona,Italy.RomeoandJulietwouldhavebeen
eating15th/16thcenturyItalianfood,notstandardEnglishroastsandpuddings.
AboutItalianRenaissancefood
TheculinaryhistoryofItalyduringtheRenaissancewasoneofinnovation,
economicthrust,andhistoricweaving.Itwasacomplicatedtimeofexoticfood
introductions(courtesyofNewWorldexplorers),politicalpressure(spice
trade),socio/ecomonomicstratification(thericheryouwere,thebetteryou
entertained/ate),scientificadvancement(howbesttoreconcileclassicfood
conceptions...TheHumors,TheGreatChainofBeing...withnewscientific
discoveries?),andculinarymythology(CatherineDe'MediciTransformed
FrenchCookery).
GENERALCULINARYOBSERVATIONSOFLATE14THCENTURY
ITALIANCUISINE
Thefollowingnotesarebasedontherecipes,ingredients,andinstructions
offeredbyMartinodiComo'sArtofCooking,publishedinItalyduringthelate
15thandearly16thcenturies.Thisbookisconsideredbymanyculinaryhistory
expertsasoneofthefirsttrulymoderncookbooks.Thedeparturefromstrict
MedievalrulesmakesthisbookevenmorecompellinginthelightofRomeo
andJuliet'stragicplight.Itwasthedawnanewageonmorewaysthanone.
"WhileMartino'sapproachtocookingissomewhatinfluencedbythetradition
ofthebanquetasspectacle,aswellasbythenearlydominantmodus
coquinandiderivedfromArabicculture,itisnottheproductofthoughtless
observationandmechanicalrepetition.Martino'shabitofsprinklingvictuals
withsugarandspices,aswellastheideaofflavoringsauceswithraisins,
prunes,andgrapes,undoubtelyreflectpracticesfundamentaltoArabic
cooking.Thesamecanbesaidabouttheemploymentofsuchstaplesasrice,
dates,pomegranates,andbitterorangestheavailabilityofwhichgoestbackto
theArabicoccupationofSpain.FirstintroducedbytheArabstotheislandof
Cyprus,thesubsequentpresenceofsugarcaneinSicily,ontheotherhand,
accoundsforthepassionItaliansdevelopedforsweetsinthethirteenthcentury.
AsAnneWillannotes,"Martinoisoneofthefirstcookstousesugarinlarge
quantitiestomakedishesthatarespecificallysweet,suchasfritters,almond
pastecookies,andsugaredapples,ratherthantreatingitasaseasoninglikesalt,
inthemedievalmanner."ButMartino'smostremarkabletalentliesinhissubtle
abilitytocombineoldandnewingredients.itisperhapsthemostsalientaspect
ofhisartatraitwhichmakeshimthefirstincarnationofamoderncook.Forit
isamarkofsophisticatedartistrytoknow..wehnonedropofoiladdsflavorbut
tworuinadish,ortoappreciatethatdifferentcutsofmeatmanifesttextural
differencesthatrequirespecificmethodsofcooking...Withregardto
ingredients,Martino...adviseshisreadersthatproximitytoregionalsourcesis
oftensynonymouswithquality.WheninRome...cooktheunusualvarietalof
Romanbroccoli;wheninLombardy,theuniquespeciesofpikefoundinLake
Garda...Staplesandcondimentsmustbecombinedinsuchawaythatthey
rendermoreflavorthanwhentheywereintheirnaturalstate...Inadeparture
frompastpractices,inwhichmeats,fish,cabbage,andeggswereassaulted
fromtheoutsideanddrownedinspicesorsauces,Martinostipulatesthatthe
ingredientsemployedtoenhancetheflavoroffoodsshouldbesoughtby
keepinginmindthenatureofthestaplesthemselves...Thedevelopmentofnew
culinaryhabits...didnotdependatallonthediscoveryofnewingredients.Long
beforecorn,potatoes,andtomatoesbroughtfromAmericarevolutionizedthe
dietsofEuropean...asystematicinterestinwheatflourandcommonbackyard
vegetables(suchascarrots,celery,andonions)andherbsenabledtheformation
ofaradicallynewdietthatonyrecentlyhasbeendubbed"Mediterranean"by
shrewdmassmediapublicists.Typically,flourledtopasta...Ifeatenfresh...it
boretheconnotationofluxuryandgluttony.Eatingfoodthatcouldspoilgave
theconsumeranenhancedsocialstatus.Thisisindeedtheimageof
"maccheroniorlasagnethatwecangleanfrombooksof'highcuisine'where
suchdishesaredepictedasrichlybuttered,smotheredincheese,anddusted
withsugarandsweetspices."...[Martino]devotesanequalamountofspaceand
attentiontofavabans,peas,chickepeas,squash,cauliflower,elderberry,fennel,
eggplantsandstillothervegetables.ThankstoMartino,vegetabledishesthat
hadbeenthehallmarkofthepauper'sdietforcenturiesshedtheirdemure
aspectandoundadignifiedplacenexttotheroastandbrinedfishonthetables
oftherich."
TheArtofCooking:TheFirstModernCookeryBook,MartinoofComo,
editedandwithanintroductionbyLuigiBallerni,translatedandannotatedby
jeremyParzen[UniversityofCaliforniaPress:BerkeleyCA]2005(p.2830)
COMMONFOODS
ThesefoodswerecommonlypreparedinRenaissanceItaly
Bread,hardbiscuits,wine,rice(rissoto),pasta:lasagne,
ravioli&pizzaWITHOUTTOMATOSAUCE,cheese:mozzarella(from
buffalomilk),Pecorino,omelettes,meatballs,pork,smallbirds&game,and
sausages.Freshfruitsandvegetableswereeateninseason;drieditems
consumedinotherseasons.Soupsandstewswereeatenbyrichandpooralike.
Fishwasalsopopular,especiallyinLent.Itwasservedfresh,dried,andsalted.
Cheesecakeandflanwereoftenservedfordessert.Oliveoilwasusedforflavor
andasacookingmedium.
Genoa'sfoodsatthetimeofColumbus(slightlyearlierperiod,butuseful
information).
WHATFOODSWERESERVEDATBANQUETS
"Toillustratethepompandcicumstanceofthebanquettradition,letusturnto
theRenaissanceChroniclerBernadinoCorio(14591519?),whoinhisHistoria
diMilanodescribedingreatdetailafabulousfeasthedinRomein1473..."The
banquet...tookplaceinagreathall...wheretherewasasideboardwithtwelve
shelvesonwhichthegemstuddedtrayssosilverandgoldwerefeatured.Two
tablescoveredbyfourtableclothswerepreparedinthemiddleofthehall:the
firstwasforthesevennoblesofthehigheststationwhiletheothertablewasfor
thelesseramongthem.Inaccordancewiththecustominuagesincethe
beginningofthecentury,theguestswerestillstandingwhentheywereserveda
mealthatincludedtraysofcandiedfruitcoveredwithgoldleavesand
accompaniedbypaintedglassesofmalvasia.Oncetheguestswereseated,
musicianswithhornsandpipesannouncedthenextdishes,whichweredivided
intofourservesincorrespondencewiththefourtableclothsthatcoveredthe
tables.Thefirstservicecombinedporklivers,blancmange,meatswithrelish,
tortesandpies,saltcuredporkloinandsausage,roastveal,kid,squab,chicken,
rabbit...wholeroastedlargegame,andfowldressedintheirskinorfeathers.
Nextcamegoldentortesandmuscatpearsincups."...Andthiswasjustthefirst
service!...listoffoodsbroughtforthintheremainingthereservices(attheend
ofeachthetableclothwouldberemoved,andtheguestswashedtheirhands
becausetheyservedthemselvesfromcomunaltraysandforkswerenotinuse):
frieddoughshapedlikepinecones,smotheredwithhoneyandrosewater,
silverwrappedlemonsinsugarysyrup;relishes;lies;sturgeonandlamprey;
aspics,moretortes;junketdrowninginwhitewine;Catalanstylechicken;
greenblancmange;stewedveal;muttonandroebuck;sucklingpig;capon;and
duckandblackandsourcherriesmascreatedinTyrianwine.Anddulcisin
fundo:ices,almonds,corianderseeds,aniseseeds,cinnamon,andpinenuts..."
TheArtofCooking:TheFirstModernCookeryBook,MartinoofComo,
editedandwithanintroductionbyLuigiBallerni,translatedandannotatedby
jeremyParzen[UniversityofCaliforniaPress:BerkeleyCA]2005(p.45)
"BanquetthrownJanuary23,1529bythesonoftheDukeofFerraraforhis
fatherandvariousdignitaries.Thetotalguestlistnumbered104.Sugar
suclpturesofthelaborsofHerculesappearedfirst,indeferencetothehost
himself,named"Hercole."Theantipastocourseconsistedofcolddishes:a
caper,truffleandraisinsaladinpastry,anothersaladofgreenswithcitronjuice
andanchovysalads.Therewerealsoradishescarvedintoshapesandanimals,
littlecreampies,prosciuttoofporktongue,boarpies,mortadellaandliverpies,
smokedmulletservedseveraldifferentways,andgiltheadbream.Thefirsthot
coursehadcaponfritterssprinkledwithsugar,quails,tomaselle(liversausage),
caponliverstuffedintoacaul(nettingofporkfat)androastedpheasants,an
oniondish,pigeonsinpuffpastry,tartsoffishilt(spleen),friedtrouttailsand
barbel(afish),quails,meatballs,whiteservelatsausage,veal,caponGerman
styleinsweeetwine,pigeonpastries,carp,turbot,shrimp,troutroepies,a
yellowalmondconcoction,andpastires.Thethirdcoursehadpartridge,rabbit,
turtledoves,sausages,bonedcapon,pigeonsandmorefish.Thisgoesontoa
fourthcourse,againwithbirds,fish,aricepie,andotherdishes.Afifthcourse
withsomesucklingpig,vealandmorebirdsandfishaswell.Asixthcourse
withmorevealpreparedadifferentway,peacock,goat,boarandalsomore
fish.Theseventhcoursefinallyseessomevegetables,fennel,olives,grapes,
pears,andotherpastries;theninthcitron,lettuce,cucumbersandalmondsin
syrup,variousfruitsandconfections...Whatisimmediatelystrikingisthat
guestsweregivenindividualplatesformanyofthedishes,onlylargerfoodsor
presentationsofseveralingredientstogethercameoutinmultiplesof25or50,
andwouldhavebeendividedupandserved.Manyofthefoodscameoutin
multiplesof104on25largerplatesaswell.BecauseMessisbugospecifiedthe
numberofplatesneededforeachfoodineachcourse,theycanbecounted.
Thismealused2,835plates."
FoodinEarlyModernEurope,KenAlbala[GreenwoodPress:WestportCT]
2002(p.1245)
[NOTE:Thisbookisanexcellentsourceforcommonfoodsandregional
variations.See:Italy(p.111140).Yourlibrariancanhelpyoufindacopy.]
Recommendreading:
Food:ACulinaryHistory/JeanLouisFlandrin&MassimoMontinari
Chapter24:FoodandSocialClassesinLateMedievaland
RenaissanceItaly(p.302312)
Primarymaterial
1.Platina:OnRightPleasureandGoodHealth,MaryEllaMilhamtranslator
[Medieval&RenaissanceTexts&Studies:Arizona]1998Thisbookswasfirst
publishedin1475;muchoftheinformationisborrowedfromearlier
[Medieval]texts.Dr.Milham'stranslationsandnotesprovideanexcellent
insightsintotheearlytransitionalperiodofItalianRenaissancecuisine.
2.TheNeapolitanRecipeCollection[CuocoNapoletano]isanother15th
centuryItaliantext.TerenceScully'stranslatedcriticaleditionpublishedbythe
UniversityofMichiganisexcellent.
