Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Table of Contents
Introduction
...............................................................................................................................
4
About Us
.....................................................................................................................................
5
The 11 Things You Need to Know about the New 2016 SAT Exam
........................
6
SAT vs. ACT
..............................................................................................................................
9
Determining Explicit Meaning in Passages
.................................................................
19
Determining Implicit Meanings
......................................................................................
28
Analogical
Reasoning
...........................................................................................................
39
Citing Textual Evidence
......................................................................................................
50
Determining Main Ideas
....................................................................................................
59
Summarizing
...........................................................................................................................
72
Understanding Relationships
...........................................................................................
83
Interpreting Words and Phrases in Context
..............................................................
102
Analyzing Word Choice
...................................................................................................
110
Analyzing Overall Text Structure
................................................................................
117
Analyzing Part-Whole Relationships
..........................................................................
139
Analyzing Point of View
.................................................................................................
156
Analyzing Claims and Counterclaims
........................................................................
173
Assessing Reasoning
........................................................................................................
184
Analyzing
Evidence
...........................................................................................................
193
Analyzing Quantitative Information
..........................................................................
214
Development
.......................................................................................................................
221
Organization
........................................................................................................................
231
Precision and Concision
..................................................................................................
243
Style and Tone
....................................................................................................................
248
Syntax
.....................................................................................................................................
260
Sentence Formation
...........................................................................................................
267
Shifts in Construction
......................................................................................................
272
Pronouns
...............................................................................................................................
276
Possessive Determiners
...................................................................................................
284
Grammatical Agreement
.................................................................................................
291
Frequently Confused Words
..........................................................................................
300
Logical Comparisons
........................................................................................................
310
Conventional Expressions
...............................................................................................
315
Conventions of Punctuation
...........................................................................................
323
Sign
up
for
Learnerator
SAT
Prep!
...............................................................................
340
Introduction
Hi
there!
We
created
this
book
to
serve
as
an
overview
of
all
the
major
concepts
that
will
be
asked
of
you
in
the
new
SAT
reading
section.
This
is
a
conglomeration
of
a
series
of
review
posts
we
originally
published
on
our
blog.
Whether
youre
new
to
the
SAT
or
a
veteran,
we
hope
youll
find
this
book
helpful
in
your
preparation
for
the
exam!
-The
Learnerator
Team
E-mail
us
at
hello@learnerator.com
if
you
have
any
questions,
comments,
or
suggestions.
About Us
Learnerator
bridges
the
gap
between
learning
and
mastery
by
curating
high
quality
practice
materials
for
a
variety
of
difficult
academic
subject
areas.
Our
online
test
prep
offers:
Visit
us
at
www.learnerator.com
Use
SAT2016
for
10%
off
any
Learnerator
SAT
Subject
Guide
Take
your
S
AT
prep
to
the
next
level.
Visit
www.learnerator.com
5
7
be
500-750
words
and
the
total
length
of
all
passages
will
be
approximately
3,250
words.
6. Graphical
representations.
The
Reading
&
Writing
section
is
going
to
oriented
around
command
of
evidence
in
context
(i.e.,
words
in
a
history
vs.
a
science
context
have
different
meanings).
This
also
applies
to
graphical
representations
of
facts,
which
is
going
to
be
emphasized
more
in
this
exam.
7. Historical
documents.
Each
exam's
Evidence-Based
Reading
and
Writing
section
will
feature
either
a
passage
from
an
important
U.S.
historical
document
(like
the
Declaration
of
Independence),
or
from
landmark
speeches
or
arguments
from
important
people
like
JFK,
Martin
Luther
King,
or
Winston
Churchill
(they
are
not
necessarily
all
Americans).
This
may
present
a
disadvantage
to
international
students;
so
if
that
is
you,
make
sure
to
note
this.
Even
though
the
College
Board
says
no
prior
knowledge
is
needed
to
answer
these
questions,
it
certainly
helps
to
have
the
context
of
the
documents
ahead
of
time.
8. The
math
section.
The
old
math
section
of
the
SAT
was
a
bit
willy-nilly
and
spanned
many
areas.
The
new
Math
section
is
more
narrowly
defined
and
introduces
a
section
called
"Problem
Solving
and
Data
Analysis",
which
introduces
some
basic
concepts
of
statistics.
For
more
on
this,
go
to
our
SAT
Review
page.
9. Calculator
usage.
There
are
now
some
portions
of
the
new
SAT
that
does
not
allow
for
the
use
of
calculators.
10. Delivery.
The
SAT
will
be
available
in
both
digital
as
well
as
paper
forms.
8
11. Scoring.
Hooray!
No
more
guessing
penalty!
You
will
be
given
points
for
correct
answers,
but
blank
and
incorrect
answers
will
not
earn
you
any
deductions.
The
scoring
returns
to
400-1600,
from
the
current
600-2400
range.
You
are
also
going
to
get
separate
test
scores
and
subscores,
shown
below:
Summary: It
is interesting to note that 2013 was the first year that the ACT
surpassed the SAT in terms of the number of exams taken. The ACT has become
viewed as more representative of the skills necessary for college and career
success, and this new SAT is the College Board's response. The result is an SAT
that is closer to the ACT with perhaps an even greater emphasis on the ability to
analyze sources, which is also where the CB is taking their AP exams.
ACT
SAT
LOGISTICS
*Offered 6x/year
*Offered 5x/year
APTITUDE
learned in school
ENGLISH
*75 multiple-choice
*44 multiple-choice
questions, 4 answer
questions, 4 answer
learned about
grammar/rhetoric skills?
grammar/usage?
READING
*40 multiple-choice
*52 multiple-choice
questions, 4 answer
questions, 4 answer
science, humanities,
history/social studies,
history/social studies,
science, literature.
literature*Measures
*Measures reading
10
reading
comprehension
comprehension
*Contains
charts,
graphs,
visuals
SCIENCE
*40 multiple-choice
N/A
questions
*Data
Representation,
Research
Summaries,
and
Conflicting
Viewpoints.
*Charts/graph/visual
analysis
MATH
ESSAY
*12 grid-ins
represented
represented
whole test
most of test
*Optional
*Optional
topic*Scored out of 12
opinion
on
a
topic
*Scored
out
of
8
SCORING
*7 subscores
*7 subscores
The
SATs
redesign
is
due
to
a
number
of
factors,
including
the
fact
that
the
ACT
is
now
slightly
more
popular
and
many
say
more
fair,
or
at
least
a
more
accurate
predictor
of
college
and
career
readiness.
But
even
with
the
redesign,
there
are
11
some
key
differences
and
some
new
key
similarities.
LOGISTICS:
Timing
Both
tests
can
be
taken
more
than
once,
in
either
junior
or
senior
year.
The
ACT
is
administered
six
times
a
year
in
the
United
States
(in
September,
October,
December,
February,
April,
and
June),
while
the
SAT
is
administered
5
times
(in
December,
January,
March,
May,
and
June).
The
new
SAT
will
be
administered
for
the
first
time
in
2016.
For
both
the
ACT
and
the
SAT,
you
can
take
the
test
in
your
junior
and
senior
year.
(In
fact,
we
recommend
taking
the
test
twice
if
youre
not
thrilled
with
your
original
junior-year
score,
as
ACT
Math
covers
typical
12th-grade
topics
and
SAT
Integrated
Reading
and
Writing
will
include
some
college-level
passages
so
it
will
be
helpful
to
go
into
the
test
feeling
more
confident
and
prepared!)
Costs
The
ACT
costs
$38.00
without
the
writing
portion
and
$54.50
with
the
writing.
Currently,
the
SAT
costs
$52.50,
though
this
might
change
now
that
the
new
SATs
Writing
portion
is
optional.
OK,
BUT
WHATS
THE
REAL
DIFFERENCE?
The
common
answer
to
this
is
that
the
SAT
measures
aptitude
while
the
ACT
measures
achievement.
Aptitude
Aptitude
tests
measure
how
well
you
are
likely
to
perform
a
task
based
on
the
skills
you
already
have,
or
have
developed
over
12
years
of
formal
education.
Aptitude
12
has
been
compared
to
talent
or
intelligence,
and
aptitude
tests
ask
questions
that
measure
how
you
reason
or
think.
(Of
course,
there
are
multiple
ways
to
be
talented
and
intelligent,
and
multiple
ways
to
nurture
and
extend
these
qualities
which
is
one
reason
that
the
SAT,
which
measures
and
privileges
only
a
few
types
of
aptitude,
has
drawn
so
much
criticism.)
Achievement
On
the
other
hand,
achievement
tests,
like
the
ACT,
measure
how
well
you
can
already
perform
certain
tasks
based
on
what
you
have
already
learned
over
12
years
of
formal
education.
They
measure
skills
or
knowledge,
and
as
such
have
been
called
a
more
accurate
predictor
of
whether
students
are
ready
for
college
and
the
workplace.
However,
now
that
the
SAT
is
changing,
it
will
have
much
more
in
common
with
the
ACT
than
it
did
previously.
The
debate
over
aptitude
versus
achievement
is
a
hot
topic
in
education,
and
well
beyond
the
scope
of
this
post.
The
essential
thing
to
keep
in
mind
is
this:
if
you
work
hard
in
school
and
out
of
it,
you
can
and
will
learn
the
skills
that
are
essential
to
succeeding
on
both
the
SAT
and
the
ACT,
as
well
as
in
college,
the
workplace,
and
life.
13
OK,
BUT
WHAT
DOES
THIS
ACTUALLY
MEAN
FOR
ME?
Unlike
the
new
SAT,
which
is
divided
into
two
mandatory
and
one
optional
section,
the
ACT
is
separated
into
four
mandatory
portions
and
one
optional
section.
Those
portions
are:
ACT
ENGLISH
which
features
75
questions
about
a
variety
of
strategically
messed
up
passages
to
measure
a
students
ability
to
recognize,
diagnose,
and
correct
problems
of
grammar
and
usage,
punctuation,
sentence
structure,
strategy,
organization,
and
style.
In
other
words,
the
ACT
English
test
measures
how
much
youve
learned
about
the
conventions
of
the
English
language
and
strategies
for
good
writing.
There
are
four
answer
choices
per
question.
ACT
READING
uses
four
to
eight
passages
and
forty
questions
to
measure
your
ability
to
comprehend
main
ideas,
significant
details,
implied
and
stated
ideas,
specific
vocabulary
words,
and
text
structures
like
comparison
and
sequence
of
events.
The
passages
might
be
single,
long
selections
or
paired,
short
selections.
The
test
promises
that
this
is
the
type
of
reading
required
in
first
year
college
courses,
and
the
topics
center
on
social
studies,
humanities,
natural
sciences,
and
literary
narratives.
In
other
words,
ACT
Reading
measures
how
well
you
have
learned
to
read
a
diverse
array
of
texts
over
the
past
11
years.
There
are
four
answer
choices
per
question.
Now
that
the
SAT
has
collapsed
its
Reading
and
Writing
sections
into
one
integrated
section
(Evidence-Based
Reading
and
Writing)
its
structure
is
remarkably
similar
to
ACT
English
and
ACT
Reading.
SAT
Evidence-Based
Reading
and
Writing
is
now
comprised
of
44
Writing
and
Language
questions
and
52
Reading
questions
about
4-6
passages
(most
long,
but
with
some
paired
shorter
selections)
across
topics
in
history
and
social
studies,
science,
and
US
and
world
literature.
SAT
EBRW
measures
your
understanding
of
words
in
context
(no
more
of
those
pesky
SAT
words
like
adamantine
or
vitreous),
your
command
of
evidence,
and
your
Take
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S
AT
prep
to
the
next
level.
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13
14
ability
to
analyze
text
structure,
assess
implied
and
explicit
meanings,
and
understand
purpose.
The
new
SAT
EBRW
section
will
now
have
four
answer
choices
per
question
instead
of
five.
Notably,
the
new
SAT
EBRW
section
will
include
charts
and
graphs;
understanding
and
analyzing
visuals
is
a
type
of
literacy,
or
reading,
too!
The
ACT
Reading
section
does
not
offer
charts
or
graphs,
because
there
is
a
whole
section
dedicated
almost
exclusively
to
visual
data.
ACT
Science
is
its
own
40-
question
section,
comprised
of
Data
Representation,
Research
Summaries,
and
Conflicting
Viewpoints.
This
section
doesnt
actually
measure
how
much
you
know
about
science.
Instead,
it
measures
how
well
you
can
understand,
analyze,
and
synthesize
scientific
data
how
well
you
can
read
a
chart
or
a
graph,
how
deeply
you
understand
two
different
ideas
about
scientific
concepts,
whether
or
not
you
can
think
critically
and
make
an
inference
about
the
data
in
front
of
you.
Each
answer
has
four
options.
Last,
ACT
Math
has
sixty
questions
with
five
options
each
(not
four
like
on
all
the
other
sections
of
the
test)
about
topics
that
range
from
pre-Algebra
through
Trigonometry.
The
most
heavily
represented
subjects
on
the
test
are
Pre-Algebra
and
Plane
Geometry.
The
ACT
measures
your
mathematical
reasoning
skills
as
well
as
much
youve
absorbed
in
your
math
classes
over
the
past
12
years.
You
will
be
able
to
use
a
calculator
on
every
question
on
the
test.
The
SAT
Math
section
has
57
questions
total,
45
with
four
answer
choices
and
12
Student-Produced
Responses
(i.e.
grid-ins),
one
of
which
involves
showing
your
work
and
demonstrating
your
thinking
in
response
to
a
word
problem.
Of
the
four
content
domains
(Heart
of
Algebra,
Passport
to
Advanced
Math,
Problem
Data
Analysis,
and
Additional
Topics),
Heart
of
Algebra
is
the
biggest,
so
make
sure
you
know
your
algebra
before
you
take
this
test.
Also,
the
new
SAT
will
now
present
item
sets
a
group
of
related
questions
that
ask
you
to
respond
to
the
same
set
of
data/graphs/stimuli.
You
wont
be
able
to
use
your
calculator
for
20
questions
on
Take
your
S
AT
prep
to
the
next
level.
Visit
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14
15
the
SAT
Math
test.
Perhaps
the
biggest
difference
between
the
two
tests
is
the
Optional
Essay.
The
ACT
will
give
you
two
perspectives
on
a
common
topic
relevant
to
high
school
students
(such
as
curfews
and
drivers
licenses)
and
ask
you
to
contribute
your
opinion.
You
will
have
to
demonstrate
that
you
understand
both
perspectives,
that
your
opinion
is
based
in
evidence
and
reasoning,
and
that
your
writing
conforms
to
standard
English
conventions.
The
SATs
optional
essay
will
ask
you
to
analyze
a
source
text
(which
will
have
very
little
to
do
with
common
topics
relevant
to
high
school
students)
and
figure
out
what
the
writer
is
saying
and
how
s/he
builds
an
argument.
You
will
have
to
prove
that
you
understand
how
a
writer
constructs
an
effective
argument,
using
evidence
from
the
text.
The
SAT
is
NOT
looking
for
your
opinion,
but
for
how
adroitly
you
marshal
and
cite
evidence,
and
how
fluently
you
write.
These
are
very
different
types
of
essays,
so
be
sure
you
have
plenty
of
practice
for
both.
16
HOW
WILL
MY
TEST
BE
SCORED?
SAT
Scoring
The
SAT
is
going
back
to
its
original
1600-point
scale
(#oldschool),
which
means
that
the
highest
score
you
can
earn
is
a
1600
(composite)
with
an
800
EBRW
score
(area
score)
and
an
800
Math
(area
score).
However,
it
gets
a
little
more
complicated
after
this:
You
get
3
test
scores
(from
10-40)
for
(1)
Reading,
(2)
Writing
and
Language,
and
(3)
Math.
You
get
2
cross-test
score
(from
10-40)
for
(1)
Analysis
in
Science
and
(2)
Analysis
in
History/Social
Studies.
You
get
7
subscores
(from
1-15)
for
(1)
Command
of
Evidence
and
(2)
Relevant
Words
in
Context
(Reading),
(3)
Expression
of
Ideas
and
(4)
Standard
English
Conventions
(Writing
and
Language),
(5)
Heart
of
Algebra,
(6)
Problem
Solving
and
Data
Analysis,
and
(7)
Passport
to
Advanced
Math.
Essays
are
scored
from
2-8,
with
two
readers
who
will
assign
you
a
score
of
1-4.
ACT
Scoring
On
the
ACT,
you
will
receive
a
Composite
Score
(out
of
36)
that
averages
each
of
your
four
test
scores
in
Math,
English,
Reading,
and
Science.
The
highest
score
you
can
receive
on
each
section
as
well
as
on
the
test
itself
is
a
36.
You
will
receive
seven
subscores:
(1)
Usage
and
Mechanics,
(2)
Rhetorical
Skills,
(3)
Pre-Algebra
and
Elementary
Algebra,
(4)
Intermediate
Algebra/Coordinate
Geometry,
(5)
Plane
Geometry/Trigonometry,
(6)
Social
Studies/Natural
Sciences
reading
skills,
and
(7)
Arts/Literature
reading
skills.
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S
AT
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the
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level.
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17
These
are
scored
from
1-18,
and
have
no
mathematical
bearing
on
your
composite
score.
Your
essay
is
scored
out
of
12,
with
two
readers
giving
you
a
score
between
1-6.
18
Part
I:
Information
&
Ideas
(Reading)
19
2) Understand
This applies both to the passage and to the question and all of the answer choices.
The beauty of the multiple-choice test is that all the answers are already there;
you just have to know where to look.
This means you have to consider every scrap of information the College Board
gives you. The little blurb before each passage is crucial they are giving you free
information about
the passage, which will help you understand the passage better
20
It was eleven o'clock that night when Mr. Pontellier returned from Klein's hotel. He was in an
excellent humor, in high spirits, and very talkative. His entrance awoke his wife, who was in bed
and fast asleep when he came in. He talked to her while he undressed, telling her anecdotes and
bits of news and gossip that he had gathered during the day. From his trousers pockets he took a
fistful of crumpled bank notes and a good deal of silver coin, which he piled on the bureau
indiscriminately with keys, knife, handkerchief, and whatever else happened to be in his pockets.
She was overcome with sleep, and answered him with little half utterances.
The first thing youll want to do is circle all the important information:
a)
This is a novel (ok, so fiction that means youll have to be prepared for
there will be a question about something related to this because the College
Board wouldnt drop that juicy morsel unless it had a reason so this might
contain themes considered unconventional in 1899)
See how much information you can glean just from the little blurb? Now turn
your attention to the passage. Take note of:
1)
What time it was when Mr. P came home (pretty late! 11pm, and his wife was
fast asleep!)
2)
special note of this because the SAT loves to ask about tone and mood!)
4) Other
21
time to tell her about anecdotes and bits of news and gossip? Take note of how
she is reacting to him, too.
Annotations arent the only way to record your observations of the text. Its also
crucial that you adopt a second strategy:
It was eleven o'clock that night when Mr. Pontellier returned from Klein's hotel. He was in an
excellent humor (good mood), in high spirits, and very talkative. His entrance awoke his wife, who
was in bed and fast asleep when he came in. He talked to her while he undressed, telling her
anecdotes (stories) and bits of news and gossip that he had gathered during the day. From his
trousers pockets he took a fistful of crumpled bank notes and a good deal of silver coin (lots of
money), which he piled on the bureau indiscriminately with keys, knife, handkerchief, and
whatever else happened to be in his pockets (piling all of his stuff up so hes messy). She was
overcome with sleep (tired), and answered him with little half utterances (halfsentences/incoherent).
When it comes to translating the text, sometimes youll just get stuck on a word.
Say you didnt know anecdotes in the fourth line. You probably know bits of
news and gossip, though, so its possible to figure out from context that hes
giving her a very chatty, thorough account of his day. You wont need to know
what every word means to figure out a general picture from the text, or even to
do a translation.
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AT
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21
22
Now that youve annotated and translated the text, youll want to turn your
attention to the question, and do the same, making sure you understand
completely what is being asked.
Question: Mr. Pontelliers conduct in this passage could most likely be
described as
A) Generous
B) Good-natured
C) Passionate
D) Self-centered
Yes, theres mention of the money in his pockets, which may serve to distract
you, but the passage doesnt say anything about him giving away or otherwise
doing anything with that money. Cross out A.
Option B, Good-natured.
doesnt necessarily make him good-natured. And remember the question asks
23
about his behavior that evening, not his general personality. This isnt a terrible choice,
but leave it for now and consider the others.
Option C, Passionate.
seems happy and excited, but theres little evidence of passion especially as
passion generally tends to be directed towards something or someone, whereas a
good mood is general. Cross that one off, and then move on to the last answer.
Option D, Self-centered.
night. Think back to all the actions you noted when you were reading the text: he
came in late, woke his sleeping wife with his chatter, and piled all his stuff
everywhere in their shared room. Though he may befeeling good-natured (B),
hes acting pretty self-centered. Clearly, that is the only correct answer to what the
College Board is asking here. All you need to do is pay attention to detail.