3.TheArtofCooking:TheFirstModernCookeryBook,MartinoofComo,
editedbyLuigiBalleriniandtranslatedbyJeremyParzen[Universityof
CaliforniaPress:2005].This15thcenturybookwastotheRenaissanceas
Escoffierwasto19thcenturyhautecuisine.Containsselectedrecipesadapted
formodernkitchens.Nomenus.
Englishtranslationof14th/15thcenturyItaliancookbookhere.
Needtomakesomethingforclass?
Lasagne(withcreamywhitesauce),ravioli(filledwithcheeseormeat),and
spaghetti(toppedwithfreshlygratedperorinoromano,nutmeg&blackpepper)
areallperiod.NOTOMATOES!!Broccoli(witholiveoil&garlic),fava
beans,peas,carrots,andonionsservewellforvegetables.Tortes(meat,cheese
orvegetablepies)werecommonlyservedonthetablesoftheCapulets.These
modernizedrecipesarebasedonMartino'soriginals:
NeapolitanRusticTorte
MaestroMartino'swhitetortecallstomindthisNeapolitantortarusticaand
manyothersouthernItaliantortes.InNaples,salamiorprosciuttoisaddedto
thefillingforseasoning,butinthisrecipeonlysweetspicesareusedstoevoke
theflavorsofmedievalcuisine.
Serves6
Forthecrust:
21/2cupsflour,plusextrafordusting
3/4cupsugar
1teaspoonfreshlygratedginger
Salt
8tablespoonsbutter,softened,plusextraforgreasingthepan
3eggyolks
Forthefilling
11/2poundsricotta
4eggs
3/4cupfreshlygratedparmigianoReggiano
1/3poundmozzarella,diced
1/3poundsmokedprovola,diced
1tablespoonfinelychoppedItalianparsley
1teaspoongroundcinnamon
1teaspoongratednutmeg
Saltandfreshlygroundblackpepper
Makethecrustbycombiningtheflour,sugar,ginger,andsaltinawellona
welldustedsurface;placethebutterandeggyolksinthecenterofthewell,and
thenuseaforktobeattheeggs;slowlyincorporatetheflour,beginningwith
theinside(withoutbreakingthewallofthewell);whenyouhaveobtaineda
firmmixture,begintoworkitwiththetipsofyourfingersandcontinueuntil
alloftheingredientsarecombined(shortcrustslikethisoneshouldbeworked
aslittleaspossiblesothattheydonotlosetheirflakiness);shapedoughintoa
ball,andletitrestfor30minutes,covered,inacoolplace.Preheattheovento
400degreesF.Inthemeantime,makethefilling.Inamixingbowl,crustthe
ricottawithasfork,andthenaddtheeggsandmixuntilyouobtainacreamy
consistency;addtheParmigiano,mozzerella,provola,parsley,cinnamon,and
nutmeg,andseasonwithsaltandpeppertotastet.nextassemblethetorte.
Greasewithbuttera9inchtartorquichepanwith2inchwalls;dividethe
doughinhalfandrollouteachhalfintodiskswithadiameterofabout11
inches;placeontheofdisksinthepan,addthefilling,topwiththeremaining
disk,removetheexcessdough,andpinchtosealaroundtheedges;seasonthe
crustwithsalt.Bakethetorteinthepreheatedovenforaboutanhouroruntil
thecrusthasbecomegoldenbrown.Thistortecanbeservedhot,butitisbest
servedatroomtemperature."(p.172)
[NOTE:Periodfeastsdidnotincludeappetizers,asweknowthemtoday.If
yourassignentistobringanappetizer,tortesmaybeyourbestbet.Theyare
easilytransported,donotrequiredimmediateconsumption,andcanbecutinto
individualservings.Theresultwillbequitesimilartofancyappetizersserved
inmodernbanquets.Ifyouwanttoreally*periodcorrect*donotgiveyour
guestsforks.Smallportionsarereadilymanagedfingerfoods.]
PuffFritters
MaestroMartinocalledthese"windfilledfrotters"becausewhentheyare
fried,theypuffup.InmoderndayNaples,thesepufffrittersarecalledpizzelle,
litterally,"littlepizzas,"andtheyaregenerallyservedasasavorydish.The
presentrecipeisasweetversion.
Serves621/2cupsflour
Pinchofsalt
Oliveoilforfrying
Sugar
Combinethefour,salt,andenoughwaterasneededtoobtainaneven,elastic
dough.Workfor30minutesandthenletitsetfor1hour.Rolloutintoathin
sheetanduseaglasstocutintodisks.Frythedisksintheoliveoiluntilgolden
brown,drainon2layersofpapertowels,sprinklegenerouslywithsugar,and
serve."(p.191)
Additionalrecipes&banquetnoteshere:
FoodallaFlorentine,NaomiBarry[Doubleday:GardenCityNY]1972
RenaissanceDinnerMenus(withmodernredactions),p.119
RecreatingtheCapulets'Feast,lessonplanfromtheFolgerLibrary,
grades912
Mi>TheBanquet:DiningintheGreatCoutsofLateRenaissance
Europe/KenAlbala
MarcoPolo&theMerchantsofVenice
Historiansconfirm13thcentury(Polo)Venicewasanwealthy,activeurban
center.Thecityplayedakeyroleinthespicetrade.Thefoods,agricultural
practices,trade/marketactivities,diningcustomsandsocialstrataestablished
bytheancientRomansremainedinfluencial.Foodhistoriansalsowarnus
primarysourcesforresearching13thcenturyVenicearescarce.
"ThecityMarcoPolohadtolearntocallhomeagainwasanemporiumforthe
world'sgoods,ateemingcityofmerchantsandcraftsmen.Venetiansbought
anddolsinthetradefairsforChampagneandtheportsoftheLowCountries
andEngland,inConstantinopleandontheriversofsouthernRussia,inCyprus,
Damascus,andAlexandria...ThestorythatitwasMarcoPolowhoimported
noodlestoItaly,andtherebygavebirthtothecountry'spastaculture,isthe
mostpervasivemythinthehistoryofItalianfood.Thefactsofthemattercould
notbeclearer.TheChinesewerecretainlyeatingnoodlesthousandsofyears
beforetheItalians...Buthoweverancientitis,China'snoodlecultureis
nonethelessdistinctfromItaly'sbecausetheChinesehavenevercultivatedhard
graindurumwheat.AccordingtoalIdrisi,pastaseccawasalreadypresentin
SicilyatleastacenturybeforeMarcoPolowasborn.Sothenothionthathe
broughtpastabackfromtheOrientisimplausible...ButevenifVenicewasnot
theportthroughwhichpastaenteredItaly,MarcoPolo'scitydidhaveahuge
influenceonmedievalItaliancuisine.InfactthereasonwhyVeniceoccupies
suchanimportantplaceinfoodhistory,thereasonwhyVenetiansfoundPolo's
talesaboutChinasocompelling,andthereasonwhyVenetianmerchantswere
inspiredtobothgreedandgreatness,arealloneandthesame:spice.Pepper,
ginger,nutmeg,cloves,andcinnamonhadalreadymadetheairoftheRialto
heavywiththeirscentevenbeforeaseventeenyearoldMarcoPolosetoffon
hisadventures...Venice'sascenttopowerfollowedthesoaringcurveof
Europe'saddictiontospicyfood.ThesheerextentofthataddictioninItalyis
clearfrommanuscriptsthatbegantospreadatexactlythesametimethatthe
talesofMarcoPolo'sexploitswereproliferating.Thefirstrecipebookstobe
writteninEurope,sincelateantiquity,startedtoappearinthelatethirteenth
century.Alltold,aboutahundredsurvive,wholeorinfragments,fromtheage
beforeprinting.Twocompletemanuscriptrecipecollections,bothofwhichare
anonymous,competeforthehonorobbeingtheearliestsurvivingcookbook
writteninanItalianvernacularratherthaninLatin.OneofthemisinTuscan,
whichisthenativetongueofMarcoPolo'scontemporary,Dante.Theotheris
inVenetian,thelanguagethatMarcoPolohimselfwouldhavespoke.
TheLibropercuoco(BookforCook),asthisVenetianmanuscripthasbecome
known,isdifficulttodateprecisely,butitwasprobablywritteninthemid
1300s...Itsrecipesarearrangedinalphabeticalorderandnumberedfrom1to
135.Thesefactssuggestthattherecipecollectionwasdesignedtobeconsulted
regularlybypeoplewhoreallycooked.itsrecipesaregenerallymoreprecise
thanthoseintheTuscanmanuscript;crucially,theyspecifytheamountofeach
ingredientinsuchawaythatmanydishesareeasytoreproducetoday.ABook
forCookoffersusoneofourearliestandbestinsightsintohowfoodwas
preparedforthosefourteenthcenturyVenetianslavetradersandspice
dealers...BookforCookcontainsanumberofdishesthatwouldbesophisticated
evenwithoutspices.Recipe45isfor"Martarolo,"anelaboratepiecontaining
chicken,wholedates,anddeepfriedpelletsmadefrompoundedcheese,eggs,
dates,pinenuts,andpancetta.Butspicesentereverystageofthecooking
processforMortarolo;eventhedatesarestuffedwtihginger,cinnamon,and
cloves...Pastarecipesarethebestmeasureofwhatisfamiliarandstrangein
medievalcookingcomparedtowhatisnoweateninItaly.Inrecipe58,
"Ordinaryravioliwithenhanceherbs,"theravioliinquestionare,liketoday's
ones,smallenvelopesofpasta.BookforCookadvisesafillingofherbswhich
arelightlyboiledbeforebeingfinelychoppedandmixedwithfreshcheeseand
beatenegg.Theravioliarethencookedinbrothandcoveredwithagratingof
goodcheesetocreateadishthatcouldplausiblyappearonanItaliantable
todayexceptthatthefillingcontained"sweetandstrongspices"and"alotof
spices"arealsosprinkledoverthetopbeforeeating.Lasagneareanother
example:preaperedforLentwithgroundwalnuts...theyaregivenalastminute
coatingofspicesandsugarwithoutwhichnomedievalpastadishwas
complete.Itcouldbemadeclearthatthesugarsprinkledonlasagneandravioli
didnotmakethemintopuddings.Savoryandsweettasteswerenotyet
segregated,andthesequenceinwhichthedisheswereservedhaddifferent
aims...byfarthegreatestshareoffoodeateninmedievalItaliancitieswould
havebeenlocal,prdoucedwithinthcitywallsandinthecountryside
around...ThemerchantsofVenicedidnotaspiretoeatVenetianfood:they
wantedthesamehealthy,exclusive,spicytastesasotherwealthyItalians."
"Venice,1300s,"Delizia!TheEpicHistoryoftheItaliansandTheirFood,
JohnDickie[FreePress:NewYork]2008(p.4558)
Whatwerethe"average"folkseating?
"Earlyinthemorning,assoonastheyheardthetollingofthebellinthe
Campanileknownasthemarangonaafterthecarpenterswhowerethemost
numerousclassofartisansinthecity,thestreetswerefilledwithmenontheir
waytowork.Atnineo'clockthemarangonarangagaintomarkthetimefor
theirprimacolazione;attwelveabellsoundedtosummontheworkerstotheir
middaymeal;and,threehoursaftersunset,anotherbellwastolledforthe
curfew.Themealseatenbyworkersweresimpleenough,composedlargelyof
vegetables,fruitandbreadbutsometimesincludingdishesofbeefandpork,
kidandwildboar,fowlsfromPadua,and,moreoften,fishmulletandsole,
pikeandcarp,gudgeonandtench,seascorpionandfloundersaccompaniedby
thesweet,strongwinesofCrete.AsinkitchenselsewhereinEuropefoodwas
highlyspicedwithginger,nutmegandcoriander,clovesandcinnamon,pepper
andanise,andallkindsofherbs,andwithroots,seasoningsandcondiments
fromtheEast."
Venice:TheBiographyofaCity,ChristopherHibbert[W.W.Norton:New
York]1989(p.36)