-------------Thats a fairly simple passage, though, so lets do this once more with a slightly
harder passage.
The following passage is from the same book.
An indescribable oppression, which seemed to generate in some unfamiliar part of her
consciousness, filled her whole being with a vague anguish. It was like a shadow, like a
mist passing across her soul's summer day. It was strange and unfamiliar; it was a mood.
She did not sit there inwardly upbraiding her husband, lamenting at Fate, which had
directed her footsteps to the path, which they had taken. She was just having a good cry
all to herself. The mosquitoes made merry over her, biting her firm, round arms and
nipping at her bare insteps.
The little stinging, buzzing imps succeeded in dispelling a mood which might have held
her there in the darkness half a night longer.
24
Again, lets start annotating and translating:
The little stinging, buzzing imps (ie mosquitos) succeeded in dispelling a mood (they got
rid of her bad mood?!) which might have held her there in the darkness half a night
longer. (guess they made her so itchy she forgot to be sad?)
On the actual test, you wont necessarily have time to write yourself insanely
detailed notes like I did here. Thats OK! Instead of writing really bad feeling
or making notes about the unfamiliar part of her consciousness you can use
shorthand a little frowny face, a question mark, an underline, an exclamation, a
star.
And its OK if you dont know all the words, like upbraiding or lamenting.
The rest of the passage with its words like oppression, anguish, shadow,
mist passing across her soul, good cry should serve to cement the
impression that whatever upbraid or lament might mean, its not good.
25
So now we can turn our attention to a question based on this passage:
By depicting in such detail Mrs. Pontelliers emotional state, the narrator is trying
to suggest that
A) Mr.
B) Mrs.
D) Mrs.
Remember to really think about what the test is asking you. The question asks
about the narrators intentions here in showing you Mrs. Pontelliers state
i.e., Based on this unhappy episode, what does the narrator want to tell you about this character?
You can easily answer this question based on explicit textual evidence.
Consider option A. Mr. Pontellier may indeed be worldly and callous (not very
nice), but there is no evidence from this particular part of the passage (which is
all the question asks about!) that this is why his wife is so upset. You can easily
cross this one out remember, you only want to look for what the text
says explicitly, and here the question asks only about one particular part of the
passage, in which Mr. Pontellier is NOT described in any detail. (In fact, all it
says about him is that Mrs. Pontellier did NOT use this time to criticize him in
her mind but it gives no specific descriptions as to his personality.)
Next, try option B. As with option A, this MIGHT be a possibility except that
there is absolutely no indication of this in the actual text. It says nothing about
26
what happened before Mr. Pontellier came home, so you can cross this one out
immediately.
Look at option C. Again, remember to look only at the part of the text that the
question is asking about. There is no mention about being a mother in this part of
the text, and in fact no mention of children at all. This clearly cannot be the
answer.
Now we come to option D: Mrs. Pontellier is unused to confronting her own
unhappiness. Consider the evidence here, because the text has pretty much told
you that this is the case:
She feels indescribably oppressed (as though she lacks the words/experience
to describe it presumably, if she was very familiar with and deeply aware of
this feeling, she would know exactly how to describe it and what the reasons for
it are).
Her unhappiness generates from an unfamiliar part of her consciousness i.e.,
she has no idea where it came from. And if she doesnt know WHY shes
unhappy, then this is pretty good evidence that she doesnt think a whole lot
about her own unhappiness. Clearly, this is the only reasonable choice.
Now, a critical reader will no doubt make the connection between Mrs.
Pontelliers anguished crying and her inconsiderate husband. A good critical
reader might also connect this to the blurb before the passage, which tells you
that this book had an unconventional point of view in 1899 a point of view
that will no doubt have something to do with the fact that the marriage between
the main characters seems very unfulfilling.
27
These critical reading skills will be very helpful in the next chapter, Determining
Implicit Meanings.
28
Every time you choose an answer, match up your choice with actual evidence
(meaning, a quote) from the text. If you cant do that, or if the evidence youve
chosen doesnt convince you, then you are probably not making a supportable
conclusion and you should pick another answer.
Try this strategy with the following passage from the Public Library of Science
blog:
As Ebola rears its ugly head in the U.S., there has been a lot of discussion about how afraid we
really should be. While health officials have remained relatively calm, insisting in a tense
29
congressional hearing that there is no need to panic, some members of the American public have
gone in the opposite direction, proclaiming a state of emergency on social media channels such as
Twitter and Facebook. Donald Trump has been an especially noisy voice on the topic on Twitter,
demanding that Obama stop all flights to and from West Africa and proclaiming that Ebola is
actually much more contagious than the CDC says it is. At the end of September, with the
announcement of the first suspected case of Ebola in the U.S., Trump expressed panic on Twitter,
writing:
"The United States must immediately institute strong travel restrictions or Ebola will be all over
the United States--a plague like no other! Ebola is much easier to transmit than the CDC and
government representatives are admitting. Spreading all over Africa - and fast. Stop flights."
Trumps comments suggest not only a distrust of health authorities but also a kind of hysteria,
with the use of the word plague, that is reminiscent of the infectious disease panic seen in many
other outbreaks in American history, including SARS in 2003 and bubonic plague in 1924, the
latter an outbreak that famously led to the frantic firing of thousands of Latino workers and
destruction of homes in low-income Latino neighborhoods because they were seen as the
source of the disease.
The first thing you will want to do is annotate your text. Make notes next to
anything that seems interesting, unusual, or otherwise notable. And if theres
something you dont understand, translate it for yourself into plain English as
best as you can. My translations and comments are in red:
As Ebola rears its ugly head in the U.S., (negative) there has been a lot of discussion about how
afraid we really should be. While health officials have remained relatively calm, insisting in
a tense congressional hearing that there is no need to panic, some members of the American
public have gone in the opposite direction, proclaiming a state of emergency on social media
channels such as Twitter and Facebook. (debate here) Donald Trump has been an especially
noisy (negative-sounding) voice on the topic on Twitter, demanding that Obama stop all flights to
and from West Africa and proclaiming that Ebola is actually much more contagious than the CDC
says it is. At the end of September, with the announcement of the first suspected case of Ebola in
the U.S., Trump expressed panic on Twitter, writing:
"The United States must immediately institute strong travel restrictions or Ebola will be all over
30
the United States--a plague like no other! Ebola is much easier to transmit than the CDC and
government representatives are admitting. Spreading all over Africa - and fast. Stop flights."
Trumps comments suggest not only a distrust of health authorities but also a kind of
hysteria, (negative) with the use of the word plague, that is reminiscent of the infectious disease
panic seen in many other outbreaks in American history, including SARS in 2003 and bubonic
plague in 1924, the latter an outbreak that famously led to the frantic firing of thousands of Latino
workers and destruction of homes in low-income Latino neighborhoods because they were seen as
the source of the disease.(Trump is panicking in the same way that people panicked in 1924,
which led to thousands racially-based firings negative).
These are just preliminary notes, but they will help us answer the next two
questions using the second strategy, matching up every option with a quote /
evidence from the text.
How does the author of this passage most likely feel about Trumps comments on Twitter?
Now, the author never explicitly expresses an opinion about Trump. However, if
you read closely, you can answer this question by matching up each option with
evidence from the text.
Consider A: She finds Trumps comments laudable and important.
Even if you dont know that laudable means worthy of praise, you can
figure out that important is a positive thing. Comb over the text. Is there any
mention that the author finds Trumps contribution important, other than the
fact that she is mentioning him? Theres no evidence of this. In fact, all of the
31
words that she uses to describe Trumps contributions are NEGATIVE she calls
him noisy and says he is demonstrating hysteria, neither of which are
positive words. Go ahead and cross out Option A.
Now, Option B Again, look at these words: irrelevant and pointless. Both are
negative, which matches with the negative tone the author uses to describe
Trumps comments. But is there any evidence that she finds Trump irrelevant?
Surely if he was pointless, the author wouldnt mention him at all. Nor would
she say that Trumps comments suggest a kind of hysteria reminiscent of
the infectious disease panic in 1924 that famously led to the frantic firing of
thousands of Latino workers and destruction of homes in low-income Latino
neighborhoods. In fact, Trumps comments are the opposite of irrelevant if
panics like his have led to people being fired and homes being destroyed, then
clearly words like his have some resonance, even if they are a negative rather
than a positive part of this national conversation.
Check out Option C and try to find evidence for the fact that the author is
distrustful of Trumps comments. True, the word distrustful shows up in the
passage although the passage suggests that it is Trump who is distrustful of
authorities, not the author. True, the author seems like she does not agree with
Trump, calling him noisy and hysterical and subtly suggesting that his
comments could lead to widespread panic, firing, and destruction of homes. So
this might be a good answer there is some evidence here.
Lets consider Option D and see if there is more or better evidence: The author is
subtly disdainful i.e. she has a negative impression of Trumps comments.
Clearly, by describing Trump as noisy, hysterical, and having an attitude
32
reminiscent of widespread panics that led to firings and destructions of homes,
the author is demonstrating a disdain of Trump.
So its between C and D. Which word better describes the authors attitude? Is
there evidence that she doesnt trust Trump, or is there more evidence that she
thinks negatively of him?
While C may be a possible answer, D is a better answer because there is
more evidence
Meanings:
At the same time, a good deal of the coverage of the Ebola crisis in West Africa has focused on the
irrationality and ignorance of West Africans, choosing to visit traditional healers instead of
doctors and ignoring warnings from health officials that traditional burial rituals can hasten the
spread of the disease. Indeed, this lack of faith in Western medicine is now being addressed by
local and foreign health officials who are running educational programs in places like Liberia
and Sierra Leone in order to ensure that the people exposed to the illness have the correct
scientific information.
But while certain cultural practices and lack of education have certainly played a role in the rapid
spread of Ebola in West Africa, the amount of attention we have paid to the ignorance and
irrationality of people living in these developing countries has not been balanced with an equal
amount of attention to our own developed nations manifestations of similar irrational health
beliefs. Are we really that much more knowledgeable and rational than our West African
counterparts, or do our irrationalities and psychological missteps simply take different cultural
forms? And do our ignorance levels and irrationalities have the potential to be just as dangerous
to our health as seeking out a local healer instead of a trained healthcare professional in response
to a life-threatening viral illness?
33
Remember, annotate and translate anything that sticks out to you:
At the same time, a good deal of the coverage of the Ebola crisis in West Africa has focused on
the irrationality and ignorance of West Africans, choosing to visit traditional healers instead
of doctors and ignoring warnings from health officials that traditional burial rituals can hasten
the spread of the disease. Indeed, this lack of faith in Western medicine is now being
addressed by local and foreign health officials who are running educational programs in places
like Liberia and Sierra Leone in order to ensure that the people exposed to the illness have the
correct scientific information.
But while certain cultural practices and lack of education have certainly played a role in the
rapid spread of Ebola in West Africa, the amount of attention we have paid to the ignorance
and irrationality of people living in these developing countries has not been balanced with an
equal amount of attention to our own developed nations manifestations of similar irrational
health beliefs. Are we really that much more knowledgeable and rational than our West African
counterparts, or do our irrationalities and psychological missteps simply take different cultural
forms? And do our ignorance levels and irrationalities have the potential to be just as dangerous
to our health as seeking out a local healer instead of a trained healthcare professional in
response to a life-threatening viral illness?
As you can see, I bolded a lot of information all because it stood out to me in
some way. The words in quotes hold a lot of interest clearly, the author is
trying to communicate that SOMEONE believes that West Africans are
irrational and ignorant, but by putting the words in quotes, she is
demonstrating distance from that opinion. I also bolded now being addressed
because this lack of faith in Western medicine is clearly important enough that
local AND foreign health officials feel the need to address it.
Next, I bolded parts of the first sentence of the next paragraph, paying special
attention to those words but while transition words like BUT, HOWEVER,
WHILE, and YET (among others) always demonstrate a shift in thinking or a
34
contradiction, and I wanted to be prepared to answer a question about this shift
in thinking.
In translation, the author is saying There has been some ignorance in West
Africa, which helps spread Ebola, but we (meaning, Americans) have not paid
attention to our own ignorance. Now the purpose of the article shifts slightly to
OUR ignorance and irrationalities, rather than West African ignorance and
irrationalities. She finished by saying that OUR ignorance levels can be
dangerous to our health.
See if you can use our strategies (read closely, annotate, find evidence) to answer
the following question:
Based on the passage, the author would most likely agree with which of the following aphorisms?
Even if you dont know what the word aphorism means (it is a fancy word for
common saying), chances are that you recognize these idiomatic English
expressions. This question will require you to make some inferences based on the
passage because clearly, the author never uses any of these sayings. So lets
examine them one by one:
Option A: Dont count your chickens before theyre hatched means dont
make plans based on things that havent happened yet. Skim the text. What
evidence is there that the author agrees with this advice? Other than the fact that
this is good general advice, the author makes no mention of plans or hopes for
the future. Cross this one off.
35
Option B: Dont throw stones if you live in a glass house means Dont criticize
others for faults that you have yourself. Skim the text. Is there mention of
criticism? Yes! We have criticized West Africans for being irrational and
ignorant while ignoring our own missteps and irrationalities that are just as
dangerous to our health. There is certainly evidence that the author thinks that
the American public is throwing stones despite living in a glass house made of
our own irrationalities and ignorance. Keep this as an option and consider the
next option:
Option C: Be the change you wish to see in the world. This can be interpreted
as If you want to see a change in the world, then you yourself should try and
make this change. Look at the text. Is the author advocating for a specific
change? Maybe by asking And do our ignorance levels and irrationalities have the potential to
be just as dangerous to our health she
ignorant and irrational. But the general tone of the article isnt focused on
making changes. Instead, the point of the article seems to be more focused on
illustrating a phenomenon rather than giving a directive (in this case: stop or
change). Its still an option, but the evidence isnt quite rock-solid.
Consider Option D: This one mentions sickness (which is one of the topics of the
article). But the author never says anything about the will to love. You could
make a very weak argument that by saying that Americans can be as irrational as
West Africans when it comes to health, the author is advocating that Americans
start loving their West African counterparts because we all have the same
irrationalities.
You COULD make this argument. But read it back to yourself. It sounds pretty
flimsy. Cross off D.
36
Now youre left debating between B and C. Which has the most evidence? Is the
author advocating for change here, or is she pointing out that Americans can be
pretty hypocritical in thinking West Africans are irrational when the American
public has the potential to be just as irrational? Clearly, B has the most evidence,
and therefore can be the only right answer.
---------------------------------Lets try this one more time, using the same passage.
At the same time, a good deal of the coverage of the Ebola crisis in West Africa has focused on
the irrationality and ignorance of West Africans, choosing to visit traditional healers instead of
doctors and ignoring warnings from health officials that traditional burial rituals can hasten the spread of
the disease. Indeed, this lack of faith in Western medicine is now being addressed by local and foreign
health officials who are running educational programs in places like Liberia and Sierra Leone in order
to ensure that the people exposed to the illness have the correct scientific information.
But while certain cultural practices and lack of education have certainly played a role in the
rapid spread of Ebola in West Africa, the amount of attention we have paid to the ignorance
and irrationality of people living in these developing countries has not been balanced with an
equal amount of attention to our own developed nations manifestations of similar irrational
health beliefs. Are we really that much more knowledgeable and rational than our West African
counterparts, or do our irrationalities and psychological missteps simply take different cultural
forms? And do our ignorance levels and irrationalities have the potential to be just as dangerous
to our health as seeking out a local healer instead of a trained healthcare professional in
response to a life-threatening viral illness?
Which of the following American practices would the author most likely deride as a psychological
misstep akin to an Ebola patient visiting a local healer?
37
To answer this question, you first need to understand it. There are two blocks
here the fact that the question uses the word deride (which means criticize),
and the fact that the question is so long and could potentially be confusing. So,
even if youre not sure of the word deride, try your best to translate the
question. It is using terminology from the text (psychological misstep) to
ask: Which of the following American practices would the author most likely deride (criticize) as a
psychological misstep (irrational/bad thing) akin to (like) an Ebola patient visiting a local healer? I.e.,
38
Try Option B next: Panicking about Ebola. Is panicking about Ebola irrational?
The author suggests that it is, by saying in the very first paragraph health
officials have remained relatively calm, which suggests that the average
American should probably be a bit calmer too. So yes, the author would
probably agree that panicking is irrational. But is it as irrational as treating Ebola
incorrectly and allowing it to spread (as suggested by that akin)? Probably not.
You can go ahead and cross this off based on lack of evidence.
Now Option C: Refusing a flu shot. The author doesnt explicitly mention flu in
this article. But the flu, like Ebola, is a disease, and refusing to treat a disease is a
fairly irrational thing to do especially because like Ebola, the flu is contagious.
The key to determining whether this is the right answer lies in that akin
which of the options are actively dangerous in the same way as not treating Ebola
properly? Clearly, the best and most likely answer is C: both actions (not treating
Ebola OR the flu properly) are irrational AND allow a disease to spread in a
dangerous way.
True, we had some evidence for Option A, but the scenario in Option C
corresponds most directly with the scenario outlined in the text, so thats the best
answer there is more evidence for it based on what the text says.
This is a form of analogical reasoning, which is a skill you will develop further
in the next section.
39
Analogical Reasoning
K,
pop
quiz:
Analogies
:
SAT
::
VCRs
:
____________________
A,
Entertainment
B,
DVDs
C,
Theaters
D,
Limited-edition
boxed
sets
Give
up?
At
the
risk
of
sounding
old,
analogies
were
huge
on
the
SAT
Verbal
section
when
I
was
a
wee
lass,
nervously
sharpening
my
#2
pencil
before
the
day
of
the
big
test.
(By
the
way,
the
answer
to
that
quiz
is
A
just
as
this
form
of
analogical
reasoning
is
no
longer
relevant
to
the
SATs,
VCRs
are
no
longer
relevant
to
the
wider
world
of
entertainment.)
Now
that
analogies
have
gone
the
way
of
pogs,
dinosaurs,
and
the
VCR,
you
may
think
that
you
dont
need
to
worry
about
them
anymore.
Unfortunately,
though
the
question
format
has
changed,
the
SAT
will
still
test
you
on
whether
or
not
you
can
think
analogically:
whether
you
can
deftly
and
accurately
compare
one
thing
to
another,
whether
you
can
draw
conclusions
based
on
similarities
and
differences,
whether
you
can
logically
apply
information
from
one
scenario
into
another.
(The
word
analogy
comes
from
the
Greek
word
for
proportion,
which
makes
sense
if
you
think
of
an
analogy
as
setting
up
some
sort
of
relationship
between
two
or
more
things.)
You
wont
have
to
memorize
lists
of
words
and
figure
out
if
chthonic:
stygian
::
celestial
:
effulgent,
because
lets
face
it,
those
words
are
fairly
useless
unless
youre
Take
your
S
AT
prep
to
the
next
level.
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39
40
a
huge
word
nerd/studying
for
a
PhD
in
mythology
/a
passionate
H.P.
Lovecraft
fan/an
awesome
combination
of
the
three.
(The
analogy
works,
by
the
way).
But
analogies
themselves
are
a
crucial
way
to
organize
information,
to
marshal
support
for
an
argument,
to
understand
a
relationship,
or
to
impose
an
orderly
framework
on
a
narrative.
In
short,
the
College
Board
finally
wised
up,
threw
out
the
thesaurus,
and
decided
to
test
you
on
applicable
skills,
like
whether
you
can
use
critical
reasoning
to
figure
out
what
information
can
and
should
be
usefully
extrapolated
and
applied
to
a
new
situation.
A
lot
of
this
sounds
more
complicated
than
it
is;
chances
are,
if
youve
ever
had,
made,
or
defended
an
argument,
youve
already
practiced
this
skill.
Now
you
just
need
to
hone
this
skill
in
the
context
of
reading.
It
may
help
to
remember
that
making
an
analogy
is
just
another
form
of
making
an
inference
extrapolating
from
the
text
to
figure
out
how
the
information
applies
to
a
new
situation.
Ready
to
practice?
The
following
passage
from
Platos
Apology
details
the
conviction
and
execution
of
Socrates.
The
question
may
be
asked,
Why
will
he
persist
in
following
a
profession
which
leads
him
to
death?
Why?--because
he
must
remain
at
his
post
where
the
god
has
placed
him,
as
he
remained
at
Potidaea,
and
Amphipolis,
and
Delium,
where
the
generals
placed
him.
Besides,
he
is
not
so
over
wise
as
to
imagine
that
he
knows
whether
death
is
a
good
or
an
evil;
and
he
is
certain
that
desertion
of
his
duty
is
an
evil.
Anytus
is
quite
right
in
saying
that
they
should
never
have
indicted
him
if
they
meant
to
let
him
go.
For
he
will
certainly
obey
God
rather
than
man;
and
will
continue
to
preach
to
all
men
of
all
ages
the
necessity
of
virtue
and
improvement;
and
if
they
refuse
to
listen
to
him
he
will
still
persevere
and
reprove
them.