"Theoarsmenofthethetravellers'galleywerefreeboatmenoftheLagoons
andAdriaticfishermen,wellpaidandwellfed,withallowancesofbetween
elevenandtwelvepoundsofbiscuitaweek,twelveouncesofsaltpork,one
andahalfpoundsofbeans,nineouncesofcheeseandagallonofwine."
ibid(p.39)
Scappi[16thcentury]wasisconsideredamongthefirstItaliancookbook
writerstodefineregionalcuisine.HisnotesonVenicesummeduphere:
"Recipesinthe'Venetianstyle'consituteanotherimportantgroupinScappi's
work.Herefishdishesdominate:grayling,bass,turbot'inpottage,'andsmall
stuffedsquidinfishbroth.Wealsofindturnipsoup,brisavolimadefromveal
cutlets,braisedloinofbeef(fromtheseccaticcaox),frittersmadeofmilkand
eggs,marzipancaliscioni,andcinnamoncakes."
ItalianCuisine:ACulturalHistory,AlbertoCapatti&MassimoMontanari
[ColumbiaUniversityPress:NewYork]2003(p.15)[NOTE:Thisbook
containsmuchinformationregardingtheearlyrootsofItalianfood.Your
librariancanhelpyouobtainacopy.]
TwelfthCenturyItalianPrices:FoodandClothinginPisaandVenice,Louise
BuengerRobbertSocialScienceHistory,Vol.7,No.4(Autumn,1983),pp.
381403listsVenetianprices[1172]forbeef,pork,meatfromRomaniaor
Slavonia,turgeon,trout,sole,seabass,shellfish,fish(allothers),wineandoil.
Italsoreferencesbread,ducks,birds,chickens,grainsandfruit.Thiseconomic
articledoesnotaddressdiningpatterns,banquetmenus,orrecipes.Thisarticle
isavailablefulltextviaJSTOR,adatabaseavailableatmostcolleges&
universities.
FoodofAndalucia/CliffordA.Wright
WhatdidElizabethanseatattheGlobetheatre?
"Thefoodseemsprincipallytohavebeenapples[thereareseveralreferencesto
'pippins'beingusedasammunition],andnuts...JohnTathammentionspears
[againusedasammunition]in1641,andOverbury'sCharacter'APuny
Clarke...eatsGingerbreadataPlayhouse'.Thedrinkofferedwaseitherwater
orbottleale."
PlaygoinginShakespeare'sLondon,AndrewGurr(p.367)
[NOTE:thisbookcontainsmanyfootnotescitingtooriginalsources.Itis
interestingtonotethatmostofwhatweknowabouttheatrefoodcomesfrom
poems,plays,anddiariesdescribingtheexperience."
"Vendorsofferedbeer,water,oranges,nuts,gingerbread,andapples,allof
whichwereoccasionallythrownattheactors.Hazelnutswerethemostpopular
theatresnack,theElizabethanequivalentofRaisinets."
TheFriendlyShakespeare,NorrieEpstein[Viking:NewYork]1992(p.45)
[NOTE:thisbookdoesnotcontainfootnotesbacktooriginalsources.Itdoes
containalongbibliographyofworksconsulted.]
Itisinterestingtonotethat16thcenturyLondontheatres[suchastheGlobe]
evolvedfromthetraditionofinnkeepersofferingstreetentertainersaplaceto
perform:
"Gradually,theinnkeeperslearnedthatwhenthePlayerscametotown
businesswasbrisk;entertainmentinthosedayswasnoteasilycomebyandthe
arrivalofthePlayersbroughteveryoneoutonholiday.Thelabourersandtheir
familiesrubbedshoulderswiththefarmersandtheforemen,astheyallwentto
watchtheplays.Thus,theinnkeepersbegantooffertheshelteroftheirinn
yardsfortheperformancesandthePlayerswouldstandtheircartsatoneendof
theinnyardwhilstthelocalaudiencestoodaroundtowatch,buyingtheirale
andmeadandtreatingitasafestiveoccasion...Manyoftheseinnshadtiersof
galleriesallroundtheyardandsomeofthembecameforawhilealmost
permanenttheatres.Mostsuchinnsarelongdisappearedbutslidenumber4
givesusamodernviewoftheOxfordArmsinLondonwhichremained
standinguntilafewyearsback;youcanseethepresentdayStPaul'sinthe
background.Itwastheinnyardsthatlaterdictatedtheshapeandformofthe
custommadeopenairtheatresbuiltinthelastquarterofthesixteenthcentury."
ElizabethanTheatre/HildaD.Spear,UniversityofKoeln[Germany]
TheUniversityofReadingisconsideredtobetheforemostauthorityonthe
originalGlobeTheatre.
Whatdidthepeasantseatinthe16thcentury?
InsixteenthcenturyEuropemanypeasantsweredispossesedfromtheir
agrarianwayoflife.Thequalityoftheirdietplummeted,meatwasascarce
commodity.Whentheyateatall?Theywerelucky.Foodhistorianstellusthey
subsistedprimarlyonbreadandrudimentarysoups/stews.Thesewereboth
cheapandeasytoprepare.Noteshere:
"DispossesionofthePeasantry.
Theupheavalinrurallandownership,whichincountriessuchasEnglandwasa
prerequisiteoftheagriculturalrevolution,alsocontributedtothe
impoverishmentofthepeasantdiet,especiallyinthemoreprosperousregions
strategicallylocatedwithrespecttothemarket.Intheseareas,nobles,royal
officeholders,andbougeoishad,bytheendofthesixteenthcentury,grained
possessionofmostofthelandlandthatattheendofhteMiddleAgeshadstill
beeninpeasanthands...InFranceandotherwesternEuropeannations,the
degreeofrapidityofthedispossessionofthepeasantryweregreatestinthe
regionsthatwererichest,closesttobigcities,andmostadvancedintheuseof
agriculturaltechnology.Inregionsweresmallfarmsdominated(inthe
mountains,invinegrowingareas,andincopseorhedgerowcountry),andin
poorer,lesspopulousregionsgenerally,wherelandwaslessattractivetonoble
andbourgeoislandlords,peasantownershipheldupbetter."
"Onlycrumbsfromthesedevelopmentsfell,however,tothekitchensofthe
peasantry.Thecustomofgivingregularrationsofmeattoworkersand
apprenticesdiesoutafter1500.Thesixteenthcenturybroughtaperiodof
relativestabilityandofagriculturalexpansionthatwereparadoxically
accompaniedbyaninexorabledeclineinthequalityofthepeasantdiet...Meat
slowlydisappearedfromthepeasants'diet,returningtotheirtablesonceor
twiceayearforthebigholidays,andforthenextthreecenturiesamajor
concernofthosegoverningtheisland[Sicily]wasthatofproducingbreadin
sufficientquantitytokeepthepopulationfromeitherstarvingorrebelling."
PompandSustenance:TwentyFiveCenturiesofSicilianFood,MaryTaylor
Simet[Ecco:HopewellNJ]1989(p.1089)
Help!IhavetomakeaShakespearianeracookbook!
Ifyouneedtomakean"authenticcookbook"forShakespeare'sday,excellent!
Youwillfindplentyofsourceforlearningaboutfoodavailabilityandperiod
recipeshere.Inadditiontothisyoualsoneedtoknow:
1. Elizabethancookbookswereeitherprintedandleatherbound(ifyou
wererich)orhandwrittenmanuscripts(thesetraditionalweddinggifts
passedonfamilyrecipes).Eitherway?Theylookedprettydifferentfrom
today'scookbooks.Periodfonts(typefaces)andhandwritingstylesare
worthstudying.Canyougetyourhandsonparchment?Manyoffice
supplystoressellpaperthatwillbecloseenoughfortherealstuff(look
intheresumestationerysection).
2. Elizabethanrecipeswerewrittenandwordedquitedifferentlyfromwhat
weseetoday.TwoRenaissancecookerybooks
WhatdidtheTudorseatfordessert?
Historiccookbooksconfirm16thcenturyfolksinGreatBritianenjoyedseveral
interestingdesserts.Manyarestillenjoyedtoday.
HISTORICRECIPES
NewBookofCookery[1615]
...TartofPippins(appletart),GooseberryTart,CherryTart,QuincePye,Pippin
Pye,FrittersintheCourtFashion(likedoughnuts),CambridgePudding,Ryce
Pudding,ApplePufs,ItalianPudding
ProperNewBookofCookery[1545]
...Tarte.Chese,Figges.Raisyns.Apples.Peares.Almondesblanched,Custarde,
Gensbread(Gingerbread),fritters
GoodHousewife'sJewel/ThomasDawson[1596]...finebiscuitbread(like
sugarcookies),Tarts:butter&egg,damson,medlars,prunes,rice,
strawberries,wardens(pear),marchepan(marzipan=almondpaste),cheeseand
cream,almondcustard,icingpuddings,trifle,datesandorangejuice,baked
wardens,preservedwholequinces
MODERNIZEDRECIPES
Custard
ExcellentSmallCakes
RicePudding
Apple&OrangeTart
Cheesecake
StrawberryTart
GooseberryTart
ShortPasteforTart(piecrust)
PruneTart
Trifle
DiningwithWilliamShakespeare/MadgeLorwin(yourlibrariancanhelpyou
obtainacopyofthisbook)Cheesecake,almondcake,Banburycake,
marchpane,shellbreadcake,ShrewsburyCake,spicedbreadcake,snow,
gooseberrycream,Italiancream,almondcustard,cheesecake,gooseberrytart,
mincemeatpie,eparpie,plumtart,quincepie,ricetart,sweetpotatopie,
quakingpudding.
Sallets,Humbles&ShrewsberyCakes:ACollectionofElizabethanRecipes
AdaptedfortheModernKitchen/RuthAnneBeebeApplemoye(appelsauce),
finecakes,Iambles(likesugarcookies),Shrewsburycakes,Snowe,Ricetart,
Strawberrytart,berries,
Recommendedreading
AllThingsShakespeare:AnEncyclopediaofShakespeare'sWorld,
KirstenOlsen[GreenwoodPress:WestportCT]2002.Goodsourcefor
grades612.Foodsareselectedfrom&citedbacktoShakespeare's
plays.Historicalnotesareaccurateandrightonpointforyoung
scholars.]
BritishFood:AnExtraordinaryThousandYearsofHistory,Colin
Spencer
Chapter5:"TudorWealthandDomesticity"
DiningwithWilliamShakespeare,MadgeLorwin
menusandadaptedrecipes;includesbillsoffareforShakespeare's
birthdayandselectedplays
ElinorFettiplace'sreceiptbook.Elizabethancountryhousecooking,
HilarySpurling
periodrecipesandservingnotes
FoodandDrinkinBritain:fromtheStoneAgetothe19thcentury,C.
AnneWilson
traceshistoryofspecificfooditemsandcookingtechniques
FoodandFeastinTudorEngland,AlisonSim
socialhistory,diningcustoms,cookingmethods,thoughtsaboutfood
anddiet
TheGoodHousewife'sJewel,ThomasDawson
authentic1596cookbook,reprintedbySouthoverPress(1996).
Sallets,Humbles&Shrewsberycakes:acollectionofElizabethan
recipesadaptedforthemodernkitchen,RuthAnneBeebe
adaptedrecipecollection
TotheQueen'sTaste.ElizabethanFeastsandRecipes,LornaSass
adaptedrecipecollection
IfyouneedmorebookscheckthefoodbibliographyfromStratforduponAvon,
Shakespeare'sbirthplace.
FoodTimelinelibraryowns2300+books,hundredsof20thcenturyUSA
foodcompanybrochures,&dozensofvintagemagazines(Good
Housekeeping,AmericanCookery,LadiesHomeJournal&c.)Wealsohave
readyaccesstohistoricmagazine,newspaper&academicdatabases.
Serviceisfreeandwelcomeseveryone.Havequestions?Ask!
Aboutculinaryresearch&aboutcopyright
ResearchconductedbyLynneOlver,editorTheFoodTimeline.Aboutthissite.
http://www.foodtimeline.org/foodfaq3.html
LynneOlver2000
20January2015
http://www.foodtimeline.org/foodfaq3.html
Food Preparing From Open Fire To