This
is
his
way
of
corrupting
the
youth,
which
he
will
not
cease
to
follow
in
obedience
to
the
god,
even
if
a
thousand
deaths
await
him.
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41
Mark
up
your
text
however
you
like.
Heres
how
I
annotated
and
translated
mine:
The
question
may
be
asked,
Why
will
he
(Socrates)
persist
in
following
a
profession
which
leads
him
to
death?
Why?--because
he
must
remain
at
his
post
where
the
god
has
placed
him,
as
he
remained
at
Potidaea,
and
Amphipolis,
and
Delium,
where
the
generals
placed
him.
(Socrates
was
a
military
man)
Besides,
he
is
not
so
overwise
as
to
imagine
that
he
knows
whether
death
is
a
good
or
an
evil;
and
he
is
certain
that
desertion
of
his
duty
is
an
evil.
(Would
rather
face
death,
which
may
or
may
not
be
evil,
than
desert
his
duty,
which
he
knows
is
evil.)
Anytus
is
quite
right
in
saying
that
they
should
never
have
indicted
him
if
they
meant
to
let
him
go.
For
he
will
certainly
obey
God
rather
than
man;
and
will
continue
to
preach
to
all
men
of
all
ages
the
necessity
of
virtue
and
improvement;
and
if
they
refuse
to
listen
to
him
he
will
still
persevere
and
reprove
(reprimand)
them.
This
is
his
way
of
corrupting
the
youth,
which
he
will
not
cease
to
follow
in
obedience
to
the
god,
even
if
a
thousand
deaths
await
him.
(Stands
up
for
what
he
believes
in
despite
what
other
people
say)
Your
annotations
and
translations
may
look
different;
thats
okay.
Different
things
jump
out
to
different
readers.
Practice
your
analogical
reasoning
skills
with
the
following
question:
1.
Based
on
the
excerpt,
which
of
the
following
behaviors
would
Socrates
most
disdain?
A.
A
teacher
corrupting
his
students
B.
The
worship
of
false
gods
C.
Registered
voters
neglecting
to
cast
their
ballots
D.
Students
returning
library
books
late
The
passage
doesnt
mention
any
of
these
scenarios,
so
based
on
what
you
know
about
Socrates,
draw
an
analogy
between
the
scenarios
described
in
the
answer
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AT
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41
42
choices
and
the
positions
outlined
in
the
excerpt,
and
see
which
relationship
fits
best.
Lets
look
at
A.
The
words
corrupting
the
youth
appear
in
the
passage
in
the
context
of
something
that
Socrates
himself
did
not
cease,
so
theres
no
need
to
even
draw
an
analogy
here
we
are
flat-out
told
that
he
engaged
in
corruption,
whatever
this
might
mean,
so
we
this
cant
be
a
scenario
that
he
disdained.
Check
out
B,
The
worship
of
false
gods.
There
is
mention
of
gods
and
obedience
to
gods
in
the
passage,
but
nowhere
is
it
mentioned
that
Socrates
believed
only
in
one
specific
type
of
god
and/or
cared
about
other
peoples
beliefs.
In
fact,
theres
no
mention
at
all
of
Socrates
as
a
critic
of
other
peoples
faiths,
ideas,
or
dogmas,
so
this
cant
be
it
we
cant
even
draw
an
analogy
between
this
answer
choice
and
any
behavior
outlined
in
the
passage.
Look
at
C,
Registered
voters
neglecting
to
cast
their
ballots.
Think
about
the
relationship
between
a
voter
and
the
vote;
once
you
have
registered,
it
is
arguably
your
civic
duty
to
cast
your
ballot.
If
you
dont,
you
are
neglecting
your
duty.
Though
there
is
no
mention
of
voting
here,
a
sizable
portion
of
the
passage
is
devoted
to
Socrates
hatred
of
dereliction
(the
shirking
of
duty.)
In
fact,
he
would
rather
die
than
neglect
his
duty
which
he
views
as
evil.
If
we
take
the
premise
that
not
voting
=
shirking
your
duty,
then
this
relationship
could
fit.
But
lets
view
Option
D
before
we
come
to
any
decisions
Option
D
is
a
contender;
one
might
argue
that
returning
a
library
book
in
a
timely
fashion
is
also
a
duty.
However,
the
books
still
get
returned
in
this
scenario,
even
if
they
get
returned
late,
so
the
duty
isnt
necessarily
shirked,
just
delayed.
Though
this
is
somewhat
plausible,
it
doesnt
hold
up
as
nicely
as
Option
C,
which
provides
the
best
answer.
Lets
try
with
another
passage
43
Barbara
Cawdry
is
passionate
about
environmentalism
and
social
protest.
The
fifty-eight-year-old
retired
science
teacher
made
waves
recently
when
she
tied
herself
to
an
ancient
oak
tree
slated
to
be
cut
down
by
the
California
Parks
Department.
Though
interfering
with
the
agenda
and
activities
of
the
state
government
is
considered
a
crime,
Cawdry
remained
tethered
to
the
tree,
refusing
food
or
drink,
until
the
state
police
arrived
to
forcibly
remove
her.
She
is
continuing
her
vigil
in
the
North
County
jail,
where
she
has
threatened
to
stage
a
hunger
strike
if
the
tree
is
cut
down.
At
the
time
of
this
writing,
Cawdry
faces
a
two
thousand
dollar
fine
and
up
to
five
months
in
jail.
When
contacted
for
this
article,
Cawdrys
message
was
brief:
All
Im
doing
is
trying
to
save
the
trees.
This
is
a
fairly
simple
passage,
so
you
may
not
feel
the
need
to
mark
it
up.
44
2.
Based
on
the
passage,
Cawdry
would
probably
support
which
of
the
following
groups?
A.
Loggers
striking
for
better
pay
and
better
hours
B.
Armed
freedom
fighters
questing
to
resist
an
outside
force
by
whatever
means
necessary
C.
Members
of
the
Animal
Liberation
Front
destroying
labs
where
animal
testing
is
conducted
D.
Anti-war
protestors
disrupting
traffic
during
a
protest
Now,
none
of
those
people
or
scenarios
are
mentioned
in
the
passage.
But
based
on
what
we
know
about
Cawdry,
you
can
easily
set
up
an
analogy
between
her
actions
and
that
of
the
groups
mentioned
in
the
answer
choices.
Cawdrys
relationship
to
social
protest
does
not
seem
to
be
violent
or
destructive,
so
lets
see
if
we
can
eliminate
any
of
the
other
choices.
We
dont
know
anything
about
her
politics
other
than
the
fact
that
she
really,
really
likes
trees,
so
we
cant
necessarily
set
up
an
analogy
between
her
passions
and
the
passions
of
the
people
in
this
group.
With
that
said,
if
you
look
at
choice
A,
its
pretty
obvious
that
Cawdry
would
not
sympathize
much
with
loggers,
as
they
literally
cut
trees
down
for
a
living.
She
may
espouse
a
similar
form
of
protest
non-violent
disobedience
but
her
politics
are
too
radically
at
odds
with
that
of
the
loggers
to
make
this
a
compelling
analogy.
Strike
answer
A.
The
armed
freedom
fighters
in
Choice
B
who
resort
to
whatever
means
necessary
are
probably
too
violent
for
Cawdrys
tastes;
we
dont
know
how
she
feels
about
their
grievances,
but
we
can
extrapolate
from
her
choice
of
protest
(tying
herself
peacefully
to
a
tree)
that
she
probably
would
not
endorse
whatever
means
necessary,
or
else
she
might
have
resorted
to
violence
to
further
her
aims.
Choice
C
might
look
appealing
at
first;
based
on
Cawdrys
love
for
trees,
we
might
be
able
to
extrapolate
that
animals
are
near
and
dear
to
her
heart
as
well.
But
unlike
the
members
of
the
Liberation
Front,
she
doesnt
seem
intent
on
destroying
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AT
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45
property;
her
protest
seems
mainly
relegated
to
doing
harm
to
herself,
not
to
others.
Choice
D
is
the
only
one
left,
and
it
fits
best
because
just
as
Cawdrys
behaviors
are
non-violent
yet
disruptive,
anti-war
protestors
take
a
similar
tactic.
This
question
asks
you
to
consider
the
different
relationships
between
the
ideas
and
behaviors
mentioned
in
the
article
and
the
ideas
and
behaviors
outlined
in
the
answer
choices;
often,
when
the
SAT
asks
you
to
make
an
analogy,
what
theyre
actually
asking
for
is
some
kind
of
comparison.
Make
a
brief
list
of
the
different
ideas
in
the
passage;
you
will
find
the
correct
answer
when
you
arrive
at
the
best
match
between
the
ideas
in
the
passage
and
the
ideas
in
the
answer
choices.
Try
it
one
more
time,
using
one
of
the
sassiest
passages
in
the
English
language,
Politics
and
the
English
Language,
by
George
Orwell:
MOST
PEOPLE
WHO
BOTHER
with
the
matter
at
all
would
admit
that
the
English
language
is
in
a
bad
way,
but
it
is
generally
assumed
that
we
cannot
by
conscious
action
do
anything
about
it.
Our
civilization
is
decadent,
and
our
language--so
the
argument
runs--must
inevitably
share
in
the
general
collapse.
It
follows
that
any
struggle
against
the
abuse
of
language
is
a
sentimental
archaism,
like
preferring
candles
to
electric
light
or
hansom
cabs
to
aeroplanes.
Underneath
this
lies
the
half-conscious
belief
that
language
is
a
natural
growth
and
not
an
instrument
which
we
shape
for
our
own
purposes.
Now,
it
is
clear
that
the
decline
of
a
language
must
ultimately
have
political
and
economic
causes:
it
is
not
due
simply
to
the
bad
influence
of
this
or
that
individual
writer.
But
an
effect
can
become
a
cause,
reinforcing
the
original
cause
and
producing
the
same
effect
in
an
intensified
form,
and
so
on
indefinitely.
A
man
may
take
to
drink
because
he
feels
himself
to
be
a
failure,
and
then
fail
all
the
more
completely
because
he
drinks.
It
is
rather
the
same
thing
that
is
happening
to
the
English
language.
It
becomes
ugly
and
inaccurate
because
our
thoughts
are
foolish,
but
the
slovenliness
of
our
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AT
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language
makes
it
easier
for
us
to
have
foolish
thoughts.
The
point
is
that
the
process
is
reversible.
Modern
English,
especially
written
English,
is
full
of
bad
habits
which
spread
by
imitation
and
which
can
be
avoided
if
one
is
willing
to
take
the
necessary
trouble.
If
one
gets
rid
of
these
habits
one
can
think
more
clearly,
and
to
think
clearly
is
a
necessary
first
step
towards
political
regeneration:
so
that
the
fight
against
bad
English
is
not
frivolous
and
is
not
the
exclusive
concern
of
professional
writers.
I
will
come
back
to
this
presently,
and
I
hope
that
by
that
time
the
meaning
of
what
I
have
said
here
will
have
become
clearer.
Ive
annotated
the
passage
like
so,
paying
special
attention
to
the
IDEAS
expressed,
because
remember
that
when
it
comes
to
analogies,
we
want
to
see
if
theres
an
equivalency
between
one
idea
/
scenario
and
another:
MOST
PEOPLE
WHO
BOTHER
with
the
matter
at
all
would
admit
that
the
English
language
is
in
a
bad
way,
but
it
is
generally
assumed
that
we
cannot
by
conscious
action
do
anything
about
it.
(Our
language
skills
are
deteriorating.)
Our
civilization
is
decadent,
and
our
language--so
the
argument
runs--must
inevitably
share
in
the
general
collapse.
(People
think
that
because
our
civilization
is
waning
so
must
our
language).
It
follows
that
any
struggle
against
the
abuse
of
language
is
a
sentimental
archaism,
like
preferring
candles
to
electric
light
or
hansom
cabs
to
aeroplanes.
(Insisting
on
standards
makes
you
seem
really
old-fashioned.)
Underneath
this
lies
the
half-conscious
belief
that
language
is
a
natural
growth
and
not
an
instrument,
which
we
shape
for
our
own
purposes.
(People
believe
that
we
dont
have
conscious
control
over
the
evolution
of
our
language
but
we
do!)
Now,
it
is
clear
that
the
decline
of
a
language
must
ultimately
have
political
and
economic
causes:
it
is
not
due
simply
to
the
bad
influence
of
this
or
that
individual
writer.(Its
no
one
persons
fault
that
our
language
is
devolving.)
But
an
effect
can
become
a
cause,
reinforcing
the
original
cause
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AT
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47
and
producing
the
same
effect
in
an
intensified
form,
and
so
on
indefinitely.
A
man
may
take
to
drink
because
he
feels
himself
to
be
a
failure,
and
then
fail
all
the
more
completely
because
he
drinks.
(An
analogy:
this
is
a
vicious
cycle!
Our
language
is
devolving,
so
bad
writers
feel
god
about
writing
bad
stuff,
which
makes
the
language
devolve
further)
It
is
rather
the
same
thing
that
is
happening
to
the
English
language.
It
becomes
ugly
and
inaccurate
because
our
thoughts
are
foolish,
but
the
slovenliness
of
our
language
makes
it
easier
for
us
to
have
foolish
thoughts.
The
point
is
that
the
process
is
reversible.
(We
can
make
our
language
better)
Modern
English,
especially
written
English,
is
full
of
bad
habits
which
spread
by
imitation
and
which
can
be
avoided
if
one
is
willing
to
take
the
necessary
trouble.
If
one
gets
rid
of
these
habits
one
can
think
more
clearly,
and
to
think
clearly
is
a
necessary
first
step
towards
political
regeneration:
so
that
the
fight
against
bad
English
is
not
frivolous
and
is
not
the
exclusive
concern
of
professional
writers.
I
will
come
back
to
this
presently,
and
I
hope
that
by
that
time
the
meaning
of
what
I
have
said
here
will
have
become
clearer.
Please
note
that
Orwell
himself
makes
use
of
analogies
not
once
but
twice!
First
he
says
that
struggling
to
maintain
language
standards
makes
one
seem
old-fashioned,
as
if
campaigning
for
the
return
of
candles
as
opposed
to
electric
lights.
Then
he
compares
the
devolution
of
the
English
language
as
the
kind
of
vicious
cycle
that
alcoholics
suffer.
Orwell
knows:
analogies
are
a
rich
and
complex
way
to
express
ideas.
48
3.
Based
on
the
passage,
which
of
the
following
scenarios
would
Orwell
find
most
objectionable?
A.
Doctors
who
use
outdated
methods
of
medical
observation
B.
Civilizations
that
become
so
decadent
that
their
morals
decay
entirely
C.
Students
whose
spelling
has
been
corrupted
by
social
media
D.
Professional
writers
who
struggle
to
communicate
their
intended
meanings
I
find
it
helpful
to
distill
the
answer
choices
into
a
single
core
idea,
which
may
make
it
easier
to
figure
out
which
answer
is
most
congruous
with
the
ideas
expressed
in
the
passage.
Option
A.
At
the
heart
of
this
option
is
the
idea
of
being
old-fashioned
or
outdated.
While
Orwell
does
talk
about
the
idea
of
being
old-fashioned
(It
follows
that
any
struggle
against
the
abuse
of
language
is
a
sentimental
archaism,
like
preferring
candles
to
electric
light
or
hansom
cabs
to
aeroplanes.
(Insisting
on
standards
makes
you
seem
really
old-fashioned.),
he
isnt
disapproving
of
this.
In
fact,
he
seems
to
either
endorse
the
notion
of
being
old-fashioned,
or
to
disregard
it
entirely.
Either
way,
he
isnt
positioning
himself
firmly
as
being
against
old-fashioned
tendencies.
We
can
discard
Option
A.
Option
B.
Distill
this
into
a
single
idea
decay.
Its
true
that
Orwell
seems
pretty
anti-decay
(especially
as
regards
to
language);
though
he
says
little
in
this
passage
about
morals,
theres
no
evidence
that
he
WOULDNT
find
this
scenario
objectionable.
Keep
it
for
now.
Option
C.
What
is
at
the
heart
of
this
answer?
The
devolution
of
a
type
of
language.
Orwell
spends
two
paragraphs
railing
against
bad
writers;
there
is
every
indication
that
he
would
find
social-media
spellings
to
be
a
travesty.
In
fact,
this
is
so
directly
parallels
Orwells
statement
that
its
barely
even
an
analogy
its
more
a
modern-
day
extension
of
his
opinion.
Clearly
this
is
probably
going
to
be
the
best
option,
but
lets
look
at
Option
D
as
well.
Take
your
S
AT
prep
to
the
next
level.
Visit
www.learnerator.com
48
49
Option
D.
Distill
this
answer
choice
into
an
idea:
the
struggle
of
using
language
properly.
Orwells
piece
castigates
bad
writers
and
bad
writing
but
nowhere
does
he
say
that
writing
well
is
EASY.
In
fact,
he
would
probably
approve
of
a
writers
struggle
to
communicate
meaning
clearly
and
cleanly.
Certainly
he
makes
no
statement
that
is
similar
/
in
harmony
with
the
idea
that
writing
should
be
easy.
Of
all
these
choices,
C
is
clearly
the
best
it
is
the
MOST
similar
to
what
Orwell
is
saying.
Isolating
the
ideas
in
a
passage
so
that
you
can
answer
questions
about
them
is
a
very
good
strategy
for
mastering
reading
comprehension
questions;
its
going
to
be
especially
useful
for
the
next
chapter
of
our
review,
Citing
Textual
Evidence.
50
51
however,
at
his
countenance,
convinced
me
of
his
perfect
sincerity.
(But
when
I
looked
at
his
face
I
could
tell
her
was
sincere.)
We
sat
down;
and
for
some
moments,
while
he
spoke
not,
I
gazed
upon
him
with
a
feeling
half
of
pity,
half
of
awe.
(He
didnt
speak,
and
I
stared
at
him,
half
with
pity
and
half
with
awe.)
Surely,
man
had
never
before
so
terribly
altered,
in
so
brief
a
period,
as
had
Roderick
Usher.
(He
had
changed
very
quickly)
Now
make
a
list
of
all
the
evidence
you
can
cite
from
the
text
to
support
the
following
statement:
There
is
something
wrong
with
Roderick
Usher.
Look
at
the
text.
What
indicates
that
there
might
be
something
wrong?
1.
Well,
for
one,
Usher
is
lying
on
the
sofa
when
our
narrator
walks
in.
Now,
we
dont
know
what
time
of
day
it
is,
so
by
itself
this
cant
be
taken
as
indication
that
something
is
wrong,
but
it
could
be
a
telling
detail.
2.
He
has
an
overdone
cordiality
constrained
effort
of
the
ennui
man
of
the
world
i.e.
he
seemed
at
first
to
have
the
social
mannerisms
of
a
person
who
was
bored
(ennui)
with
the
world.
This
is
a
signal
that
Usher
could
be
depressed
or
at
the
very
least
full
of
existential
boredom
not
a
great
state
of
affairs.
3.
I
gazed
upon
him
with
a
feeling
half
of
pity
and
half
of
awe.
This
is
telling
once
youre
awed
by
the
amount
of
pity
you
have
for
someone,
you
know
something
is
wrong
with
them.
4.
Terribly
altered
to
be
changed
is
not
such
a
bad
thing.
But
to
be
terribly
changed;
changed
for
the
worst?
Warning
sign.
You
never
know
what
might
be
evidence,
which
is
why
its
so
important
to
read
closely
and
to
mark
up
your
text
as
thoroughly
as
possible,
so
when
youre
passing
back
over
it
you
can
see
at
a
glance
which
ideas
end
up
being
important.
52
Lets
try
this
again.
Read
the
excerpt,
which
is
from
The
Atlantic,
and
then
see
what
evidence
you
can
find
to
support
the
statement.
Since
the
release
of
The
Hunger
Games
in
2012,
dystopian
cinema
has
enjoyed
sustained
interest
in
American
culture.
Popular
young
adult
novels
are
being
turned
into
blockbuster
Hollywood
films
every
few
months,
it
seems,
and
with
good
reason:
Beyond
their
built-in
teen
fan
base,
films
like
Divergent,
The
Giver,
and
The
Maze
Runner
draw
on
some
of
adult
societys
greatest
fears
of
the
moment:
Is
technology
tearing
us
further
apart?
Will
global
warming
destroy
the
planet?
Will
income
inequality
further
create
a
world
of
haves
and
have-
nots?
Critics
have
worried
that
these
particular
films
stoke
an
irrational
fear
of
technology,
or
a
distaste
for
big
government,
but
dystopian
stories
have
long
been
celebrated
(and
used
in
classrooms
across
the
country)
because
of
their
ability
to
push
audiences
to
think
critically
about
their
actions.
Yet
with
the
upcoming
release
of
The
Hunger
Games:
Mockingjay
Part
1,
poised
to
be
the
biggest
film
of
the
year,
its
just
as
worthwhile
to
consider
what
these
films
dont
seem
to
fear.
While
recent
dystopias
warn
youth
about
over-reliance
on
computers,
totalitarian
rule,
class
warfare,
pandemic
panics
and
global
warming,
very
few
ask
audiences
to
think
deeply
about
sexism
and
racism.
Once
you
have
marked
up
your
passage,
find
all
the
evidence
you
can
to
support
the
following
statement:
The
author
believes
that
most
dystopian
films
and
books
are
not
doing
enough
to
promote
critical
thinking.
Read
carefully,
pulling
out
the
strands
of
the
authors
argument
in
pieces:
53
1.
Dystopian
cinema
has
enjoyed
sustained
interest
OK,
this
argues
for
dystopias
popularity
not
for
their
promotion
of
critical
thinking
2.
Popular
YA
novels
are
being
turned
into
blockbuster
Hollywood
films
every
few
months
and
with
good
reason.
Also
argues
for
dystopias
popularity
not
for
their
promotion
of
critical
thinking
3.
Draw
on
some
of
adult
societys
greatest
fears
Fear
does
not
necessarily
lead
to
critical
thinking,
so
we
cant
put
this
one
in
the
evidence
column
4.
Dystopian
stories
have
long
been
celebrated
(and
used
in
classrooms
across
the
country)
because
of
their
ability
to
push
audiences
to
think
critically
about
their
actions
Finally,
a
mention
of
critical
thinking
so
these
films
DO
promote
it.
This
does
not
directly
contradict
the
statement,
however,
that
they
do
not
do
ENOUGH
to
promote
critical
thinking.
Remember,
to
answer
these
types
of
questions
you
must
read
CAREFULLY!
5.
Its
just
as
worthwhile
to
consider
what
these
films
dont
seem
to
fear.
Ah
ha.
The
author
is
now
asking
you
to
consider
what
these
films
DONT
do
i.e.
to
evaluate
what
is
negative
and/or
missing
about
these
films.
S/he
doesnt
say
anything
about
critical
thinking,
but
this
might
be
the
turning
point
for
the
article
to
start
discussing
a
specific
failure
of
these
films
which
may
include
the
fact
that
they
dont
do
enough
to
promote
critical
thinking.
6.
While
recent
dystopias
warn
youth
about
over-reliance
on
computers,
totalitarian
rule,
class
warfare,
pandemic
panics
and
global
warming,
very
few
ask
audiences
to
think
deeply
about
sexism
and
racism.
We
have
a
winner.
Your
first
clue
is
the
world
while,
which
indicates
a
shift
from
a
previously
held/described
opinion.
The
author
spent
the
previous
paragraph
setting
up
a
scenario
(schools
use
Take
your
S
AT
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next
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53
54
dystopias
to
teach
students
certain
lessons
and
make
them
think
about
things),
and
now
there
is
going
to
be
a
shift:
Very
few
ask
audiences
to
think
deeply.
For
an
article
like
this,
it
is
important
to
consider
the
structure
of
a
piece
the
author
spends
some
time
setting
up
a
scenario,
in
which
s/he
lays
out
the
foundations
of
an
argument.
A
good
argument
will
always
contain
claims
and
counterclaims,
so
dont
be
fooled
by
the
parts
of
the
argument
that
give
an
opposite
opinion;
they
should
not
be
taken
as
evidence
against
the
authors
argument
or
opinion,
but
as
acknowledgments
that
alternate
viewpoints
exist
(usually
prior
to
the
author
demonstrating
why
they
are
invalid).
Its
not
always
easy
to
tell
which
part
of
a
text
is
the
authors
argument
and
which
contains
the
claims
that
s/he
will
shortly
dismantle;
thats
why
transition
words
like
yet,
but,
while,
however,
and
while
are
so
important.
Lets
try
one
more
time;
this
time,
you
will
have
to
answer
a
question
with
one
of
four
options.
When
answering,
consider
the
evidence:
This
passage
is
also
from
The
Atlantic:
This
week,
one
of
the
two
Common
Core
assessment
consortia
announced
its
cut
scoresbenchmarks
students
need
to
clear
to
be
considered
proficient
at
the
content
on
which
theyre
tested.
Just
a
third
to
roughly
40
percent
of
K-8
and
high
school
students
are
projected
to
be
proficient
in
math
and
English
Language
Arts
And
while
tests
before
didnt
challenge
students
enough,
Minnich
said,
the
conversation
in
states
where
these
Common
Core-aligned
tests
are
imminent
will
be,
Well,
who
decided
this
was
the
right
thing
for
kids?
Who
decided
that
these
test
scores
were
actually
what
kids
need?
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your
S
AT
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next
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55
For
states
to
expand
deeper-learning
techniques,
theyll
likely
first
need
to
overcome
the
blowback
from
parents
whose
children
are
suddenly
deemed
unprepared
for
the
challenges
of
college.
Its
a
recipe
as
simple
as
it
is
complex:
Convince
the
masses
the
Common
Core
is
on
to
something
good,
and
improve
from
there.
1.
The
author
of
this
article
probably
feels
most
strongly
that
A.
Tests
do
not
challenge
students
enough
B.
Certain
states
are
doing
a
better
job
than
others
of
preparing
students
for
tests
C.
The
Common
Core
needs
to
undergo
change
to
be
truly
meaningful
D.
The
Common
Core
is
not
the
right
thing
for
kids
Now,
youll
want
to
pay
attention
to
this
one
because
the
answer
choices
all
echo
sentences
found
in
the
text.
The
trick
is
to
determine
what
the
question
is
actually
asking
you,
so
you
can
understand
the
correct
evidence.
Its
not
enough
to
simply
quote
from
the
text
your
quote
must
support
and
be
relevant
to
an
assertion.
Lets
look
at
the
answer
choices:
A.
Tests
do
not
challenge
students
enough.
Consider
the
evidence
from
the
text
just
a
third
to
40%
of
students
are
projected
to
be
proficient
in
math
and
English.
If
only
40%
of
students
are
passing
let
alone
doing
well
there
is
very
little
compelling
evidence
that
the
tests
are
not
adequately
challenging.
And
look
at
the
next
line
And
while
tests
before
didnt
challenge
students
enough
So
while
this
may
at
one
point
have
been
an
opinion,
the
question
is
asking
about
tests
NOW.
Lastly,
the
question
is
asking
about
the
authors
opinion.
At
this
point
in
the
article,
the
author
has
not
yet
stated
an
opinion,
but
is
rather
quoting
statistics
and
other
peoples
opinions.
Pay
attention
to
the
structure
here
its
important
to
be
able
to
differentiate
the
authors
opinion,
and
that
of
her
sources.
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AT
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56
B.
Certain
states
are
doing
a
better
job
than
others
of
preparing
students
for
tests.
Look
closely.
Are
any
specific
states
mentioned?
Are
there
any
statistics
for
the
breakdown
of
achievement
by
state?
Is
there
a
single
indication
that
some
states
are
doing
better
than
others?
Theres
absolutely
nothing
in
this
article
to
support
this
opinion;
scrap
this
answer.
C.
The
Common
Core
needs
to
undergo
change
to
be
really
meaningful.
First,
find
all
mentions
of
the
Common
Core:
This
week,
one
of
the
two
Common
Core
assessment
consortia
announced
its
cut
scores
OK,
that
has
nothing
to
do
with
changing
to
be
meaningful.
The
conversation
in
states
where
these
Common
Core-aligned
tests
are
imminent
will
be,
Well,
who
decided
this
was
the
right
thing
for
kids?
Who
decided
that
these
test
scores
were
actually
what
kids
need?
A
quote
from
someone
not
the
author
predicting
that
certain
states
are
poised
to
criticize
the
Common
Core.
This
could
potentially
be
a
meaningful
piece
of
evidence
as
it
predicts
(the
need
for)
a
possible
change
in
the
Common
Core
standards.
Its
a
recipe
as
simple
as
it
is
complex:
Convince
the
masses
the
Common
Core
is
on
to
something
good,
and
improve
from
there.
OK,
more
possible
evidence
here:
on
to
something
good
and
improve
from
there.
Clearly,
the
author
believes
that
the
Common
Core
has
SOME
merit,
and
can
be
improved
on
in
order
to
rectify
or
address
the
issues
mentioned
in
the
article.
Lets
keep
this
answer
choice
for
now.
D.
The
Common
Core
is
not
the
right
thing
for
kids.
Looking
at
all
the
evidence
we
compiled
for
the
answer
above
all
the
mentions
of
Take
your
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AT
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57
the
Common
Core
its
clear
that
the
only
people
who
are
asking
is
this
right
for
kids?
are
states
and
parents,
NOT
the
author.
Additionally,
questioning
whether
something
is
right
is
NOT
the
same
as
declaring
definitively
that
it
isnt.
Lastly,
the
authors
last
words
in
this
excerpt
are
The
answer
is
simple:
convince
the
masses
the
Common
Core
is
on
to
something
good
and
improve
from
there.
S/hes
not
dismissing
the
Common
Core
out
of
hand,
but
saying
instead
that
it
has
the
potential
to
be
meaningful.
It
cant
be
entirely
the
wrong
thing
for
kids
if
its
on
to
something
good.
Clearly,
the
evidence
best
supports
choice
C.
Lets
do
this
one
more
time,
again
with
an
excerpt
from
the
Atlantic.
Animal
behavior
seems
to
reveal
that
animals
don't
want
to
be
in
enclosures,
either:
A
giraffe
who
freaks
out
about
men
with
large
cameras,
a
brown
bear
whose
cage
door
is
the
subject
of
his
obsessive
compulsive
disorder,
a
5,000-pound
killer
whale
who
shows
her
trainer
who
is
boss
by
dragging
him
underwater
for
just
about
as
long
as
he
can
live,
before
letting
him
gothese
episodes
seem
like
something
more
complicated
than
simple
errors
of
confinement.
It
is
hard
to
avoid
the
conclusion
that
in
some
way
the
animals
understand
that
the
world
around
them
is
an
artificial
one,
that
these
phobias
and
psychotic
episodes
represent
reactions
to
that
artifice,
or
subversions
of
it.
2.
Based
on
the
passage,
what
is
the
reason
that
animals
in
zoos
can
potentially
exhibit
violent
behavior?
A.
These
animals
have
psychiatric
disorders
B.
These
animals
are
traumatized
by
the
demands
of
their
trainers
and
keepers
C.
These
animals
suffer
from
severe
phobias
D.
These
animals
seek
to
disrupt
what
they
perceive
as
the
unreal
world
around
them
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58
Look
at
the
evidence
for
Option
A.
While
the
article
mentions
an
animal
freaking
out
and
another
with
obsessive
compulsive
disorder,
it
does
not
suggest
that
all
of
these
animals
have
psychiatric
disorders.
In
fact,
the
article
tries
to
investigate
the
roots
of
these
behaviors;
to
simply
dismiss
said
violent
behaviors
as
disorders
would
not
get
at
the
heart
of
the
articles
argument.
Consider
B.
Again,
while
the
article
mentions
freaking
out
about
men
with
large
cameras,
the
obsessive
compulsive
fixation
on
a
cage,
and
showing
the
trainer
who
is
boss,
again,
the
article
is
trying
to
figure
out
why
these
things
happen.
To
use
these
incidents
as
evidence
for
themselves
simply
creates
a
circular
argument.
Check
out
C.
Again,
the
article
does
mention
phobias,
but
there
is
no
explicit
link
drawn
between
the
phobias
and
the
violent
behavior;
additionally,
the
next
sentence
seems
to
suggest
that
(rather
than
one
creating
the
other),
they
stem
from
the
same
source.
To
use
the
phobias
as
evidence
for
why
animals
behave
violently
seems,
again,
to
be
circular,
since
the
ultimate
argument
is
that
these
behaviors
and
attitudes
stem
from
the
same
place.
Last,
look
at
D.
The
last
sentence
of
the
excerpt
says
in
some
way
the
animals
understand
that
the
world
around
them
is
an
artificial
one,
that
these
phobias
and
psychotic
episodes
represent
reactions
to
that
artifice,
or
subversions
of
it.
In
other
words,
they
understand
they
should
not
be
in
this
condition,
in
this
enclosure,
penned
in,
and
all
their
behaviors
(their
disorders,
phobias,
feelings
about
trainers
and
keepers,
violent
behaviors,
etc)
all
come
from
the
same
place:
the
desire
to
somehow
disrupt
this
artificial,
or
fake,
world
that
they
are
living
in.
In
essence,
the
distractors
for
this
question
are
all
incomplete
they
are
all
incomplete
thoughts
that,
taken
together,
create
the
best
and
fullest
answer
to
the
question.
In
the
next
section,
you
will
practice
isolating
the
details
that
together
make
up
the
central
idea
or
theme
of
an
excerpt.
59
60
What
is
the
main
idea
of
this
paragraph?
Look
at
the
first
sentence,
which
indicates
that
clearly,
this
passage
will
be
about
the
Thanksgiving
feast.
Then
look
at
the
last
The
combination
(of
good
mood,
good
food,
and
a
set
table)
sends
the
message
that
everything
is
going
to
be
O.K.
Now,
Thanksgiving
feast
is
not
really
an
idea;
its
the
subject.
Whats
the
difference?
After
all,
a
subject
is
what
a
passage
is
about
and
a
main
idea
is
also
what
the
passage
is
about.
Think
of
it
like
this:
A
subject
is
the
broadest,
most
general
way
to
describe
something.
A
main
idea
is
much
more
specific.
A
good
rule
of
thumb
when
trying
to
determine
main
ideas
is
to
put
them
in
a
full
phrase
or
sentence;
after
all,
just
saying
that
the
main
idea
is
the
Thanksgiving
feast,
gives
no
indication
of
what
features
or
aspects
of
the
Thanksgiving
feast
are
important.
For
all
we
know,
a
passage
that
is
merely
described
as
being
about
the
Thanksgiving
feast
could
end
up
detailing
all
the
ways
in
which
the
Thanksgiving
feast
could
go
wrong!
But
the
words
no
matter
what,
everything
is
going
to
be
okay
are
a
pretty
clear
indicator
that
this
isnt
the
case
here.
So
to
avoid
ambiguity,
get
yourself
in
the
habit
of
scrawling
the
main
idea
(i.e.
a
full
phrase
or
sentence)
in
the
margin
of
each
paragraph.
Thus,
taken
together,
the
first
and
last
sentences
of
each
paragraph
in
a
lower-
complexity
informational
text
should
present
you
with
the
main
idea.
Here
it
might
be
something
like:
With
enough
preparation,
the
Thanksgiving
feast
will
go
smoothly,
or
something
similar
to
that.
(There
are,
of
course,
multiple
ways
to
word
this
that
will
still
be
correct!)
Lets
try
this
once
more
with
a
similarly
simple
text,
also
from
The
New
York
Times:
Take
your
S
AT
prep
to
the
next
level.
Visit
www.learnerator.com
60
61
This
season
millions
of
Americans
will
celebrate
with
turkey
on
the
table.
The
turkey
is,
after
all,
the
native
North
American
animal
that
Benjamin
Franklin
considered
a
much
more
respectable
bird
than
the
scavenging
bald
eagle.
But
while
the
eagle
landed
on
the
countrys
Great
Seal
and
the
turkey
gets
pride
of
place
at
our
holiday
dinners,
neither
bird
can
claim
to
have
changed
American
culture
more
than
their
lowly
avian
(avian
=
bird)
cousin,
the
chicken.
First
sentence:
Americans
celebrate
with
turkey.
Last
sentence:
The
chicken
has
changed
American
culture
more
than
any
other
bird.
You
dont
even
need
the
first
sentence
here
to
determine
the
main
idea
of
the
passage.
Clearly,
its
going
to
be
about
how
chickens
have
changed
America.
(Pretty
thrilling
stuff.)
In
isolation,
its
pretty
easy
to
determine
the
main
idea
of
a
single
paragraph.
But
the
SAT
will
also
ask
you
to
determine
the
main
ideas
of
PARTS
of
longer
excerpts
to
keep
the
longer
excerpt
in
mind
while
choosing
an
answer
that
makes
sense
of
the
different
parts
of
longer
pieces.
Lets
practice
with
this
1965
speech
on
voting
rights
by
Lyndon
B.
Johnson:
In
our
time
we
have
come
to
live
with
moments
of
great
crisis.
Our
lives
have
been
marked
with
debate
about
great
issues;
issues
of
war
and
peace,
issues
of
prosperity
and
depression.
But
rarely
in
any
time
does
an
issue
lay
bare
the
secret
heart
of
America
itself.
Rarely
are
we
met
with
a
challenge,
not
to
our
growth
or
abundance,
our
welfare
or
our
security,
but
rather
to
the
values
and
the
purposes
and
the
meaning
of
our
beloved
Nation.
The
issue
of
equal
rights
for
[African-Americans]
is
such
an
issue.
And
should
we
defeat
every
enemy,
should
we
double
our
wealth
and
conquer
the
stars,
and
still
be
unequal
to
this
issue,
then
we
will
have
failed
as
a
people
and
as
a
nation.
For
with
a
country
as
with
a
person,
"What
is
a
man
profited,
if
he
shall
Take
your
S
AT
prep
to
the
next
level.
Visit
www.learnerator.com
61
62
gain
the
whole
world,
and
lose
his
own
soul
?"
There
is
no
[African-American]
problem.
There
is
no
Southern
problem.
There
is
no
Northern
problem.
There
is
only
an
American
problem.
And
we
are
met
here
tonight
as
Americansnot
as
Democrats
or
Republicans--we
are
met
here
as
Americans
to
solve
that
problem.
This
was
the
first
nation
in
the
history
of
the
world
to
be
founded
with
a
purpose.
The
great
phrases
of
that
purpose
still
sound
in
every
American
heart,
North
and
South:
"All
men
are
created
equal""government
by
consent
of
the
governed""give
me
liberty
or
give
me
death."
Well,
those
are
not
just
clever
words,
or
those
are
not
just
empty
theories.
In
their
name
Americans
have
fought
and
died
for
two
centuries,
and
tonight
around
the
world
they
stand
there
as
guardians
of
our
liberty,
risking
their
lives.
Those
words
are
a
promise
to
every
citizen
that
he
shall
share
in
the
dignity
of
man.
This
dignity
cannot
be
found
in
a
man's
possessions;
it
cannot
be
found
in
his
power,
or
in
his
position.
It
really
rests
on
his
right
to
be
treated
as
a
man
equal
in
opportunity
to
all
others.
It
says
that
he
shall
share
in
freedom,
he
shall
choose
his
leaders,
educate
his
children,
and
provide
for
his
family
according
to
his
ability
and
his
merits
as
a
human
being.
A
typical
SAT
question
might
ask
you:
What
is
the
main
idea
of
the
second
paragraph?
A.
Having
equal
rights
will
cause
everyone
to
profit
B.
Doubling
national
wealth
and
conquering
the
stars
should
be
among
Americans
top
priorities
C.
We
will
never
defeat
our
enemies
if
we
do
not
have
equal
rights
D.
For
the
good
of
the
nation,
Americans
must
unite
to
fix
unjust
policies
63
Again,
this
is
a
good
place
to
look
at
the
first
and
the
last
sentences
of
the
paragraph
in
question:
The
issue
of
equal
rights
is
such
an
issue
and
We
are
met
as
Americans
to
solve
that
problem.
Now,
thats
not
particularly
helpful
because
without
the
context
of
the
previous
paragraph,
we
dont
know
what
such
an
issue
or
that
problem
actually
mean.
But
we
CAN
understand
that
this
speech
deals
with
an
important
issue
that
Americans
must
solve
together.
This
may
even
be
enough
to
help
you
answer
the
question
completely!
But
if
youre
not
entirely
sure
yet
of
the
answer,
skim
the
first
paragraph
again,
and
find
out
that
such
an
issue
(i.e.
equality
for
African-
Americans)
refers
to
an
issue
that
lays
bare
the
secret
heart
of
America
itself
i.e.
a
very
important
matter.
So
lets
consider
the
answer
options
now:
A:
Having
equal
rights
will
cause
everyone
to
profit.
While
in
some
(figurative)
sense
this
may
in
fact
be
true,
pay
close
attention
is
this
what
Johnson
is
actually
saying
in
the
passage?
Look
at
where
he
mentions
profits:
a.
should
we
double
our
wealth
and
conquer
the
stars,
and
still
be
unequal
to
this
issue,
then
we
will
have
failed
as
a
people
and
as
a
nation.
b.
For
with
a
country
as
with
a
person,
"What
is
a
man
profited,
if
he
shall
gain
the
whole
world,
and
lose
his
own
soul?"
These
two
sentences
suggest
that
the
current
situation
is
untenable
and
immoral,
and
while
there
is
evidence
that
a
reverse
situation
(equal
rights
may
lead
to
profit)
its
not
compelling
enough
to
be
the
main
idea
of
the
paragraph.
Look
at
B:
While
doubling
American
wealth
and
conquering
the
stars
are
good
goals
to
have,
nowhere
does
Johnson
say
they
are
the
most
important;
in
fact,
he
seems
to
suggest
the
opposite
when
he
says
that
achieving
those
goals
without
achieving
equality
will
make
us
fail
as
a
people
and
a
nation.