Microwave Ovens
The development of methods for food preparing has been going on for thousands of
years. In the beginning it was crude stone ovens or just open fire, today we have
high-tech microwaves and hot air ovens.
The First Method Open Fire

The open fire was for sure the first food preparation method that humans started to
use. On a fire you can cook meat, making it easier to digest and in the process
killing bacteria. Cooked meat also has longer durability and becomes more tasty.
The fire also permits drying and smoking. It is impossible to say when humans
started to use fire for cooking but probably more than 500.000 years ago.
Smoking, Drying And Salting

The act of smoking food was primarily a preservation method, probably humans
discovered that meat that had been hanging close to the fire did not go bad as fast.
Somewhere in this process the taste for it was acquired and until today it is a very
popular way to prepare food. It actually only provides a protective layer and is only
effective as preservation together with other methods such as drying, salting or
cooking.
A gas stove, used in modern ways of food preparing.
Likewise it must have been through deduction that the discovery that dried food
lasted longer, maybe from meat hanging next to the fire. In winter time you can
pick dried fruits and berries and eat: 1+1=2. You can dry using sun, fire or wind. It
is used for anything from fruit to meat.
It is believed that by 3000 BC salting food was a known method for food preserving.
Although not really food preparing since its first function is to preserve, it still is
base for many recipes around the world.
Fermentation
Is a method where normally carbohydrates is converted into alcohols and carbon
dioxide or organic acids, in order to create this process yeasts and/or bacteria act in
a oxygen free environment. Examples are bread, alcohol and yogurt. It is common
all over the world, an example from my own country is surstrmming, prohibited
on several airlines due to its strong smell (it comes in a can that they fear would
explode..).
Ovens & Stoves