Clearly,
this
isnt
the
most
64
important
priority
if
there
are
other,
better
goals
to
worry
about.
Check
out
C:
Again,
Johnson
does
mention
defeating
every
enemy,
but
in
context
of
an
achievement
that
will
be
meaningless
if
we
do
not
first
achieve
equality
for
all
of
our
citizens.
(We
will
fail
as
a
people
and
as
a
nation.)
This
cant
be
the
right
answer.
D
is
the
only
correct
choice.
Consider
every
part
of
the
sentence:
For
the
good
of
the
nation
considering
that
other
(extremely
worthwhile)
goals
are
meaningless
without
equality,
it
can
be
inferred
that
achieving
equality
will
indeed
be
for
the
good
of
the
nation.
The
second
part,
Americans
must
unite
finds
support
in
the
last
few
sentences:
There
is
no
Southern
problem.
There
is
no
Northern
problem.
There
is
only
an
American
problem.
And
we
are
met
here
tonight
as
Americansnot
as
Democrats
or
Republicans--we
are
met
here
as
Americans
to
solve
that
problem.
Johnson
lists
some
things
that
might
divide
us
geographic
region,
political
affiliation
before
dismissing
them
as
meaningless,
demonstrating
that
unity
is
key
in
solving
essential
problems.
Thus
far
this
is
all
pretty
straightforward.
But
what
happens
with
a
higher-level
text,
or
a
literary
text
that
doesnt
do
you
the
very
nice
favor
of
laying
out
main
ideas
in
the
first
and
last
sentences
of
each
paragraph?
When
that
happens,
you
must
notice
the
telling
details
and
any
repetitions
of
words
and
ideas.
Try
it
with
this
(fairly
complex)
excerpt
from
a
David
Foster
Wallace
essay
about
9/11,
written
on
9/13/2001.
Ive
included
my
annotations
below:
Everybody has flags out. Homes, businesses. It's odd:
Flags =
You never see anybody putting out a flag, but by Wednesday patriotism?
65
morning there they all are. Big flags, small flags, regular
flag-size flags. A lot of home-owners here have those special
angled flag-holders by their front door, the kind whose brace
takes four Phillips screws. And thousands of those little
hand-held flags-on-a-stick you normally see at parades
some yards have dozens all over as if they'd somehow
sprouted overnight. Rural-road people attach the little flags
to their mailboxes out by the street. Some cars have them
wedged in their grille or duct-taped to the antenna. Some
upscale people have actual poles; their flags are at halfmast. More than a few large homes around Franklin Park or
out on the east side even have enormous multistory flags
hanging gonfalon-style down over their facades. It's
a total mystery where people get flags this big or how they
got them up there. My own next-door neighbor, a
Huge flags,
hanging like
banners
(gonfalon
heraldic flag, like
knights used to
have); making
quite a statement
like he does
because they think it draws lightning. He says there's a very everything by the
particular etiquette to having your flag at halfbook:
mast: You're supposed to first run it all the way up
"phenomenal
homecare,"
regulation-size
straight and popping smartly in the wind. It's far and away
official flagpole
the biggest flag on our street. You can also hear the wind in
-A good detail
the cornfields just south; it sounds the way light surf sounds
when you're two dunes back from it. Mr. N's flag's halyard
about
has metal elements that clank loudly against the pole when
procedures and
etiquette and
care for. His driveway and mine are almost side by side, and what is proper
he's out here on a stepladder polishing his pole with some
-"Or something"
kind of ointment and a chamois cloth and in fairness it's
= our narrator is
66
true that his metal pole does shine like God's own
a bit flippant!
Biggest flag
because he thinks
really only know him because his church and mine are in the that makes him
seem like the
same softball league, for which he serves with immense
precision as his team's statistician. We are not
biggest
patriot? Clearly
suppose somebody like a foreign person or TV reporter were puts a lot of effort
into appearances.
to come by and ask you to say what the purpose of all these
flags everywhere after the Horror and everything yesterday Whats the
was, exactly what do you think you'd say?" "Why" (after connection
a brief interval of giving me the same sort of look he between Gods
wrath and
usually gives my lawn) "to show our support and
empathy in terms of what's going on, as Americans. "The
displaying an
American flag
More details
about the
neighbor. Think
everyone gotten these flags, especially the little ones you can about the
put on your mailbox? Are they all from July 4th and people contrast between
just save them, like Christmas ornaments? How do they
Again, a very
telling detail
contrast between
67
and easier to imagine people thinking it. None of the
the two
Accretive =
hall is a good bet, but it can't open til noon if at all (it has a
accumulated,
built up gradually
Pressure! He feels
pressure to put
out a flag, like
hes not being
patriotic
enough
Everyone has a
flag but him!
Feels very
conspicuous
68
they both
outsiders?
69
3.
Theres
the
Pakistani
owner
of
the
shop,
who
listens
to
our
narrator
and
provides
him
with
a
solution
to
his
flag
problem.
(Offers
solace,
gentle
suggestion,
unspoken
understanding.)
Clearly,
the
essay
is
about
more
than
who
has
a
flag.
Its
clearly
about
what
the
flag
represents
to
each
person
in
this
excerpt.
Remember,
finally,
that
this
essay
was
written
two
days
after
9/11.
The
context
here
is
crucial.
Therefore:
What
is
the
main
idea
of
this
passage
as
a
whole?
A.
The
script
by
which
different
people
process
and
symbolize
complex
emotions,
such
as
patriotism
and
grief
B.
The
proper
procedures
for
showing
off
patriotism
and
reacting
to
a
national
tragedy
C.
The
discrimination
against
Pakistanis
after
9/11
D.
The
pressure
that
comes
with
not
being
adequately
prepared
to
react
to
a
tragedy
Now,
think
about
this
carefully.
Most
of
these
answers
are
pretty
plausible,
because
they
all
have
something
to
do
with
the
passage.
Lets
start
with
A
the
script
by
which
people
process
and
symbolize
emotions
like
patriotism
and
grief.
Now,
Wallace
never
mentions
a
script,
but
he
doesnt
have
to;
the
majority
of
the
passage
is
about
the
fact
that
everyone
seems
to
have
a
flag
but
him,
as
though
they
are
all
following
a
memo
that
he
didnt
receive.
(Where
has
everyone
gotten
these
flags,
especially
the
little
ones
you
can
put
on
your
mailbox?
Are
they
all
from
July
4th
and
people
just
save
them,
like
Christmas
ornaments?
How
do
they
know
to
do
this?
Even
a
sort
of
half-collapsed
house
down
the
street
that
everybody
though
was
unoccupied
has
a
flag
in
the
ground
by
the
driveway.)
So
the
script
part,
while
subtle,
is
true.
But
what
about
this
symbolize
complex
emotions?
At
this
point,
you
should
realize
that
the
flags
here
are
not
just
objects
but
representations
of
a
feeling.
After
all,
Wallace
asks
his
neighbor:
"Say
Mr.
N,
suppose
somebody
like
a
foreign
person
or
TV
reporter
were
to
come
by
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70
and
ask
you
to
say
what
the
purpose
of
all
these
flags
everywhere
after
the
Horror
and
everything
yesterday
was,
exactly
what
do
you
think
you'd
say?"
Clearly,
this
question
demonstrates
that
there
is
a
larger
purpose
to
these
flags,
that
they
symbolize
and
demonstrate
something
big.
And
thats
clear
in
Mr.
Ns
answer,
too:
to
show
our
support
and
empathy
in
terms
of
what's
going
on,
as
Americans.
Again,
the
flags
are
part
of
a
script.
They
are
the
answer
to
a
tragedy
and
a
means
of
showing
support,
which
is
demonstrated
also
in
the
different
types
of
flags
on
display
the
huge
banner-style
ones,
the
regulation-size
ones
on
flagpoles,
the
plastic
ones,
and
even
the
authors
homemade
Magic
Marker
one.
Now,
lets
look
at
the
other
answer
choices:
B.
The
proper
procedures
for
showing
off
patriotism
and
reacting
to
a
national
tragedy,
is
a
worthwhile
contender.
However,
remember
that
at
first,
Wallace
does
not
have
a
flag.
Based
on
his
characterization
of
himself
and
his
flag-less-ness
(If
the
purpose
of
a
flag
is
to
make
a
statement,
it
seems
like
at
a
certain
point
of
density
of
flags
you're
making
more
of
a
statement
if
you
don't
have
one
out.
It's
not
totally
clear
what
statement
this
would
be.
What
if
you
just
don't
happen
to
have
a
flag?),
is
Wallace
the
sort
of
person
who
would
get
hung
up
on
proper
procedures?
Especially
when
you
contrast
him
with
Mr.
N,
who
gives
him
the
same
sort
of
look
he
usually
gives
my
lawn.
Though
there
are
points
in
this
essay
that
are
concerned
with
procedure,
these
points
are
more
about
how
other
people
seem
to
be
acting
(again,
following
a
script),
rather
than
an
actual
guide
on
the
best
way
to
act.
C
is
perhaps
the
easiest
answer
to
disregard;
the
Pakistani
storeowner
is
only
mentioned
at
the
very
end
of
the
essay,
and
though
Wallace
does
mention
the
store
owners
unspoken
understanding
(which
alludes,
in
turn,
to
the
outsider
status
he
probably
feels
in
the
wake
of
the
tragedy),
nowhere
does
he
explicitly
mention
discrimination.
Additionally,
this
unspoken
understanding
is
only
mentioned
once,
and
a
main
idea
is
usually
repeated
and
reinforced
in
multiple
ways.
This
is
clearly
not
the
correct
answer.
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71
D
is
a
contender
clearly,
Wallace
feels
pressure!
This
is
an
instance
where
there
are
some
good
answers
that
pale
in
comparison
to
the
best
answer.
While
its
true
that
there
is
great
pressure
in
feeling
that
you
are
not
reacting
appropriately
to
/
prepared
adequately
for
a
national
tragedy,
these
reactions
and
preparations
are
in
turn
just
part
of
a
larger
script
that
tells
people
how
they
should
act,
how
they
should
deal
with
their
lack
of
preparedness.
D
is
a
good
answer
because
its
really
part
of
answer
A
in
many
ways,
a
fragmented
or
incomplete
choice
that
does
not
fully
express
the
main
idea
of
the
essay.
That
was
a
long,
high-level
passage
not
so
much
because
of
the
words
or
the
structure,
but
because
it
is
full
of
subtly-expressed
and
complex
ideas.
In
the
next
section,
you
will
learn
how
to
break
down
and
summarize
these
kinds
of
ideas.
72
Summarizing
Ever
tried
to
tell
a
friend
a
story?
When
youre
recounting
an
event
or
a
film,
you
automatically
make
choices
about
which
details
to
emphasize
and
which
to
leave
out.
And
though
your
friend
probably
wont
mind
if
you
leave
in
irrelevant
details,
one
of
the
most
highly-rated
skills
in
secondary
and
post-secondary
education
is
the
ability
to
summarize
key
information,
which
explains
why
the
College
Board
cares
so
much
about
whether
or
not
you
can
do
it
well.
There
isnt
a
big
difference
between
identifying
the
main
idea
and
being
able
to
cogently
summarize
the
text;
after
all,
the
main
idea
and
the
summary
are
interrelated
concepts.
In
a
sense,
summarizing
just
means
that
you
are
able
to
restate
the
main
idea
of
all
of
or
part
of
a
text
and
marshal
key
pieces
of
evidence
to
support
your
claim.
Learning
how
to
accurately
and
intelligently
summarize
information
requires
three
essential
skills:
1.
Comprehension
of
the
material
2.
The
ability
to
identify
and
isolate
key
supporting
details
3.
The
ability
to
describe,
in
general
terms,
what
those
details
work
together
to
say
Your
ability
to
do
this
may
depend
on
the
level,
complexity,
and
type
of
text
youre
reading.
Luckily,
every
type
of
text
will
have
certain
signals
that
let
you
know
which
pieces
of
information
are
important.
73
Structure
Remember
that
text
structure
is
paramount
in
simpler
non-fiction
texts,
with
each
paragraph
introduced
(or
summarized)
by
a
topic
sentence
that
presents
the
main
idea
of
the
paragraph.
Its
these
bracketing
sentences
the
first
and
last
of
each
paragraph
that
will
work
together
to
present
a
useful
summary
of
the
selection
as
a
whole.
For
example,
take
this
excerpt,
from
a
lower-complexity
non-fiction
article
titled
Traveling
Teaches
Students
in
a
Way
Schools
Cant,
recently
published
in
the
Atlantic.
I
have
bolded
parts
of
the
first
and
last
sentences
in
each
paragraph,
which
should
all
help
you
to
summarize
the
text
of
the
passage
as
a
whole.
When
I
turned
15,
my
parents
sent
me
alone
on
a
one-month
trip
to
Ecuador,
the
country
where
my
father
was
born.
This
was
tradition
in
our
familyfor
my
parents
to
send
their
first-generation
American
kids
to
the
country
of
their
heritage,
where
we
would
meet
our
extended
family,
immerse
ourselves
in
a
different
culture,
and
learn
some
lessons
on
gratefulness.
My
familys
plan
worked.
That
month
in
Ecuador
did
more
for
my
character,
education,
and
sense
of
identity
than
any
other
experience
in
my
early
life.
And
five
years
later,
my
experience
in
Ecuador
inspired
me
to
spend
more
time
abroad,
studying
in
South
Africa
at
the
University
of
Cape
Town.
These
two
trips
not
only
made
me
a
lifelong
traveler,
but
also
a
person
who
believes
traveling
to
developing
countries
should
be
a
necessary
rite
of
passage
for
every
young
American
who
has
the
means.
Its
often
said
that
spending
time
in
less
affluent
countries
teaches
Americans
never
to
take
anything
for
granted.
To
some
extent,
this
is
true.
During
my
time
traveling
in
these
areas,
I
often
traveled
without
access
to
hot
water,
Internet,
air
conditioning,
or
even
basic
electricity.
I
slept
in
rooms
with
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73
74
spiders,
mosquitos,
and
bedbugs.
I
rode
on
public
transportation
that
rarely
left
on
time
and
often
broke
down
suddenly
in
remote
areas.
Stripped
of
my
daily
habits
and
expectations,
I
was
forced
to
surrender
the
idea
that
I
have
a
right
to
anythingincluding
the
luxury
of
convenience,
or
days
when
everything
Ive
planned
actually
happens.
And
my
minor
travel
hassles
seemed
even
more
petty
when
I
realized
that
they
represented
larger
systemic
problems
that
locals
must
deal
with
every
day.
But
these
trips
didnt
only
teach
me
to
appreciate
what
I
had;
they
also
moved
me
to
consider
why
I
had
it
in
the
first
place.
I
realized
that
much
of
what
I
thought
was
necessity
was,
in
fact,
luxury
and
began
to
realize
how
easily
I
could
survive
off
of
much
less.
I
didnt
necessarily
need
hot
water
or
a
timely
bus
or
a
comfortable
bed
to
be
happy
for
the
day.
I
didnt
necessarily
need
a
jaw-dropping
landscape
or
a
famous
archeological
ruin
or
a
stunning
beach
to
make
my
travels
worth
it.
Instead,
most
of
the
time,
that
fulfillment
came
from
the
people
I
interacted
withnot
the
things
I
had
or
did.
It
came
from
eating
soup
with
locals
at
a
rest
stop
on
a
12-hour
bus
ride,
sharing
a
meal
with
Peruvian
soccer
fans
while
watching
a
match,
or
chatting
with
the
owner
of
my
hostel
during
his
lunch
break.
Discovering
that
my
best
travel
moments
came
from
these
subtle,
personal
moments
instead
of
the
grandiose,
materialistic
ones
made
me
understand
that
living
contently
required
little.
What
I
originally
thought
I
took
for
granted,
I
now
rethought
taking
at
all.
1.
What
is
the
most
accurate
summary
of
this
article?
A.
The
author
is
a
lifelong
traveler.
B.
The
author
believes
that
minor
hassles
are
meaningless.
C.
The
author
advocates
travel
abroad
as
an
educational
tool.
D.
The
author
never
takes
anything
for
granted.
75
Now,
all
of
these
options
were
mentioned
somewhere
in
the
text;
maybe
even
in
the
bracketing
sentences.
But
all
the
distractors
are
single
details
that
work
together
to
create
one
cohesive
theme,
which
can
be
best
summarized
in
Option
C.
Remember,
when
thinking
about
summaries,
you
can
and
should
be
as
general
as
possible;
a
summary
isnt
a
blow-by-blow
account
chock-full
of
individual
details,
but
a
general
gist
or
zoomed-out
picture
of
the
main
idea(s).
In
a
simple
non-
fiction
text,
its
easy
to
identify
these
ideas
if
you
look
at
the
topic
sentences
of
every
paragraph.
Repetition
of
Ideas
Whenever
the
writer
repeats
a
string
of
words,
a
concept,
or
idea
in
the
text,
its
safe
to
say
that
these
repetitions
will
be
key
in
your
general
summary.
Remember,
the
writer
doesnt
have
to
use
the
exact
same
words
each
time
in
order
to
establish
repetition
you
can
repeat
ideas
without
repeating
words.
But
its
hard
to
diversify
the
vocabulary
when
youre
explaining
the
same
thought
over
and
over,
so
theres
a
good
chance
that
much
of
the
repetitions
will
utilize
at
least
some
of
the
same
words,
making
it
easy
to
skim
the
material
and
find
the
most
heavily-emphasized
ideas.
Take
the
following
example,
from
the
Public
Library
of
Science
Blog.
Here
I
have
bolded
every
instance
of
repetition:
The
American
Society
of
Magazine
Editors
awards
are
the
Academy
Awards
of
magazinedom,
and
this
year
all
the
finalists
in
all
the
long-form,
narrative
categories
went
to
men.
the
dearth
of
women
among
the
nominees
can
perhaps
be
explained
in
part
by
the
dearth
of
female
bylines
in
the
sort
of
magazines
that
publish
long-form
narrative
journalism.
At
the
New
Yorker,
Harpers,
The
New
Republic
and
The
Atlantic,
for
instance,
less
than
thirty
percent
of
the
stories
published
in
2011
were
written
by
women,
according
to
this
years
VIDA
Count,
which
did
a
gender
breakdown
of
bylines
in
each
magazine.
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76
Ive
long
bemoaned
the
fact
that
there
are
so
few
women
represented
among
the
contributing
editors
on
many
of
these
publications.
(Contributing
editors
are
the
writers
whose
work
youre
most
likely
to
see
in
the
mag;
they
either
have
contracts
for
a
certain
number
of
words
a
year
or
just
enjoy
a
privileged
relationship
with
the
editors.)
Its
also
true
that
many
of
the
magazines
that
publish
narrative
pieces
are
staffed
largely
by
men.
Part
of
the
reason
is
that
a
lot
of
the
narrative
journalism
is
published
in
magazines
targeted
at
men.
Take
Esquire,
for
instance,
which
often
scoops
up
ASME
nominations
and
awards:
On
the
masthead
of
the
March
issue,
of
the
33
editorial
staffers
listed
including
the
photo,
art,
and
fashion
peopleonly
nine
are
women.
And
from
what
I
can
tell,
only
one
or
possibly
two
of
those
are
in
a
position
to
assign
stories.
2.
How
would
you
summarize
this
article?
A.
There
are
too
many
male
journalists.
B.
There
are
not
enough
female
journalists.
C.
Women
are
not
accurately
and
adequately
represented
in
long-form
journalism.
D.
The
magazines
that
publish
long-form
journalism
are
at
fault
for
the
lack
of
female
representation.
Remember,
summarizing
requires
finding
the
general
idea
based
on
what
the
text
actually
says.
Unlike
with
other
skills
on
the
new
SAT,
the
answers
are
already
there;
all
you
need
to
do
is
rephrase
them,
rather
than
making
inferences.
Check
the
bolded
portions
that
repeat
the
main
idea;
none
of
them
say
that
there
are
too
many
male
journalists,
just
that
male
journalists
are
overrepresented.
Similarly,
this
article
doesnt
say
there
arent
enough
female
journalists,
just
that
theyre
not
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77
recognized
(or
even
hired)
in
the
same
numbers
as
men.
Nor
does
the
piece
explicitly
blame
the
magazines
it
just
highlights
the
fact
that
a
discrepancy
exists
between
male
and
female
representation
in
journalism.
Clearly,
all
the
repetitions
serve
to
emphasize
that
female
journalists
exist,
but
are
simply
underrepresented,
as
is
presented
in
answer
C.
Repetition
of
Details
Sometimes
an
author
will
use
an
abundance
of
details
to
continually
demonstrate
one
overarching
idea.
These
details
will
work
together
to
illustrate
a
fact
or
concept
that
the
author
wants
to
emphasize.
For
example,
take
this
non-fiction
piece
about
pupfish.
Ive
bolded
every
detail
that
the
author
includes
in
order
to
try
and
understand
she
is
trying
to
emphasize
which
in
turn
will
lead
me
to
a
cogent
summary
of
this
excerpt.