Its crude form was invented early the use of earth ovens or cooking pits has
been wide spread over the world for thousands of years. It is basically a hole in the
ground where hot rocks or coal cook food that is put inside. In the Indus valley mud
ovens were common by 3200 BC. We know the ancient Greeks used simple ovens
too make bread 2000 BC, through the years it evolved and improved.
In the early 18th century cast iron stove/ovens started to be produced. By the early
19th century wood started to get replaced by coal and gas as fuel. Electric ovens
came in use only in the 1930s, although prototypes were produced already in the
late 19th century.
The microwave oven was invented in the 1940s but only started to get common in
households during the 1970s. It builds upon a technique where microwaves is shot
through food provoking movement in molecules, that movement generates heat.
Cooking Methods Using Heat

Today modern equipment in most households gives us a wide array of options for
food preparing. They include baking, roasting, sauteing, stewing, grilling, frying,
boiling, steaming and braising.
http://www.our-food-recipes.com/history-of-food/food-trade-andinventions/food-preparing/
Food in the Roman World

Article
by Mark Cartwright
published on 06 May 2014
The ancient Mediterranean diet revolved around four staples,

which, even today, continue to dominate restaurant menus and
kitchen tables: cereals, vegetables, olive oil and wine. Seafood,
cheese, eggs, meat and many types of fruit were also available to
those who could afford it. The Romans were also adept at
processing and conserving their food using techniques from
pickling to storage in honey. Flavouring food with sauces, herbs
and exotic spices was another important element of Roman food
preparation. Our knowledge of just what the Romans ate and
how has been gathered from texts, wall-paintings and mosaics,
and even the remains of the food itself from sites such
as Pompeii.
A Pompeii Bakery
CEREALS
Cereals made up the bulk of most people's diet with wheat and
barley being the most common and used especially to make
bread and porridge. Bread was generally coarse and dark in
colour, the better quality loaves being less dark and finer in
texture. Innovations in grinding mills and finer sieves helped
improve the fineness of flour over time but it remained much
coarser than modern standards. Besides wheat and barley, oats,

rye, and millets were also available.
Asparagus, Roman Mosaic
FRUIT & VEGETABLES

The most commonly available fruits were apples, figs and grapes
(fresh and as raisins and unfermented juice known as defrutum)
but there were also pears, plums, dates, cherries, and peaches.
Several of these could also be dried to increase their shelf-life.
Vegetables were typically, but not exclusively, legumes and
included beans, lentils, and peas. As an excellent source of
protein, they were often mixed into bread. Other vegetables
included asparagus, mushrooms, onions, turnip, radishes,
cabbage, lettuce, leek, celery, cucumbers, artichokes and garlic.
Romans also ate wild plants when available. Olives and olive oil
were, of course, as today, a staple food and an important source
of fats. Both fruit and vegetables could also be pickled in either
brine or vinegar or preserved in wine, grape juice, or honey,