West
of
Pahrump,
Nevada,
in
a
corner
of
the
Mojave
Desert
a
couple
thousand
feet
above
Death
Valley,
a
warm
aquifer
provides
a
home
for
one
of
the
worlds
rarest
animals.
Its
a
tiny
silvery-blue
fish,
smaller
than
your
pinkie
toe,
and
in
the
past
50
years
it
has
survived
real-estate
speculators,
death
threats,
congressional
battles,
and
human
screwups.
The
Devils
Hole
pupfishCyprinodondiabolisis
nothing
if
not
tenacious.
But
the
biggest
existential
threat
to
the
pupfish
comes
from
its
own
DNA.
Once
upon
a
time,
pupfish
lived
in
a
sprawling
lake.
Around
20,000
years
ago,
water
levels
dropped,
the
landscape
turned
to
desert,
and
the
pupfish
ended
up
in
disconnected
ponds.
Today,
nine
different
species
are
scattered
across
the
Southwest,
and
half
of
them
are
endangered.
Devils
Hole
is
the
worst
case;
as
of
September
2012,
there
were
75
fish
left.
Thousands
of
years
of
adaptation
have
left
the
Devils
Hole
pupfish
able
to
live
only
in
one
very
particular
environment:
It
needs
90-degree
water,
low
oxygen,
and
a
shallow
submerged
ledge
on
which
to
spawn.
Its
hard
enough
being
endangered;
being
endangered
and
picky
is
a
deadly
combination.
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78
Think
about
what
these
details
are
doing
in
this
piece:
they
are
establishing
a
sense
of
time
and
place
(Mojave
desert,
September
2012),
drawing
a
portrait
of
the
fish
(small,
tenacious),
and
establishing
what
kind
of
threats
the
endangered
fish
face
and
why
(environment,
ability
to
breed
only
in
very
specific
places).
Though
all
of
these
details
are
different,
they
work
together
to
serve
the
same
purpose.
Together,
these
details
will
help
you
answer
the
question:
3.
What
is
the
best
summary
of
this
selection?
A.
Devils
Hole
pupfish
are
tenacious
despite
the
odds
they
face.
B.
Due
to
a
combination
of
factors,
Devils
Hole
pupfish
face
extinction.
C.
It
is
crucial
that
the
Devils
Hole
pupfish
continue
to
survive.
D.
Devils
Hole
pupfish
are
extremely
rare.
Now,
many
of
these
details
were
mentioned
in
the
article.
But
think
about
the
big
picture
that
these
details
work
together
to
illustrate.
You
need
to
be
able
to
focus
on
one
general
idea
that
doesnt
extrapolate
from
the
text,
but
simply
gives
a
big-
picture
restatement
of
what
the
text
actually
says.
Option
A
is
mentioned
in
the
text,
but
it
doesnt
do
a
thorough-enough
job
of
summarizing
the
big
picture.
This
detail
is
only
mentioned
once
and
isnt
explicitly
reinforced
throughout
the
text,
so
it
cant
be
the
best
summary
of
the
selection.
Option
B
does
a
much
better
job
of
providing
a
summary
it
mentions
a
combination
of
factors
(which
is
general
enough
to
encapsulate
many
of
the
details
mentioned
in
the
piece)
and
neatly
summarizes
the
point
of
the
selection
that,
as
the
last
sentence
states,
being
endangered
and
picky
is
a
deadly
combination;
i.e.,
the
pupfish
face
extinction.
Option
C
is
never
explicitly
mentioned
in
the
text;
while
you
may
be
tempted
to
extrapolate
from
the
text
that
it
is
important
for
biodiversity
that
the
pupfish
survive,
stick
to
what
is
explicitly
stated.
Do
not
make
inferences
while
trying
to
summarize.
Choice
D
is
true,
but
it
isnt
the
best
summary
its
just
one
small
detail
that
helps
to
build
the
bigger
picture
of
the
main
idea.
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79
Even
when
the
details
seem
disparate,
they
often
work
together
to
create
a
cohesive
whole;
when
in
doubt,
think
about
which
answer
option
is
best
SUPPORTED
by
the
details,
and
which
options
merely
help
BUILD
a
larger
idea.
This
will
help
you
better
determine
an
accurate
and
succinct
summary
for
the
piece.
80
Signal
Words
and
Text
Features
When
attempting
to
find
key
ideas,
watch
out
for
words
that
introduce
important
concepts.
Words
like
important,
paramount,
clearly,
and
obviously,
essentially,
basically,
in
essence,
thus,
and
ergo
among
otherscan
signal
that
the
writer
is
introducing
or
summing
up
an
essential
idea.
Words
like
for
example
can
help
to
demonstrate
an
essential
concept.
Bolding,
italics,
and
CAPS
can
also
highlight
important
ideas,
so
watch
out
for
those
as
well.
Of
course,
this
isnt
a
hard-and-fast
rule,
but
it
can
be
helpful
when
youre
trying
to
decide
which
ideas
to
isolate.
For
example,
take
this
snippet
on
teaching
literacy:
The
concept
of
literacy
is
fundamentally
misunderstood.
There
is
a
misconception
that
literacy
simply
means
knowing
how
to
read,
and
while
that
is
partially
true,
it
doesnt
present
the
whole
picture.
Knowing
how
to
read
is
about
much
more
than
just
matching
up
letters
with
the
sounds
that
they
make;
it
is
also
about
understanding
how
information
fits
together
in
context.
Students
who
excel
in
one
context
may
fail
in
another
because
they
lack
the
multiple
types
of
literacy
that
are
necessary
to
succeed.
For
example,
there
is
a
well-known
anecdote
about
a
high-level
student
who
continually
failed
her
math
homework.
Finally,
she
was
sent
to
a
learning
specialist
who
tried
to
diagnose
the
problem.
The
specialist
asked
the
student
to
read
and
explain
one
of
the
math
problems
that
was
giving
her
so
much
trouble.
The
student
read
fluently
Find
the
product
of
two
integers,
but
when
it
came
time
to
explain,
she
was
at
a
loss.
She
did
know
how
to
explain
what
a
product
was,
in
the
mathematical
sense,
though
she
could
perfectly
explain
the
concept
of
a
product
in
a
historical/social
sciences
setting.
Clearly,
though
she
could
read
perfectly
and
scored
high
in
all
her
English
classes,
she
lacked
basic
math
literacy.
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81
There
are
a
lot
of
signal
words
here,
and
they
all
work
together
to
demonstrate
a
concept.
Just
as
in
the
last
passage,
there
are
also
details
that
work
together
to
present
a
big
picture,
which
you
will
be
asked
to
summarize.
4.
What
is
the
best
summary
for
this
passage?
A.
The
definition
of
literacy
is
disputed.
B.
Many
people
lack
basic
literacy
skills.
C.
There
are
multiple
types
of
literacy.
D.
Words
can
have
different
meanings,
which
makes
literacy
complicated.
Remember,
think
about
how
the
details
and
the
signal
words
work
together
to
create
one
cohesive
idea
that
is
explicitly
stated
in
the
text.
Nowhere
does
it
say
that
the
meaning
of
literacy
is
disputed,
just
that
it
is
misunderstood.
You
can
scrap
Option
A.
While
B
may
be
a
tempting
option,
remember
that
it
is
never
explicitly
stated
in
the
text,
and
that
it
is
too
much
of
an
extrapolation
from
the
detail
that
students
may
fail
in
certain
contexts
because
they
lack
a
specific
type
of
literacy.
Option
C
is
supported
in
the
text;
it
is
both
explicitly
stated
in
the
phrase
multiple
types
of
literacy
are
necessary
to
succeed
and
demonstrated
in
the
example
of
the
student
who
had
one
type
of
literacy
but
not
the
other.
Lastly,
Option
D
may
be
true
it
is
illustrated
in
the
anecdote
but
it
is
not
the
point
of
the
selection;
the
selection
is
there
to
present
a
general
idea
or
main
point
about
literacy,
and
Option
D
is
too
specific.
82
In
Summary
Remember
that
there
are
multiple
ways
to
come
up
with
a
good
summary
of
a
text.
Pay
attention
to
structure,
repetition
of
ideas
and
details,
and
signal
words
and
text
features.
Remember
to
keep
your
summary
general
and
big
picture
instead
of
focusing
on
the
multiple
smaller
details
that
work
together
to
create
the
general
idea
of
the
text.
Finally,
dont
extrapolate
when
presenting
a
summary,
stick
to
what
is
explicitly
stated
in
the
text.
Utilizing
these
strategies
will
help
you
score
high
on
any
summary
questions,
on
both
the
SAT
and
in
your
classes.
83
Understanding Relationships
Part
of
demonstrating
reading
comprehension
skills
is
the
ability
to
understand
the
relationships
between
the
individuals,
ideas,
and
events
mentioned
in
a
text.
This
understanding
will
help
you
better
understand
the
selection.
There
are
multiple
types
of
relationships
that
may
appear
in
a
selection.
Here
are
some
of
the
most
common.
Relationships
between
Individuals
Selections
drawn
from
narrative
pieces
will
usually
feature
characters;
these
characters
will
interact
in
a
variety
of
ways,
which
will
demonstrate
their
relationships.
The
SAT
may
ask
you
about
the
type
of
relationship
that
the
characters
have
to
one
another
are
they
siblings?
Coworkers?
Friends?
based
on
context,
or
it
may
ask
you
to
qualitatively
describe
the
relationship
amicable?
Acrimonious?
based
on
the
interactions
that
the
characters
have
and
the
way
that
they
speak
to
one
another.
Take
this
example,
from
Scarlet
Stockings,
a
short
story
by
Louisa
May
Alcott.
As
you
read,
mark
up
the
points
in
the
passage
where
the
characters
reveal
through
their
speech
either
the
NATURE
of
their
relationship
or
a
CHARACTERIZATION
of
their
relationship.
Pay
attention
also
to
characters
who
are
mentioned
but
not
present,
as
well
as
the
characters
relationship
to
their
setting
(where
its
applicable).
"COME
out
for
a
drive,
Harry?"
"Too cold."
"Too tired."
declines to be amused
84
"Having
an
unfortunate
prejudice
against
country
kind of a snob
and brother
the
deepest
day-dream,
Lennox
hurried
to
the
window,
her
brothers
interest
with
an
unusual
expression
of
interest
in
his
listless
- We can reasonably
face.
"I thought that would succeed! She isn't there, but I've
a little crush
got you up, and you are not to go down again," laughed
in the least
I'll watch for myself, thank you," and Lennox took the
passive about it
- Another relationship
85
dearest
friend."
established
- A potential (and
potentially cantankerous)
relationship established
"Quite the reverse; she talks a good deal, and very well
established
'Ma belle'?"
- More relationships
established
"She
might
be,
for
all
Canterbury
loves
her,
but
she
isn't
fashionable,
and
has
more
friends
among
the
poor
than
among
the
rich."
"Ah,
I
see,
a
diving-bell,
who
knows
how
to
go
down
into
a
sea
of
troubles,
and
bring
up
the
pearls
worth
having."
"I'll
tell
her
that,
it
will
please
her.
You
are
really
waking
up,
Harry,"
and
Kate
smiled
approvingly
upon
him.
"This
page
of
'Belle's
Life'
is
rather
amusing,
so
read
away,"
said
Lennox,
glancing
up
the
street,
as
if
he
awaited
the
appearance
of
the
next
edition
with
pleasure.
"There
isn't
much
to
tell;
she
is
a
nice,
bright,
- Think of the
relationships being
Doctor's
heart,
and
a
favorite
with
every
one,
though
established
here
she
is
odd."
- Establishment of a
"How odd?"
possible relationship
86
"Does
and
says
what
she
likes,
is
very
blunt
and
honest,
(Dyspepsia = indigestion)
- Typical sibling
"She
has
seen
you,
though,
at
church
and
dawdling
about
a
rise
out
of
her
brother
town,
and
she
called
you
'Sir
Charles
Coldstream'
on
the
"Not
bad,
I
rather
like
that.
Wish
she'd
call
some
day,
and
demonstrating
he
doesnt
stir
us
up."
"She won't; I asked her, but she said she was very busy,
boredom!)
87
with
her
oddity
as
far
as
bluntness
goes.
Fire
away,
it's
rather
amusing
to
be
abused
when
one
is
dying
of
ennui."
"That's
grateful
and
complimentary
to
me,
when
I
have
brother
- Harrys relationship to
about it
parents, a sibling
thought that after being away for five long years, you
five years
88
When
understanding
relationships
between
characters,
you
will
have
to
do
a
good
deal
of
extrapolating
from
what
is
directly
stated
in
the
text,
but
be
careful
that
every
one
of
your
inferences
is
based
on
actual
evidence
presented
in
the
text.
Look
at
answer
A;
you
should
be
able
to
see
quickly
that
while
Lennox
could
conceivably
be
called
disaffected
and
disinterested,
Kate
is
clearly
neither,
as
evidenced
by
her
constant
attempts
to
interest
Lennox
in
the
outside
world.
Option
B
is
certainly
supported
by
the
text;
the
whole
first
paragraph
is
devoted
to
Kates
attempts
to
spur
Lennox
towards
some
sort
of
social
activity,
though
he
seems
disinterested
and
criticizes
everyone
in
their
town
as
dull.
However,
she
does
manage
to
make
him
to
go
SOME
social
events
(tea
fights
and
muffin
worries),
and
to
get
him
talking
about
his
interest
in
Belle
Morgan,
so
clearly
her
efforts
are
not
entirely
futile
hence
why
uneven
is
a
good
adjective.
Option
C
could
also
conceivably
be
supported
by
the
text
the
selection
does
say
that
Kate
said
maliciously
and
that
Lennox
complains
of
ennui,
but
taken
as
a
whole,
the
selection
does
not
paint
Kate
maliciously.
Instead,
it
is
clear
that
she
cares
about
her
brother
and
simply
wants
to
try
and
enliven
him.
And
while
D
may
also
be
an
option,
as
Kate
does
speak
about
Lennoxs
apparently
impressive
ego,
she
does
not
appear
to
do
so
with
awe,
which
is
too
positive
an
adjective
for
her
position.
Therefore,
B
is
the
only
truly
defensible
option.
Which
quote
best
characterizes
the
siblings'
relationship?
A.
I
promised
to
give
you
my
enlivening
society
for
a
month,
and
a
Lennox
keeps
his
word,
even
at
the
cost
of
his
life."
B.
When
it's
worthwhile
you
exert
yourself,
and
are
altogether
fascinating,
but
the
'I
come
--
see
--
and
--
conquer'
air
you
put
on,
spoils
it
all
for
sensible
people."
C.
Be
grateful
that
there
is
one
glimpse
of
color,
life,
and
spirit
in
this
aristocratic
tomb
of
a
town."
D.
"I
thought
that
would
succeed!
She
isn't
there,
but
I've
got
you
up,
and
you
are
not
to
go
down
again,"
laughed
Kate.
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89
The
use
of
these
quotes
will
force
you
to
consider
and
marshal
the
evidence
for
your
claims.
Lets
examine
the
first
clearly,
Lennox
feels
himself
duty-bound
to
his
sister,
so
while
this
quote
is
directly
relevant
to
the
relationship
between
the
two
siblings,
it
is
in
fact
more
revealing
of
Lennoxs
relationship
to
himself
than
to
his
sister.
He
refers
to
his
own
company
as
My
enlivening
society
(perhaps
facetiously),
and
makes
a
claim
about
himself
(A
Lennox
keeps
his
word.)
While
we
could
conceivably
use
this
quote
to
understand
Lennoxs
relationship
to
his
sister
(perhaps
one
of
duty),
it
does
not
seem
to
accurately
reflect
the
siblings
relationship
as
a
whole,
though
if
there
are
no
better
options,
this
one
may
be
suitable.
Next,
try
B;
here,
Kate
is
making
an
observation
about
her
brothers
personality.
This
quote
clearly
reveals
a
feeling
she
has
about
one
aspect
of
his
personality,
especially
as
he
relates
to
his
society,
but
it
seems
to
be
more
a
comment
about
Lennoxs
public
face
than
one
about
the
siblings
private
relationship.
C
reveals
Lennoxs
feelings
about
his
town,
as
well
as
Lennoxs
feelings
about
Belle,
but
has
nothing
to
do
with
Kate
herself;
it
is
too
much
if
an
extrapolation
to
suggest
that
he
finds
Kate
as
boring
as
the
town
where
they
live.
Finally,
D
reveals
both
how
well
Kate
knows
her
brother,
as
well
as
the
obvious
sense
of
affection
she
feels
for
him.
She
teases
him,
rouses
him
from
his
stupor,
and
makes
him
come
to
the
window
using
a
tactic
only
she
would
know
(since
it
clearly
comes
from
her
observations
of
him),
and
gives
him
a
joking
directive
all
signs
that
point
to
an
affectionate
and
close
relationship
between
the
siblings.
Of
all
the
quotes,
this
one
best
encapsulates
the
relationship
between
Kate
and
Lennox;
it
is
not
the
most
obvious
choice,
but
it
subtly
paints
the
complex
relationship
between
cantankerous
Lennox
and
affectionate
Kate.
Relationships
Between
Ideas
The
SAT
will
provide
you
with
several
nonfiction
passages,
many
of
which
will
present
claims
and/or
arguments
that
you
will
have
to
assess.
Questions
may
focus
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89
90
on
the
relationship
between
one
idea
and
the
next.
Do
the
ideas
contradict
each
other?
Build
on
one
another?
Influence
one
another?
Work
in
conjunction?
There
are
a
few
ways
to
understand
the
relationship
between
ideas.
The
first
thing
to
do
is
to
try
and
differentiate
between
the
ideas
that
are
being
presented.
This
may
sound
simple,
but
a
high-complexity
text
can
present
confusing
parallels
between
ideas,
so
you
want
to
make
sure
that
understand
the
distinction
between
one
idea
and
the
next.
Chronological
Signal
Words
There
are
some
signal
words
that
should
help
you
make
these
differentiations.
Pay
attention
to
words
that
signal
chronology:
First,
before,
next,
later,
afterwards,
used
to,
recent(ly),
now
For
example,
the
following
sentence
uses
signal
words
to
clearly
differentiate
between
two
ideas:
Though
researchers
used
to
believe
that
there
could
be
no
life
on
Mars,
therecent
discovery
of
rocks
that
appear
to
be
water-weathered
has
changed
this
thinking.
It
may
be
useful
to
label
the
ideas
outlined
here
with
numbers,
so
that
you
can
figure
out
what
scientists
used
to
believe,
what
they
now
believe,
and
what
the
relationship
is
between
the
two
ideas
(clearly,
the
latest
research
now
invalidates
the
earlier
theory.)
Many
relationships
are
often
established,
changed,
or
influenced
by
TIME,
so
any
words
that
signal
a
passage
of
time
are
certainly
worth
paying
attention
to.
Relational
Signal
Words
91
Pay
attention
also
to
words
like:
While,
although,
but,
however,
despite
and
In
addition,
moreover,
also,
due
to,
because,
thanks
to
These
can
also
signal
a
shift
or
a
change
between
two
schools
of
thought,
which
can
be
very
useful
in
determining
the
different
relationships
between
them.
Relational
signal
words
can
signal
a
compare-and-contrast
and
a
cause-and-effect
relationship,
which
is
very
important
to
pay
attention
to.
Compare
and
contrast
the
relationships
outlined
in
the
following
two
sentences:
1.
While
there
was
once
widespread
support
for
the
existence
of
Bigfoot,
recent
research
has
definitively
disproved
this
theory.
The
signal
words
should
indicate
to
you
that
the
relationship
here
is
negative
one
theory
has
since
replaced
the
other.
2.
Clearly,
this
relationship
is
positive
as
one
theory
builds
on
or
was
inspired
by
the
other.
This
could
in
fact
be
broadly
categorized
as
a
cause
and
effect
relationship.
Now
that
youve
practiced
with
simple
samples,
try
your
hand
at
figuring
out
the
relationship
between
the
ideas
presented
in
the
following
blog
post
from
the
Public
Library
of
Science.
This
is
a
relatively
higher-level
text,
so
pay
close
attention
to
the
ideas
that
are
being
discussed
here.
When
I
first
ran
across
Asifa
Majids
article
with
-
Olfaction
=
smell
Ewelina
Wnuk
in
Cognition,
about
how
speakers
-
Western
society
=
cares
more
of
Maniq,
a
language
indigenous
to
southern
92
Howes,
Constance
Classen,
and
Andrew
Synott,
we
know
very
well
that
different
cultures
privilege
olfaction
and
other
senses
more
than
Westerners
do.
The
anthropology
of
the
sense
has
made
it
clear
that
the
ideological
privileging
of
vision
in
the
West,
and
relative
underdevelopment
of
sense
of
smell
is
not
matched
elsewhere.
However,
Wnuk
and
Majid
were
theory).
- Acuity = strength
93
necessary
for
logic
and
abstract
thought
was
language
dominated
their
perception.