again to conserve them for out-of-season consumption.
Wild Boar, Roman Mosaic
MEAT
Meat could be an expensive commodity for most Romans and so
was commonly prepared as small cuts or sausages. Poultry and
wild game were important sources of meat, but pork, veal,
mutton, and goat were also available. Game such as rabbit, hare,
boar, and deer could also be farmed in large enclosed areas of
forest. An astonishing variety of birds such as partridges,
pheasants, geese, ducks, blackbirds, doves, magpies, plovers,
woodcocks, and quails were also valued for their meat (caught
wild or farmed), and just about any sizeable exotic bird, from
flamingo to peacock, ostrich to parrot could find itself in the
cooking pot of an aristocrat's chef, eager to impress his master's
honoured dinner guests. Meat could also be conserved by salting,

drying, smoking, curing, pickling, and preservation in honey.
Roman Mosaic
SEAFOOD
Fish, most of which are still found in the Mediterranean today,
could be eaten fresh, dried, salted, smoked or pickled. As supply
was irregular, the preservation of fish ensured a useful protein
addition to the Roman diet. Fish and shellfish were also farmed in
artificial salt and fresh-water ponds. Fish sauce (garum) made
from matured whole small fish or the interior of larger fish was
an extremely popular method of flavouring. Crayfish and crabs
were also eaten and shellfish available included mussels, clams,
scallops, and oysters.
SUPPLY
As the city of Rome grew, the demand for a regular food supply
increased. Private enterprises largely met the needs of the
citizens and foodstuffs mostly came from the Italian mainland
and the larger islands such as Sicily and Sardinia. In the
Republic, magistrates did strive to win public favour by securing
foodstuffs from subject provinces and allied states. Gracchus
took the popular step of establishing a monthly quota
(frumentatio) of grain set at a reasonable fixed price for
citizens. Augustus appointed a praefectus annonae whose job
was to specifically oversee the regular supply of foodstuffs,
especially grain. Grain was controlled by the state, as it was a
form of tax inItaly and Africa. From the 2nd century CE, olive
oil was also given out to the people; in the 3rd century pork and
wine were given out, too, as part of the frumentatio for poorer
citizens. In the later empire, as the state apparatus weakened,
richer private individuals and the Church took over some of the
responsibilities of maintaining a regular food supply.
Trajans Market, Rome
Citizens, if they did not grow their own supplies, bought their
food at a private market (macellum). These were held in the
public forums of Roman towns, either in the open air or in
dedicated market halls. In Rome the food market was daily from
the 2nd century BCE, one of the most famous and biggest
locations being Trajan's Market, a sort of ancient shopping mall.
In provincial towns, a weekly market was the norm. Private
estates in the countryside could also hold their own markets,
directly selling their produce to the surrounding populace.
COOKING
Roman towns had inns (cauponae) and taverns (popinae) where
patrons could buy prepared meals and enjoy a drink of cheap
wine (beer was only consumed in the northern provinces of the
empire), but they seldom had a good reputation, thanks to their
association with a lack of cleanliness and prostitution, and so
they were generally avoided by the more well-to-do citizens.
Bakeries could provide the sufficiently hot ovens needed for
bread-making, where often customers brought their own bread
dough and used only the bakery's oven to bake it. Aside from
these establishments, though, cooking was still very much a
household activity. Using a brazier, food was roasted, broiled, and
boiled. The art of good cooking was particularly associated with
mixing condiments well to create tasty and unique sauces using
wine, oils, vinegar, herbs, spices, and meat or fish juices. There
were even writers who offered helpful cooking advice, such as
Apicius who wrote On the Art of Cookery, a collection of 4th
century CE recipes.
Roman Food Shop Reconstruction
Spices (species - meaning any valuable exotic commodity), in

particular, offered an infinite variety of taste combinations and no
fewer than 142 different types have been identified in ancient
sources. They often came from Asia, and the possibilities only
increased from the 1st century CE when direct sea routes were
opened up toEgypt and India. These exotic spices included
ginger, cloves, nutmeg, turmeric, cardamom, cassia, mace,
cinnamon, and, most popular of all, pepper. Tasty additives
produced closer to home included basil, rosemary, sage, chive,
bay, dill, fennel, thyme, and mustard.
MEALS
In the early Republic the main meal of the day was at lunchtime
and called cena, with a lighter meal being eaten in the evening
(vesperna). Over time, cena slowly moved later and later in the
day until it eventually became the evening meal. The lunchtime
meal then became known as prandium. A typical lunch was light,
consisting of fish or eggs with vegetables. To start the day,

breakfast or ientaculum, was also light, sometimes merely bread
and salt but occasionally with fruit and cheese.
Fruit, Roman Mosaic
Saving themselves up for cena, then, the Romans, or at least

those who could afford to, made it a big meal, typically with
three parts. First came gustatio with eggs, shellfish, dormice, and
olives, all washed down with a cup of wine which was diluted with
water and sweetened with honey (mulsum). Following these
starters, cena moved into top gear with a series of courses
(fecula), sometimes up to seven, and including the star dish,
the caput cenae. Meat or fish were the obvious main dish;
sometimes even a whole roast pig was prepared. Naturally, richer
households would try to wow their guests with exotic dishes such
as ostriches and peacocks. The final stage was dessert (mensae
secundae) which could include nuts, fruit, or even snails and
more shellfish.
CONCLUSION
Just who exactly ate what and when in Roman times continues to
be a fertile area of scholarship, but the archaeological record
provides ample evidence of the variety of foodstuffs available to
at least some of the Roman populace. We can also see that the
Romans were skilled at ensuring a continuous supply of those
foodstuffs through diverse agricultural practices,
artificial farming techniques, and food preservation methods.
Indeed, their relative success is indicated by the fact that such a
scale of food production would not be seen again in Europeuntil
the 18th century CE.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
MARK CARTWRIGHT
Mark holds an M.A. in Greek philosophy and his special interests
include the Minoans, the ancient Americas, and world mythology.
He loves visiting and reading about historic sites and
transforming that experience into free articles accessible to all.
HELP US WRITE MORE
We're a small non-profit organisation run by a handful of

volunteers. Each article costs us about $50 in history books as
source material, plus editing and server costs. You can help
us create even more free articles for as little as $5 per month,
and we'll give you an ad-free experience to thank you!BECOME
A MEMBER
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Butterworth, A, Pompeii (St. Martin's Press, 2006).
Grant, M, A History of Rome (Faber)
Hornblower, S, The Oxford Classical Dictionary (Oxford University

Press, 2012).
Oleson, J.P, The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in

the Classical World (Oxford University Press, 2009).
Potter, D.S, A Companion to the Roman Empire (Wiley-Blackwell,

2009).
As Bibliography Entry:
Mark Cartwright. Food in the Roman World, Ancient History
Encyclopedia. Last modified May 06, 2014.
http://www.ancient.eu /article/684/.
http://www.ancient.eu/article/684/
TV Dinner
TV dinners are frozen trays of pre-cooked food. Also known as frozen

dinners, they are assembled automatically on a conveyor system. In
this process, the food is initially prepared and cooked. It is then placed
on the trays and rapidly frozen. The concept of a frozen dinner was first
made popular in the 1950s. With the increased use of microwave
cooking, frozen dinners have become a large part of the grocery
market. They generate over $4.5 billion in sales each year and that
number continues to grow.
History
The development of the TV dinner traces its history back to the origin
of the technology for freezing food for later use. The practice of
freezing food has been known for centuries. No doubt, this technology
was discovered accidently by people living in cold climates such as the
Arctic. However, it was not until the nineteenth century that any real
commercial use of frozen food technology was known. The earliest
commercial attempts at producing frozen food were centered on
meats. One of the first patents related to freezing food was issued to H.
Benjamin in 1842. Later in 1861, a U.S. patent was issued to Enoch
Piper for a method of freezing fish. The incidence of frozen food
became much more widespread later in the century with the advent of
mechanical refrigerators. In 1861, the first meat freezing plant was
established in Sydney, Australia. One of the first successful shipments
of frozen meats occurred in 1869.
Success in the frozen beef market prompted food manufacturers to
develop freezing methods for other food types. One method was the
"cold-pack" process that was used around 1905. This early technology
was based on a process called slow freezing. In this method, food was
processed and then put into large containers. The containers were put
in low-temperature storage rooms and allowed to stay there until
frozen solid. This could take anywhere from one to three days.
Unfortunately, this technique had two significant drawbacks. First, for
some products like vegetables, freezing was too slow. The vegetable's
center would start to spoil before it was frozen. Second, during freezing
large ice crystals would be produced throughout the food. This lead to
a break down in the food structure, and when it was thawed, the taste
and appearance became undesirable.
Clarence Birdseye improved on this process when he developed a
quick-freezing method. During the early 1900s, Birdseye worked for
the U.S. government as a naturalist. Stationed in the Arctic, he had the
opportunity to see how native Americans preserved their food during
the winter. They used a combination of ice, low temperatures, and wind
to instantly and thoroughly freeze fish. When this fish was thawed, it
looked and tasted as good as if it were fresh. Birdseye returned from
the Arctic and adapted this technology for commercial use. By using
his method, Birdseye was able to reduce the time it took to freeze food
from three days to a few minutes. He perfected the method and in
1924 began the Birdseye Seafoods company.
The product was a success and he turned his attention to methods for
freezing different types of foods. In 1930, after years of development,
he patented a flash-freezing system that packed meat, fish or
vegetables in waxed-cardboard containers. He helped get these
products in the grocery stores by codevelopingrefrigerated grocery
display cases in 1934. Since freezers were not widely available to
consumers, this product did not succeed immediately. However, in
1945 airlines began to serve frozen meals. In the early 1950s freezer
technology had advanced to the point that people could afford to have
them in their houses. This led to the introduction of TV dinners in 1954.
Since this time, they have been a convenient alternative to homemade
meals.
Background
TV dinners represent a unique adaptation of frozen food technology.
Most foods will spoil over time depending on storage conditions. This
degradation is the result of natural chemical reactions and microbial
growth. People discovered that food could be made to last longer was
by freezing it. When food is frozen, the food-spoiling chemical reactions
like oxidation by enzymes are slowed. Also, the growth of
microorganisms such as bacteria and mold is stopped because these
organisms cannot flourish in the cold temperatures. Since the process
does not kill all microorganisms, those that survive a reactivated when
the food is thawed.
While frozen foods resemble fresh food more closely than food
preserved by other techniques, they do undergo some changes. The
freezing process causes ice crystals to form throughout the product.
These crystals cause a certain amount of degradation in texture and
taste by disrupting the cell structure of the food. This problem was
significantly reduced by the development of the quick-freezing method
which produced much smaller ice crystals.
Not all foods are suitable to be frozen, particularly vegetables. For
example, of the thousands of different types of peas that are available,
only a few varieties produce a good tasting frozen product. A large
amount of research has been done to determine exactly the types of
food that are usable. It has been found that most meats, fish, and
poultry can be frozen. However, certain meats and fish that are high in
fat content tend to breakdown slowly even when frozen. This limits the
shelf life.
Design
TV dinners are popular for a variety of reasons such as convenience,
quality, and ease of preparation. One of the greatest appeal of frozen
dinners is that they are so easy to prepare. In fact, people who are not
good cooks can enjoy nearly any type of dinner they want. Typically, all
that is necessary is for them to heat up the product in the oven or
microwave. These products require little preparation. Today, there are
thousands of different types of frozen dinner products on the market,
and more products are being introduced each day. The earliest TV
dinners included a meat product, potatoes and a vegetable and a
dessert. This has been expanded to include pasta dinners, oriental
dinners, ethnic and specialty plate dinners. There are also special
dinners for people who are watching their weight.
The types of food sold in TV dinners has become quite varied. Different
types of meats include beef, chicken, turkey, and even sausage. Any
number of vegetable dishes can include peas, corn, broccoli, and
cauliflower. Mashed, whipped, and baked potatoes can be included.

Pasta dishes, such as lasagne, spaghetti, linguini, or fettuccini, can
make up the whole TV dinner. Typically, desserts like apple strudel or
cranberry sauce are also included.
A distinguishing characteristic of a TV dinner is the partitioned plate
container in which it is sold. The first TV dinners used aluminum trays
covered with cardboard. While they are still used, these types of trays
have given way to plastic and paper trays which are more compatible
with the microwave. The food is arranged in the different
compartments to keep everything separate. Dinners that are designed
for home consumption are generally sold in sizes ranging from 10 oz to
1 lb (0.28 - 0.45 kg).
Preparation can be done either in a microwave or conventional oven.
The disadvantage to microwave cooking is that the meats do not get
the baked texture. Everything tends to be a bit soggy. However, ovens
take much longer to cook than microwaves.
Raw Materials
The primary raw materials used in the production of TV dinners are the
food ingredients.
A unique adaptation of frozen food technology, the process for producing TV dinners is
highly automated and can can be broken down into three stages. First the food is
processed and prepared. Next, it is loaded into the packaging and then frozen.
To ensure good quality TV dinners, only high quality food is used.

Depending on the variety of the TV dinner, this generally includes
meats, potatoes, vegetables, fruits, or pasta. Since tv dinners are
prepared foods other ingredients are also needed. This includes such
materials as flour, water, and eggs. Flavoring ingredients such as salt,
sugar, onion powder, pepper and various spices help improve taste.
Artificial colorants are used to improve appearance. A preservative like
sodium benzoate is also added to maintain quality during storage.
Since TV dinners are a frozen product, it is imperative that the raw
materials are available at the appropriate time. For certain
manufacturers, harvesting is scheduled to take place at the same time
so the maximum amount of food raw materials can be utilized in the
minimum amount of time. Most frozen vegetables and fruits are

prepared and frozen within four hours after harvesting.
For making the cartons, various materials such as aluminum,
cardboard, paperboard, and plastic is used. These are typically
provided prefabricated to the TV dinner manufacturer. They are made
by typical molding processes. The carton also contains the printed
labels and directions. This is also typically done by contract
manufacturers and shipped to the TV dinner maker.
The Manufacturing
Process
The process for producing TV dinners is highly automated. It can be
broken down into three stages. First the food is processed
For health and safety reasons, the government sets strict guidelines for minimum food
quality. Raw ingredients are checked to make sure characteristics such as pH, odor, taste,
moisture content, and appearance are within accepted standards. While the food is
processed, it is tasted and analyzed to make sure the ingredients are put in at the proper
proportions.
and prepared. Next, it is loaded into the packaging and then frozen.
Food preparation
1 The first step in the process involves the processing of the

incoming food. Depending on the type of food, this will mean
different things. For vegetables and fruits, they are placed on a
movable conveyor belt and washed. They are then put into a
container and steamed or boiled for one to three minutes. This
process, known as blanching, helps destroy enzymes in the food
that can cause the chemical changes that negatively affect flavor
and color. Before meats can be cooked, they are trimmed of fat
and cut into appropriate sizes. Fish is cleaned, scaled and cut
into fillets. Poultry is thoroughly washed and dressed.
2 Next, the different food dishes are prepared in large quantities.

Meat is flavored, seasoned, and put on trays. It is then cooked in
an oven for a predetermined amount of time. Vegetables may be
further steamed or boiled, and mixed with flavoring ingredients.
Potatoes are typically whipped in large, stainless steel
containers. Other ingredients called for in the recipe are added
and then they are cooked. When this step is complete, all of the
food is cooked and ready to be packaged. It is then sent to the
filling lines.
Tray loading
3 Trays are put at the beginning of the filling line and the
conveyor system is started. As the trays pass under various
filling machines, food is placed in the compartments. The amount
of food placed on the tray is strictly regulated by the filling
devices. This ensures that every TV dinner gets exactly the same
amount of food.
4 After a tray is completely filled with food, it next moves to the

packaging station. Here, dinners are covered with either
aluminum foil, paper or some other topping. The food is packed
tightly and a partial vacuum is created to ensure that the
container is airtight and no evaporation takes place. Evaporation
can have a variety of negative effects. For example, it can cause
food to dry out. It can also allow package ice to form which can
result in freezer burn giving food a dull, dried-out appearance.
Freezing and shipping
5 From the tray loading station the dinners are moved to the
freezing units. Today, most manufacturers use one of three rapid
freezing methods: cold air blast, direct liquid immersion and
indirect contact with refrigerated plates. For TV dinners, the cold