Were
the
senses
in
think
clearly;
we
lost
the
ability
to
a
zero-sum
exchange
where
visual
acuity
and
a
olfaction impossible?
senses STRONGER
neglect
of
olfaction
in
the
West
is
a
result
of
our
culture
than
the
way
that
we
own
cultural
presuppositions
and
sensory
evolved physically
94
The
structure
is
a
little
bit
confusing
because
it
jumps
between
present
(coming
across
this
new
research)
and
past
(explanation
of
older
theories),
but
if
you
read
carefully
and
pay
attention
to
signal
words
like
First,
However,
Now,
Disprove,
Rather,
you
should
be
able
to
ascertain
the
sequence
of
events
as
well
as
the
relationship
between
the
ideas
explained.
What
was
Majid
and
Wnuks
aim
in
conducting
this
new
research?
A.
To
support
the
theory
that
a
degraded
olfactory
sense
was
evolutionarily
beneficial
B.
To
disprove
the
theory
that
a
degraded
olfactory
sense
was
evolutionarily
beneficial
C.
To
demonstrate
that
language
can
enhance
olfaction
D.
To
prove
that
visual
acuity
can
only
increase
as
olfactory
acuity
degrades
Now,
these
distractors
all
use
high-level
language
to
try
and
confuse
you,
but
once
you
differentiate
between
Majid
and
Wnuks
aim
and
its
relationship
to
older
theories,
you
will
be
able
to
answer
the
question
easily.
To
begin
with,
remember
that
Majid
and
Wnuk
set
out
to
attack
the
old
theory.
So
they
must
be
opposed
to
it,
or
trying
to
disprove
it.
Remember
also
that
the
old
theory
states
that
humans
lost
their
strong,
precise
sense
of
smell
in
order
to
better
develop
the
vision
and
the
language
that
was
more
evolutionarily
advantageous.
Majid
and
Wnuk
instead
found
that
this
WASNT
true.
Knowing
that,
lets
look
at
A.
Next
to
degraded
olfactory
sense
was
evolutionarily
beneficial,
you
can
write
Old
Theory.
So
A
means
that
they
wanted
to
support
the
old
theory,
which
simply
isnt
true,
as
the
article
says
they
wished
to
attack
it.
Scratch
A.
B
is
the
exact
opposite
of
A
they
wanted
to
DISPROVE
this
old
theory,
which
is
indeed
true.
Keep
it
for
now.
95
C
is
true,
according
to
their
research,
but
it
wasnt
explicitly
stated
as
the
aim
for
the
scientists
research;
instead,
it
was
a
FINDING
of
their
research.
You
can
scratch
C.
D
is
just
a
dressed-up
version
of
the
old
theory
(that
its
a
fight
to
the
death
between
the
sense
of
sight
and
the
sense
of
smell,
and
that
one
can
only
grow
at
the
expense
of
the
other).
This
is
the
opposite
of
what
their
research
suggests
as
well
as
the
kind
of
claim
that
they
sought
out
specifically
to
attack,
so
you
can
get
rid
of
D.
This
was
a
difficult
question
because
it
asks
you
to
do
a
lot
of
work
simultaneously
(figure
out
the
text
structure,
figure
out
the
relationship
between
two
ideas,
and
figure
out
the
complex
language
in
the
distractors).
96
Relationships
between
Events
Like
individuals
and
ideas,
events
also
have
the
ability
to
influence
each
other.
As
you
no
doubt
learned
in
your
social
science
classes,
events
have
the
ability
to
give
rise
to
other
events;
for
example,
had
the
1963
March
on
Washington
never
happened,
it
is
doubtful
that
the
2008
election
would
have
had
the
same
results.
But
historical
speculation
aside,
the
SAT
will
no
doubt
ask
you
to
identify
and
perhaps
analyze
the
relationships
between
different
events.
Here
are
four
of
the
most
common
kinds:
Cause
and
Effect
-Implies
one
event
caused
the
other
-Signal
words:
due
to,
because,
since,
thus,
therefore,
hence,
since,
thanks
to,
as
a
result,
consequently
-Example:
Due
to
the
rain
on
Monday
(cause),
I
was
unable
to
walk
to
school
(effect).
Chronology
-Indicates
a
sequence
of
events
-Signal
words:
first,
second,
third,
since,
then,
now,
recently,
yesterday,
last
Monday,
for
years
-Example:
For
decades,
scientists
have
believed
the
existence
of
aliens
is
merely
an
overused
sci-fi
trope;
yesterdays
surprise
visit
by
friendly
extraterrestrials
has
now
proved,
beyond
a
shadow
of
a
doubt,
the
existence
of
intelligent
life
on
other
planets.
Compare
and
Contrast
-Describes
two
(or
more)
similar
or
disparate
events
-Signal
words:
Also,
additionally,
moreover,
in
addition,
furthermore
(compare);
despite,
while,
however,
yet,
but,
whereas
(contrast)
-Example:
The
two
wars
were
remarkably
similar
in
their
carnage
and
vastly
97
inflated
budget,
but
as
one
was
effective
and
the
other
was
not,
they
will
be
remembered
very
differently.
Though
there
are
other
categories,
such
as
Problem
and
Solution,
these
are
the
main
three
that
you
need
to
worry
about;
the
other
categories
could
neatly
fit
in
to
these.
For
more
practice,
read
the
following
short
passages
and
answer
the
questions
about
them:
For
years,
researchers
have
disagreed
about
whether
Pluto
is
in
fact
a
planet.
Now,
however,
the
diminutive
ball
of
ice
and
methane
might
be
staging
its
comeback.
The
once-planet
was
reclassified
a
dwarf
planet
or
plutoid
(a
dwarf
planet
further
out
than
Neptune)
in
2003,
leading
to
hundreds
of
nostalgic
protests,
Facebook
groups,
and
even
t-shirts
all
mourning
Plutos
demotion.
One
popular
slogan
read
Pluto
will
always
be
a
planet
in
our
hearts.
Based
on
the
passage,
which
choice
best
describes
the
relationship
between
Plutos
reclassification
and
the
reaction
of
the
public?
A.
The
public
reacted
with
glee
to
Plutos
reclassification.
B.
The
public
reacted
with
anger
to
Plutos
reclassification.
C.
The
public
reacted
with
confusion
to
Plutos
reclassification.
D.
The
public
reacted
with
sadness
to
Plutos
reclassification.
This
is
a
fairly
straightforward
cause-and-effect
question:
what
was
the
effect
of
Plutos
reclassification
on
the
public?
As
explicitly
stated
in
the
text,
the
reclassification
led
to
hundreds
of
nostalgic
protests
and
mourning;
these
two
words
should
clearly
establish
that
D
is
the
only
correct
choice.
You
may
not
have
recognized
this
as
a
cause-and-effect
relationship,
but
look
at
the
phrase
leading
to.
That
should
clearly
indicate
exactly
what
kind
of
relationship
this
is.
98
Having
the
essentially
complete
sequence
of
the
human
genome
is
similar
to
having
all
the
pages
of
a
manual
needed
to
make
the
human
body.
The
challenge
to
researchers
and
scientists
now
is
to
determine
how
to
read
the
contents
of
all
these
pages
and
then
understand
how
the
parts
work
together
and
to
discover
the
genetic
basis
for
health
and
the
pathology
of
human
disease.
In
this
respect,
genome-based
research
will
eventually
enable
medical
science
to
develop
highly
effective
diagnostic
tools,
to
better
understand
the
health
needs
of
people
based
on
their
individual
genetic
make-ups,
and
to
design
new
and
highly
effective
treatments
for
disease.
Individualized
analysis
based
on
each
person's
genome
will
lead
to
a
very
powerful
form
of
preventive
medicine.
We'll
be
able
to
learn
about
risks
of
future
illness
based
on
DNA
analysis.
Physicians,
nurses,
genetic
counselors
and
other
health-care
professionals
will
be
able
to
work
with
individuals
to
focus
efforts
on
the
things
that
are
most
likely
to
maintain
health
for
a
particular
individual.
That
might
mean
diet
or
lifestyle
changes,
or
it
might
mean
medical
surveillance.
But
there
will
be
a
personalized
aspect
to
what
we
do
to
keep
ourselves
healthy.
Then,
through
our
understanding
at
the
molecular
level
of
how
things
like
diabetes
or
heart
disease
or
schizophrenia
come
about,
we
should
see
a
whole
new
generation
of
interventions,
many
of
which
will
be
drugs
that
are
much
more
effective
and
precise
than
those
available
today.
How
will
the
sequencing
of
the
human
genome
affect
scientific
research
in
the
future?
A.
It
will
teach
scientists
how
to
make
the
human
body.
B.
It
will
lead
scientists
to
sequence
other
organisms
genomes.
C.
It
will
increase
awareness
of
public
health
issues.
D.
It
will
contribute
to
great
gains
in
preventative
medicine.
This
is
a
simple
cause-and-effect
question
that
asks
about
the
effect
that
sequencing
the
genome
will
have
on
scientific
research.
Look
at
all
the
answer
options
to
Take
your
S
AT
prep
to
the
next
level.
Visit
www.learnerator.com
98
99
determine
which
is
the
best
one.
Though
A
is
clearly
drawn
from
the
text,
it
is
an
obvious
trick;
the
passage
COMPARES
the
sequencing
of
the
human
genome
to
the
creation
of
a
manual
on
how
to
make
a
human
body.
It
does
not
state
or
imply
that
building
a
human
body
will
be
an
immediate
effect
or
priority
after
the
sequencing
occurs.
Option
B
has
no
basis
in
the
text,
as
there
is
no
statement
about
scientists
plans
for
sequencing
the
genomes
of
other
organisms.
Though
you
may
conceivably
be
able
to
extrapolate
C
from
the
text,
theres
no
real
evidence
for
this
option.
Option
D
is
explicitly
stated
in
the
text,
and
is
thus
the
best
answer.
100
From
The
Atlantic:
The
history
of
clip
art
is
in
many
ways
the
history
of
the
World
Wide
Web
itself.
Clip
art
was
made
possible
because
of
the
invention
of
desktop
publishing
in
the
early
1980s.
The
first
library
of
professionally
drawn
clip
art
was
provided
by
VCN
ExecuVision
and
introduced
in
the
IBM
PC
in
1983.
It
offered
images
to
be
used
in
presentations
and
newsletters.
Early
electronic
clip
art
was
simple
line
art
or
bitmap
images.
The
introduction
of
the
Apple
Macintosh
program
MacPaint,
in
particular,
meant
that
consumers
could
use
and
edit
bit-
mapped
clip
art
for
the
first
time.
One
of
the
first
successful
clip-art
producers
was
T/Maker
Company,
which
had
worked
with
Apple
to
develop
an
alternative
word
processor,
WriteNow.
In
1984,
T/Maker
began
publishing
small,
retail
collections
of
those
bitmap
images
under
the
brand
name
"ClickArt."
The
first
version
of
"ClickArt"
offered
images
designed
for
both
professional
and
personal
uses;
the
professional
were
published
in
1984
as
"ClickArt
Publications."
The
widespread
adoption
of
the
CD-ROM
in
the
early
1990s
was
also
a
boon
to
clip
art:
Many
more
companies
began
offering
electronic
clip
art
on
CDs.
As
this
happened,
clip-art
makers
began
emphasizing
quantity
over
quality.
Even
T/Maker,
which
built
its
business
on
sales
of
small,
high-quality
clip-art
packages,
entered
the
volume
clip-art
market.
In
1995,
it
became
the
exclusive
publisher
of
more
than
500,000
copyright-free
images
to
create
what
would
be,
at
the
time,
one
of
the
largest
clip-art
libraries
in
the
world.
Based
on
the
information
in
the
article,
what
could
be
considered
the
most
important
turning
point
for
clip
art?
A.
The
invention
of
desktop
publishing
in
the
1980s
B.
The
release
of
professional
images
for
public
consumption
in
1984
C.
The
1995
publishing
of
one
of
the
largest
clip-art
libraries
in
the
world
D.
The
adoption
of
the
CD-ROM
in
the
1990s
and
the
subsequent
emphasis
on
quantity,
not
quality
Take
your
S
AT
prep
to
the
next
level.
Visit
www.learnerator.com
100
101
This
article
is
clearly
structured
sequentially,
with
multiple
dates
and
events
recorded.
Though
the
article
never
explicitly
calls
one
development
more
important
than
the
other,
it
is
possible
to
extrapolate
an
answer
to
this
question.
Look
at
the
words
used
most
important
TURNING
POINT.
This
should
immediately
disqualify
option
A
though
the
existence
of
clipart
is
important,
it
isnt
a
turning
point
because
the
beginning
by
definition
cannot
be
a
turning
point.
Strike
A.
While
B
could
be
a
good
choice,
its
results
are
never
discussed
in
the
article,
so
it
cant
be
a
turning
point
as
we
are
never
told
what
it
CHANGED.
C
is
highly
tempting,
but
watch
out
it
is
the
RESULT
of
a
turning
point,
rather
than
the
turning
point
itself.
We
are
never
told
what
effects
of
the
existence
of
the
largest
clip-art
library
in
the
world,
but
we
ARE
told
that
the
adoption
of
the
CD-ROM
led
to
an
emphasis
on
quantity,
not
quality,
which
directly
leads
to
the
creation
of
one
of
the
largest
clip-art
libraries
in
the
world.
In
order
to
answer
this
question,
you
must
understand
what
it
is
asking
youto
identify
a
point
in
the
history
of
clip
art
that
led
to
a
change,
or
at
least
to
important
results;
only
Option
D
fits
this
bill.
Understanding
relationships
between
individuals,
ideas,
or
events
can
be
tricky,
but
as
long
as
you
understand
what
the
question
is
asking
you
and
which
signal
words
will
lead
you
to
the
answer,
you
will
achieve
success
on
this
section
of
the
SAT.
102
Here are some strategies for determining the meaning of words in context.
1. Pay attention to the context.
Sounds obvious, doesnt it? But in order to figure out the meaning of a word,
youll need to pay attention to how it is used. After all, the word product
means one thing in a math context, and quite another in a discussion of tribal
artifacts. So you dont only need to pay attention to the sentence directly
preceding the word in question; pay attention to the setting of the word. Read the
introductory blurb that indicates where the reading comes from. A narrative
piece will use certain words differently than an economics text or a science
article.
Read the following excerpt from a social sciences article about class distinctions,
and see whether you can assess what the words mean.
But its not only linguistic differences that make this transition hard. The way a
person speaks is just a small part of the social currency that determines who is
privileged and who is not. When Lisa Faison, 15, started at her elite private
103
school, she quickly learned that it wasnt normal in her school community to
have no Internet at home. We cant afford it, she shrugs -- an unfamiliar
concept in this world of luxury cars, high-end vacations, and school tuition that
costs upwards of $20,000 a year.
Based on the context, the word currency most probably means
A. Money
B. Exchange
C. Community
D. Expression
Youve probably heard the word currency before in regard to money. But look
at the word before it, social. This modifier clearly indicates that this specific
use of the word currency has something to do with being a part of society. And
the sentence before it, about linguistic habits, also isnt directly relevant to the
issue of money. Money is clearly there as an option to try and confuse you, and
to assess whether you can differentiate between different uses of the same word.
(Plus, social money is a very awkward phrase -- when in doubt, try
substituting the answer option for the word. In some cases, it will be glaringly
obvious that the answer is wrong).
According to the article, currency, whatever it is, determines whether or not a
person is privileged. So currency is something that has a certain power, and its
something that is decided by an external source (social -- clearly, society
determines it).
Look at the other choices. We have exchange, which fits in with the money
idea -- after all, money is exchanged for goods and services. Maybe this type of
currency is also just an exchange -- when you have certain things, or grow up in
a certain community, you are seen in a specific way that others arent. This can
be thought of as a type of exchange -- the things that you HAVE or DO
104
determine the way you are THOUGHT OF or SEEN. Plus social exchange
sounds like it could be an appropriate choice -- the article is about how a girl
from a lower-income background fits in with peers of a higher-income
background, which is certainly a type of social exchange.
Before we decide, lets try C. Social community is redundant -- in fact, its so
redundant that it cant possibly be right. It could have been a good choice, but in
this context it doesnt make any sense.
Lastly, D, expression, is a worthwhile contender. In fact, were it not for
exchange, D would certainly be the answer. After all, social expression -- the
way that people express themselves in society -- goes a very long way in
determining who is privileged and who isnt. But currency seems to be about
more than just expression -- expression suggests that people control the way
they are seen, but the article suggests that this isnt true. Lisa couldnt control the
way her peers saw her; because of one thing beyond her control, they
automatically saw her in a completely different way. This suggests that
currency and expression cannot be synonyms.
The best answer is B, exchange. Not only does it fit best as a synonym, it is also
related to the other meanings of the word currency. This will not always be the
case with words in context -- they will not always be related in meaning to the
same words used in other contexts -- but in this case, its a handy bonus that
helps to determine the best answer.
This was a difficult question because it illustrated a high-level concept; the SAT
will ask many questions like this, which ask you to figure out an ordinary word
in a complex setting.
105
2. Replace, replace, replace.
As mentioned in the previous tip, replacing the word in question with an answer
choice can be a very useful way to determine if the word makes sense. For
example, try this excerpt from a science article.
The experiment had three steps. First, the researchers raised the visibility of the
fruit, moving it from its shadowy spot by the juice dispenser to a prominent
position near the cash register. Next, they lowered the price of the fruit from one
dollar to fifty cents. Last, they plastered images of happy-looking students eating
fruit all over the cafeteria walls, hoping to entice more students to share in this
activity. We did see an increase in fruit intake, said one researcher, but
because of our bundled experiment, were not sure why this campaign succeeded.
First determine what this piece is about. Scientists are doing an experiment
involving several elements. Clearly, the experiment cant be rushed if it
contains multiple processes, and theres no mention in the article of a time
constraint on the research. Rushed is therefore not a good choice.
Bungled sounds like bundled. The SAT is relying on this fact -- and on the hope
that you may not be aware that bungled means messed up -- to confuse you.
But choosing a word solely on basis of its perceived similarity to another word
(rather than a shared root) is a terrible strategy, and one that the SAT capitalizes
on to trick you. In any event, it is highly unlikely that the scientist admit to
messing up the experiment that way, so bungled is most likely out.
106
Together may make sense at first, since there were several elements to the
experiment, but read the sentence again: because of our together experiment
doesnt make any sense. Pay attention to parts of speech -- you can do an
experiment together, but you cant do a together experiment. At least not one
that makes sense. Scratch C.
Last, multi-step may not SOUND like its a synonym for bundled, but
remember the first sentence, the one that said the experiment had three steps?
Theres a dead giveaway for the fact that multi-step is the best answer in this
context. Bundled can mean packaged together, which is why together
could have been an attractive option -- but replacing the word with the answer
option will quickly make it clear that sometimes, the most attractive-seeming
options are not very feasible at all.
3. Visualize.
Research has demonstrated that visuals help you learn vocabulary. There will be
diagrams and charts on the new SAT, but no pictures -- which is why you can be
your own illustrator. You dont need to sketch out a perfect image to understand
the meaning of a word -- this is a strategy that will work just fine if you keep it
confined to your own head -- but taking the time to visualize what the article is
talking about will be very helpful as you answer questions designed to test your
comprehension.
For example, try visualizing this excerpt, from a social-science article.
But being a consumer and not a producer has its drawbacks. Those with
frustrated artistic inclinations often cite a general fatigue with consumption,
complaining of an exhausting glut that can only be counterbalanced by the hard
work of producing.
107
This is a hard image to visualize in your head, as there isnt much imagery or a
sense of scene or setting. But there are some words that should help -- fatigue,
complaining, exhausting, hard work. Imagine a consumer -- someone who
consumes, or eats, or takes in something. (I am imagining a little Pac-Manlike creature.) Imagine this over-consumer getting tired -- consuming too much
and slowing down.
This exhaustion can only be counterbalanced or reversed, by the consumer
making something of his or her own (producing). Now I am imagining that
little Pac-Man creature staying in one place, creating something, losing all that
excess weight of consumption and getting energized again, thanks to the hard
work of producing.
The visual came to my head -- I didnt draw it or otherwise mark it down -- but it
helped me to better understand the piece by anchoring the abstract (all this talk
of producers and consumers and artistic fatigue) to an actual representation of
the concepts.
Try visualization as you answer this final question about words in context. The
following excerpt is from a literary piece.
She tensed, expecting the lights to blare and the Matrons voice to sound over the
loudspeakers wired into every room. But all was quiet and still. The night was a
neverending black and not a single bird sang or swooped in the trees. She took a
deep, quavery breath and stepped out into the uncharted night.
Based on the reading, what is the best meaning for the word uncharted?