air blast method is most often used. In this freezing technique,
the trays are carried into a freeze tunnel and passed through a
series of refrigerated coils. Fans inside the freeze tunnel blow
cold air around the trays. Since the temperature can get as low
as -75 F (-59 C) the dinners freeze instantly.
6 As the dinners exit the freezers, they are stacked and put into
cardboard cases. These cases are put onto pallets and placed in
a refrigerated storage facility. They are then transported in a
refrigerated truck and stored in the grocers freezer. Good quality
food that is prepared properly and frozen will remain in nearly
perfect condition if it is kept at 0 F (-18 C) during shipping and
storage.
Quality Control
In the United States, quality control is a highly regulated and important
aspect of every food processing facility. For health and safety reasons
the government sets strict guidelines for minimum food quality. Meat is
particularly well regulated because there can represent a significant
health risk if poor quality meat is used. Quality control begins with the
receipt of raw materials. They are checked to make sure characteristics
such as pH, odor, taste, moisture content and appearance are within
accepted standards. Next, the processing equipment is sterilized and
checked for microorganisms before manufacture begins. While the food
is processed, it is tasted and analyzed to make sure the ingredients are
put in at the proper proportions. During the filling process, quality
control workers are stationed at various points of the production line.
At the filling section, they ensure that each compartment is filled
correctly. At the end of the filling line, workers watch to make sure that
each tray is set before it is covered.
Future
Future improvements in TV dinner manufacture will focus on improving
quality, speeding production, and increasing sales. A recent
development has been the application of cryogenic freezing methods.
This is a super fast freezing method that has allowed the utilization of
foods that had previously been unsuitable for freezing. This method is
also thought to produce a better tasting product. In addition to new
freezing methods, new packaging materials will be used.
Manufacturers are constantly trying to solve the problems associated
with microwave heating. They have introduced special trays that give
meat a baked texture. There may also be trays that allow some
components to be heated while other remain cool.
Where to Learn More

Books
Bald, W.B. and A. Robards, ed. Food Freezing Today and Tomorrow. New
York: Springer-Verlag, 1991.
Erickson, M. and Y. Hung. Quality in Frozen Food. New York: Chapman
and Hall, 1997.
Macrae, R., et al., ed. Encyclopedia of Food Science, Food Technology
and Nutrition. San Diego: Academic Press, 1993.
Mallett, C.P. Frozen Food Technology. New York: Routledge, 1993.
Perry Romanowski
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http://www.madehow.com/Volume-5/TV-Dinner.html
Philippine
setting
History of Philippine Cuisine

by Jennibeth Montejo Alojado
Philippine cuisine has evolved over several centuries due to the many Latin American
and Spanish dishes brought to the Philippines during the Spanish colonial period. It
has also received varying degrees of influence from Chinese, American and other
Asian cuisine.
Filipinos during the pre-Hispanic era in the Philippines prepared food by boiling,
steaming or roasting. This ranged from the usual livestock such as kalabaw or water
buffalos, cow, chickens and pigs to seafoods such as fish, shrimps, prawns,
crustaceans and shellfish. There are a few places in the Philippines where the broad
range in their diet extended to monitor lizards, snakes and locusts.
Filipinos have been cultivating rice and corn since the arrival of Austronesian people
from Southern China and Taiwan in 3200 BC. They brought with them rice cultivation
and a lot of other various traditions that are used in forms today. Pre-Hispanic trade
with other Asian nations introduced a number of staples into Philippine cuisine; most
notable are toyo or soy sauce and patis or fish sauce, as well as the method of stirfrying and making savory soup bases.
The arrival of Spanish settlers brought with them chili peppers, tomato sauces, corn,
potatoes, and the method of sauting with garlic and onions, which found their way
into Philippine cuisine. They also introduced the use of vinegar and spices in foods to
preserve them due to lack of refrigeration. Local adaptations of Spanish dishes then
became common, such as paella into its Filipino version arroz valenciana, chorizo into
its local version of longanisa, and escabeche adobo, which is connected to the
Spanish adobado.
During the nineteenth century, Chinese food became a staple of the panciterias or
noodle soup shops around the country, although they were marketed with Spanish
names. Chinese foods include arroz caldo which is rice and chicken gruel; morisqueta
tostada which is an obsolete term for sinangag or fried rice; and chopsuey.
Today, Philippine cuisine continues to evolve as new techniques and styles of cooking
find their way into one of the most active melting pots of Asia. The Philippines does
not only possess its traditional cuisine; popular international cuisines as well as
restaurant and fastfood chains are also available around the archipelago.
Furthermore, the Chinese population is famous for establishing Chinese districts
where predominantly Chinese and Chinese-fusion food can be found.
http://www.philippine-islands.ph/en/history_of_philippine_cuisineaid_8.html
Malays, from Malaysia, were among the first inhabitants of the Philippines over
20,000 years ago. They brought with them the knowledge of preparing hot chilies
and the use of ginataan , or coconut milk, in sauces to balance the spiciness.
The Chinese established colonies in the Philippines between 1200 and 1300. They
introduced pansit , or Chinese noodle dishes, and bean curds. Later came egg
rolls, and soy sauce. Like the Chinese, the Filipinos consume a wide array of
dipping sauces to accompany their dishes.
Spain occupied the Philippines for almost 400 years, beginning in 1521. This
colonization had a major impact on Filipino cuisine. A majority of the dishes
prepared in modern Philippines can be traced back to Spain. In fact, everyday
Filipino dishes resemble Spanish cooking more than native meals. The Spaniards
introduced a Mediterranean style of eating and preparing food. Techniques such
as braising and sauting, and meals cooked in olive oil, are examples. Spain also
introduced cooking with seasonings, such as garlic, onions, tomatoes, sweet
peppers, and vinegar.
The United States took control of the Philippines after the Spanish-American
War in 1898, staying through World War II (19391945) until 1946. The U. S.
military introduced goods shipped in from their country such as mayonnaise, hot
dogs, hamburgers, and apple pies. Canned evaporated and condensed milk often
replace the traditional buffalo milk used in desserts, such as flan (caramel
custard). Nowhere else in Asian cuisine can cheese and canned tomato sauce be
found in recipes. All of these foods are still favorites of the Filipinos and can be
found almost anywhere in the country.
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Meal Prep History

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Meal Prep History

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meal

would recommend preparing a few days meals at a time. How much

rice, and wholemeal pasta, I recommend cooking these upfront as

Food Preparing From Open Fire To

The First Method Open Fire

Smoking, Drying And Salting

A gas stove, used in modern ways of food preparing.

Ovens & Stoves

Cooking Methods Using Heat

Food in the Roman World

The ancient Mediterranean diet revolved around four staples,

coarser than modern standards. Besides wheat and barley, oats,

Asparagus, Roman Mosaic

FRUIT & VEGETABLES

brine or vinegar or preserved in wine, grape juice, or honey,

Wild Boar, Roman Mosaic

honoured dinner guests. Meat could also be conserved by salting,

Trajans Market, Rome

Roman Food Shop Reconstruction

Spices (species - meaning any valuable exotic commodity), in

consisting of fish or eggs with vegetables. To start the day,

Fruit, Roman Mosaic

Saving themselves up for cena, then, the Romans, or at least

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

We're a small non-profit organisation run by a handful of

Butterworth, A, Pompeii (St. Martin's Press, 2006).

Grant, M, A History of Rome (Faber)

Hornblower, S, The Oxford Classical Dictionary (Oxford University

Oleson, J.P, The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in

Potter, D.S, A Companion to the Roman Empire (Wiley-Blackwell,

TV dinners are frozen trays of pre-cooked food. Also known as frozen

cauliflower. Mashed, whipped, and baked potatoes can be included.

To ensure good quality TV dinners, only high quality food is used.

minimum amount of time. Most frozen vegetables and fruits are

1 The first step in the process involves the processing of the

2 Next, the different food dishes are prepared in large quantities.

4 After a tray is completely filled with food, it next moves to the

Freezing and shipping

indirect contact with refrigerated plates. For TV dinners, the cold

Where to Learn More

Read more: http://www.madehow.com/Volume-5/TVDinner.html#ixzz3nGbKNCvh

History of Philippine Cuisine

Read more: http://www.foodbycountry.com/Kazakhstan-to-SouthAfrica/Philippines.html#ixzz3nGhb9tuz

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