A. Unknown
B. Wild
C. Frightening
D. Shadowy
108
From the context, you can probably figure out that there is something a little bit
ominous happening here -- our protagonist is tensing in fear of a Matron
who can project her voice into every room (so the protagonist lives in some sort
of dystopian communal housing). The neverending black of the night and the
silence of the birds also contribute to this ominous impression. Based on this
reading, you may be tempted to choose C, frightening -- but despite this
ominous impression, the text does not say that the night is frightening. After all,
our protagonist is walking into it willingly. Nor do we have any indication that
the night is wild (there is no mention of tempestuous weather or wild
animals), and shadowy is an overly redundant synonym for neverending
black (plus, shadows need at least some light to exist, and there clearly isnt any
of that here.)
The best definition for uncharted is unknown -- uncharted territory is
territory that hasnt been put on a map yet, territory that isnt familiar.
Of all the choices, A and C are the strongest; in this case, the best you can do is
use context and common sense to eliminate the answer choices that are clearly
wrong and use your vocabulary knowledge (or your best guess) to determine the
correct answer.
Figuring out words and phrases in context can be tricky, and sometimes there
isn't a replacement for simply knowing what a word means. But if you use these
tips -- paying attention to every part of the context, replacing the word in
question with the answer options to see if it makes sense, and visualizing the
context as best you can -- this will be very helpful in figuring out the meaning of
vocabulary in context.
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109
Part
II:
Rhetoric
(Reading)
110
111
a
verb,
conveys
a
sense
of
action
that
tired
does
not)
that
creates
such
a
strong
sense
of
emotion.
Its
also
the
inclusion
of
the
word
empty
before
apartment
--
the
first
sentence
tells
us
I
came
home,
a
rather
neutral
statement,
while
this
sentence
describes
the
home.
It
is
empty
and
isolated.
It
even
gives
us
a
glimpse
at
the
kind
of
home
it
is,
evoking
images
of
stairwells,
the
city,
and
isolation.
Lets
try
this
one
more
time:
Stephanie
Carmichael
was
a
bully.
There
were
no
two
ways
about
it.
Stephanie
Carmichael
liked
to
hit
people.
Unfortunately,
her
victims
did
not
share
her
enthusiasm.
Now,
both
of
these
sentences
are
equally
vivid,
but
the
tones
are
completely
different.
Take
the
first
sentence
--
it
is
conversational,
utilizing
informal,
everyday
language
(no
two
ways
about
it.)
The
second
sentence
is
more
formal,
almost
sardonic;
it
states
the
obvious
(there
arent
many
people
who
enjoy
being
hit),
but
slightly
dramatizes
the
situation
by
calling
Stephanies
targets
victims
and
referring
to
her
penchant
for
hitting
as
an
enthusiasm.
Even
though
the
two
sentences
say
the
same
thing
in
equally
vivid
language,
the
tones
are
vastly
different
because
of
the
words
being
used.
Pay
close
attention
to
distinctions
like
this
and
you
will
do
very
well
on
this
section
of
the
SAT.
It
can
be
very
helpful
to
visualize
everything
that
the
author
describes,
as
this
will
help
to
establish
a
sense
of
tone,
mood,
and
place.
When
I
saw
the
words
no
two
ways
about
it,
I
pictured
a
down-home,
folksy
type;
when
I
read,
her
victims
did
not
share
her
enthusiasm,
I
pictured
Benedict
Cumberbatch
as
the
narrator
--
refined,
sardonic,
and
very
British.
Clearly,
the
words
used
can
go
a
long
way
in
evoking
a
very
particular
image.
Extra
Practice
As
you
read,
think
about
how
the
writer
uses
words
to
convey
information.
Take
a
look
at
this
following
example,
paying
attention
to
how
s/he
structures
and
words
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111
112
the
argument.
If
possible,
try
to
visualize
the
person
who
wrote
this
piece.
Use
their
words
to
get
a
sense
for
how
they
feel
and
what
they
think
about
the
topic
in
question:
The
recent
exclusion
of
the
Harry
Potter
series
from
your
newspapers
Best
Books
Ever
Written
list
is
an
unqualified
travesty.
I
am
outraged
and
confused
that
your
magazine
would
choose
to
exclude
such
a
seminal
work
of
literature
from
the
Western
canon.
The
Harry
Potter
books
rank
among
the
best
ever
written,
inspiring
countless
generations
of
children
and
inculcating
them
with
a
sense
of
wonder
and
delight.
Rest
assured
that
this
snub
will
not
be
ignored;
due
to
your
lack
of
research
and
clearly
unsound
opinions,
I
am
canceling
my
subscription
effective
immediately.
What
is
the
general
tone
of
the
article?
A.
Incensed
B.
Delighted
C.
Unqualified
D.
Distressed
Though
this
question
does
not
directly
ask
you
to
pinpoint
one
word
or
phrase,
it
asks
you
to
consider
the
words
used
in
this
article
as
a
whole.
It
should
be
fairly
easy
to
determine
that
this
writer
is
clearly
not
delighted
(B).
Nor
is
s/he
unqualified
--
though
this
word
is
used
in
the
piece,
it
is
an
adjective
(meaning
total
or
complete)
for
the
travesty
of
the
exclusion
of
Harry
Potter
from
a
Best
Of
list.
It
is
clear
that
the
writer
is
D,
distressed
--
words
like
outraged
and
confused
make
that
clear
--
but
a
better
answer
is
A,
Incensed,
or
angry.
The
writer
is
clearly
more
than
just
distressed
--
s/he
is
angry,
threatening
to
cancel
his/her
subscription
to
the
magazine
and
threatening
this
snub
will
not
be
ignored.
This
sounds
like
a
lot
more
than
just
distress.
As
you
read,
make
sure
that
youre
paying
attention
to
the
piece
as
a
whole
and
considering
the
very
best
answer.
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Which
quote
from
the
article
best
conveys
the
authors
tone?
A.
The
Harry
Potter
books
rank
among
the
best
ever
written
B.
Due
to
your
lack
of
research
and
clearly
unsound
opinions
C.
I
am
canceling
my
subscription
D.
The
exclusion
is
an
unqualified
travesty
This
question
is
asking
you
HOW
the
writer
has
conveyed
his/her
tone
of
acute
anger.
Though
each
of
the
quotes
is
lifted
directly
from
the
text,
only
one
best
conveys
a
tone
of
rage.
Clearly,
A,
while
an
important
and
closely
held
opinion,
does
not
convey
the
authors
rage,
but
the
authors
opinion
about
the
Harry
Potter
series.
B
gets
closer
to
the
authors
rage,
as
it
insults
the
writers
in
the
magazines,
but
it
does
not
contain
any
of
the
very
strong
language
that
the
writer
used
in
other
parts
of
the
selection.
C
contains
a
threat,
but
no
strong
language.
Clearly,
D
is
the
best
answer
as
it
most
effectively
conveys
the
authors
sense
of
rage.
Try
practicing
with
a
slightly
less
colorful
selection
from
a
history
text:
The
senator
had
little
to
say
about
the
barbarism
of
the
crime,
bizarrely
choosing
instead
to
direct
his
vitriol
towards
the
victim
and
her
family
rather
than
the
perpetrators,
who
were
released
on
bail
just
two
days
after
the
attack.
I
appeal
to
the
American
public
tonight,
he
stated
in
a
press
conference
last
Monday,
to
ask
why
this
girl
was
allowed
to
run
amok
after
dark
by
herself.
What
is
the
authors
opinion
of
the
senators
remarks?
A.
The
author
supports
the
senators
appeal
to
the
nation.
B.
The
author
believes
the
senators
remarks
are
a
barbaric
crime.
C.
The
author
is
bewildered
and
angered
by
the
senators
remarks.
D.
The
author
has
no
opinion
on
the
senators
remarks.
In
order
to
correctly
answer
this
question,
you
must
separate
out
the
words
that
the
author
uses
to
refer
to
the
senator,
and
the
words
that
the
author
uses
to
refer
to
the
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AT
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114
crime.
You
must
understand
also
what
the
senators
remarks
WERE
--
refer
to
the
quotes,
which
enclose
the
Senators
words.
(Understanding
how
this
text
is
structured
will
come
in
useful
here.)
Be
wary
of
answer
choices
that
quote
directly
from
the
text
--
they
may
be
trying
to
confuse
you
by
drawing
your
attention
to
an
irrelevant
part
of
the
selection.
For
example,
Answer
A
contains
the
words
appeal
to
the
nation,
which
are
lifted
directly
from
the
text.
Yet
there
is
absolutely
no
indication
that
the
author
supports
this
appeal;
in
fact,
it
is
the
senator
who
used
the
word
appeal,
not
the
author.
Answer
B
also
directly
refers
to
a
quote
from
the
text,
but
again,
the
barbaric
crime
has
nothing
to
do
with
the
senators
words;
the
senators
speech
was
a
response
to
the
crime.
Option
C
is
directly
supported
by
the
text,
as
s/he
says
that
the
senator
bizarrely
chose
to
direct
his
vitriol
towards
the
victim.
This
use
of
the
word
"bizarre
in
reference
to
the
Senators
choices
showcases
the
authors
confusion
about
the
politicians
actions;
the
use
of
the
word
vitriol
(cruel
or
bitter
criticism)
also
illustrates
the
authors
position.
After
all,
the
Senator
is
not
actually
being
vitriolic;
his
language
is
not
harsh
enough
for
that.
Yet
clearly
the
author
feels
that
the
Senators
remarks
are
so
unfair
that
they
border
on
abuse
--
a
position
that
is
clearly
if
subtly
demonstrated
throughout
the
piece.
You
may
be
tempted
to
say
that
D,
the
author
has
no
opinion,
but
the
word
bizarre,
again,
demonstrates
that
this
isnt
true.
Lets
try
once
more;
pay
careful
attention
to
how
the
author
creates
tone
and
mood
here.
Which
words
are
the
most
useful
in
the
creation
of
this
scene?
Which
words
best
help
you
to
visualize
what
the
author
is
trying
to
convey?
As
the
long
slog
towards
establishing
fair
trade
practices
in
Equatorial
Kundu
continues,
there
is
a
glimmer
of
hope
on
the
horizon.
The
West
African
country
has
long
been
the
focus
of
controversy
for
its
corrupt
practices
regarding
the
mining
of
diamonds
and
the
harvesting
of
coffee,
but
with
the
recent
installation
of
reforming
President
Mbala
Mbame,
new
legislation
could
change
the
way
miners
and
harvesters
are
treated
by
internal
and
international
trading
entities.
We
will
no
longer
stand
by
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AT
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115
and
watch
the
common
people
suffer,
President
Mbame
announced
in
a
historic
televised
speech
yesterday.
Equatorial
Kundu
is
facing
the
dawn
of
a
new
day,
and
anyone
who
stands
in
our
way
will
be
dealt
with
summarily.
There
is
no
word
yet
from
the
BPA,
the
rebel
group
that
led
riots
in
the
streets
in
response
to
Mbames
election,
on
how
these
new
agreements
will
impact
their
flourishing
black
market
economy,
but
Kundus
army
is
on
standby
and
the
country
is
both
tense
and
hopeful.
How
does
the
author
paint
a
vivid
image
for
the
reader?
A.
S/he
chose
a
strongly
worded
quote
from
the
president
of
the
country,
which
establishes
a
display
of
strength.
B.
S/he
draws
attention
to
the
plight
of
the
miners
and
harvesters,
helping
the
audience
to
understand
the
dire
economic
conditions
of
Kundu.
C.
S/he
speculates
about
the
reprisals
of
the
BPA,
establishing
a
fearful
tone
for
the
piece.
D.
S/he
uses
multiple
descriptive
words,
such
as
slog,
glimmer,
tense,
and
hopeful
to
establish
Kundus
general
mood.
Many
of
these
choices
seem
as
though
they
may
be
correct.
For
example,
choice
A
is
at
least
somewhat
true
--
President
Mbames
speech
was
worded
somewhat
threateningly
(anyone
who
stands
in
our
way
will
be
dealt
with
summarily).
Yet
the
piece
isnt
about
the
display
of
strength
of
the
new
president;
its
about
the
changing
conditions
in
the
country,
and
the
possible
hope
of
a
revitalized
economy
for
the
lower
classes.
While
President
Mbames
quote
certainly
evokes
a
mood,
it
does
not
help
establish
the
mood
of
this
piece.
Option
B
is
also
attractive,
but
clearly
not
correct;
the
writer
does
not
detail
the
plight
of
the
harvesters
or
the
miners
at
all.
S/he
mentions
these
low-income
occupations,
but
does
not
use
any
evocative
language
whatsoever
to
describe
their
lifestyles
or
issues.
C
is
also
clearly
incorrect;
there
is
no
speculation
in
the
piece,
only
a
statement
of
facts
(that
the
army
is
on
standby
and
that
there
has
not
yet
been
any
contact
from
the
rebel
group).
Finally,
the
author
DOES
use
descriptive
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words
that
clearly
paint
an
image
of
Kundu
as
being
on
a
long
road
to
recovery;
the
word
slog
corresponds
to
the
difficulties
that
the
miners,
harvesters,
and
new
President
face
as
they
stand
up
to
violent
rebel
groups
and
take
back
what
is
rightfully
theirs.
The
word
glimmer
of
hope
corresponds
to
the
hope
mentioned
at
the
end
of
the
article
but
emphasizes
that
the
battle
hasnt
been
won
yet.
The
tension
is
palpable,
and
the
writer
reiterates
it
by
detailing
the
struggles
that
President
Mbame
and
his
people
will
face
in
the
future.
As
always
with
these
types
of
questions,
it
is
crucial
that
you
pay
close
attention
to
what
is
stated,
what
can
be
reasonably
inferred,
and
what
is
simply
wild
speculation.
This
will
help
you
determine
which
words
are
most
important
in
context.
Some
types
of
passages
will
make
analyzing
word
choice
easier
than
others.
Different
texts
seek
to
do
different
things.
For
example,
an
objective
piece
that
clearly
lays
out
a
number
of
facts
without
editorializing
will
not
necessarily
have
lots
of
strong
words
you
can
point
to
as
creating
a
tone,
but
a
literary
work
or
an
editorial
will
certainly
use
all
manner
of
rhetorical
devices
from
strong
language
to
evocative
words
in
order
to
create
meaning
or
mood.
Remember
that
rhetoric
means
argument,
so
when
analyzing
arguments,
be
on
the
lookout
for
strong
language
and
interesting,
unusual,
or
particularly
meaningful
word
choices.
117
118
"COME
out
for
a
drive,
Harry?"
"Too
cold."
"Have
a
game
of
billiards?"
"Too
tired."
"Go
and
call
on
the
Fairchilds?"
"Having
an
unfortunate
prejudice
against
country
girls,
I
respectfully
decline."
"What
will
you
do
then?"
"Nothing,
thank
you."
And
settling
himself
more
luxuriously
upon
the
couch,
Lennox
closed
his
eyes,
and
appeared
to
slumber
tranquilly.
Kate
shook
her
head,
and
stood
regarding
her
brother,
despondently,
till
a
sudden
idea
made
her
turn
toward
the
window,
exclaiming
abruptly,
"Scarlet
stockings,
Harry!"
"Where?"
and,
as
if
the
words
were
a
spell
to
break
the
deepest
day-dream,
Lennox
hurried
to
the
window,
with
an
unusual
expression
of
interest
in
his
listless
face.
"I
thought
that
would
succeed!
She
isn't
there,
but
I've
got
you
up,
and
you
are
not
to
go
down
again,"
laughed
Kate,
taking
possession
of
the
sofa.
"Not
a
bad
maneuver.
I
don't
mind;
it's
about
time
for
the
one
interesting
event
of
the
day
to
occur,
so
I'll
watch
for
myself,
thank
you,"
and
Lennox
took
the
easy
chair
by
the
window
with
a
shrug
and
a
yawn.
"I'm
glad
any
thing
does
interest
you,"
said
Kate,
petulantly,
"though
I
don't
think
it
amounts
to
much,
for,
though
you
perch
yourself
at
the
window
every
day
to
see
that
girl
pass,
you
don't
care
enough
about
it
to
ask
her
name."
"I've
been
waiting
to
be
told."
"It's
Belle
Morgan,
the
Doctor's
daughter,
and
my
dearest
friend."
"Then,
of
course,
she
is
a
blue-belle?"
"Don't
try
to
be
witty
or
sarcastic
with
her,
for
she
will
beat
you
at
that."
"Not
a
dumb-belle
then?"
"Quite
the
reverse;
she
talks
a
good
deal,
and
very
well
too,
when
she
likes."
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"She
is
very
pretty;
has
anybody
the
right
to
call
her
'Ma
belle'?"
"Many
would
be
glad
to
do
so,
but
she
won't
have
any
thing
to
say
to
them."
"A
Canterbury
belle
in
every
sense
of
the
word
then?"
"She
might
be,
for
all
Canterbury
loves
her,
but
she
isn't
fashionable,
and
has
more
friends
among
the
poor
than
among
the
rich."
"Ah,
I
see,
a
diving-bell,
who
knows
how
to
go
down
into
a
sea
of
troubles,
and
bring
up
the
pearls
worth
having."
"I'll
tell
her
that,
it
will
please
her.
You
are
really
waking
up,
Harry,"
and
Kate
smiled
approvingly
upon
him.
"This
page
of
'Belle's
Life'
is
rather
amusing,
so
read
away,"
said
Lennox,
glancing
up
the
street,
as
if
he
awaited
the
appearance
of
the
next
edition
with
pleasure.
"There
isn't
much
to
tell;
she
is
a
nice,
bright,
energetic,
warm-hearted
dear;
the
pride
of
the
Doctor's
heart,
and
a
favorite
with
every
one,
though
she
is
odd.
"How
odd?"
"Does
and
says
what
she
likes,
is
very
blunt
and
honest,
has
ideas
and
principles
of
her
own,
goes
to
parties
in
high
dresses,
won't
dance
round
dances,
and
wears
red
stockings,
though
Mrs.
Plantagenet
says
it's
fast."
"Rather
a
jolly
little
person,
I
fancy.
Why
haven't
we
met
her
at
some
of
the
tea-
fights
and
muffin-worries
we've
been
to
lately?"
"It
may
make
you
angry,
but
it
will
do
you
good,
so
I'll
tell.
She
didn't
care
enough
about
seeing
the
distinguished
stranger
to
come;
that's
the
truth."
"Sensible
girl,
to
spare
herself
hours
of
mortal
dullness,
gossip,
and
dyspepsia,"
was
the
placid
reply.
"She
has
seen
you,
though,
at
church
and
dawdling
about
town,
and
she
called
you
'Sir
Charles
Coldstream'
on
the
spot.
How
does
that
suit?"
asked
Kate,
maliciously.
"Not
bad,
I
rather
like
that.
Wish
she'd
call
some
day,
and
stir
us
up."
"She
won't;
I
asked
her,
but
she
said
she
was
very
busy,
and
told
Jessy
Tudor,
she
wasn't
fond
of
peacocks."
"I
don't
exactly
see
the
connection."
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"Stupid
boy!
she
meant
you,
of
course."
"Oh,
I'm
peacocks,
am
I?"
"I
don't
wish
to
be
rude,
but
I
really
do
think
you
are
vain
of
your
good
looks,
elegant
accomplishments,
and
the
impression
you
make
wherever
you
go.
When
it's
worth
while
you
exert
yourself,
and
are
altogether
fascinating,
but
the
'I
come
--
see
--
and
--
conquer'
air
you
put
on,
spoils
it
all
for
sensible
people."
"It
strikes
me
that
Miss
Morgan
has
slightly
infected
you
with
her
oddity
as
far
as
bluntness
goes.
Fire
away,
it's
rather
amusing
to
be
abused
when
one
is
dying
of
ennui."
"That's
grateful
and
complimentary
to
me,
when
I
have
devoted
myself
to
you
ever
since
you
came.
But
every
thing
bores
you,
and
the
only
sign
of
interest
you've
shown
is
in
those
absurd
red
hose.
I
should
like
to
know
what
the
charm
is,"
said
Kate,
sharply.
"Impossible
to
say;
accept
the
fact
calmly
as
I
do,
and
be
grateful
that
there
is
one
glimpse
of
color,
life,
and
spirit
in
this
aristocratic
tomb
of
a
town."
"You
are
not
obliged
to
stay
in
it!"
fiercely.
"Begging
your
pardon,
my
dove,
but
I
am.
I
promised
to
give
you
my
enlivening
society
for
a
month,
and
a
Lennox
keeps
his
word,
even
at
the
cost
of
his
life."
"I'm
sorry
I
asked
such
a
sacrifice;
but
I
innocently
thought
that
after
being
away
for
five
long
years,
you
might
care
to
see
your
orphan
sister,"
and
the
dove
produced
her
handkerchief
with
a
plaintive
sniff.
"Now,
my
dear
creature,
don't
be
melodramatic,
I
beg
of
you,"
cried
her
brother,
imploringly.
"I
wished
to
come,
I
pined
to
embrace
you,
and
I
give
you
my
word,
I
don't
blame
you
for
the
stupidity
of
this
confounded
place."
Why
does
Louisa
May
Alcott
choose
to
begin
her
story
this
way?
A.
The
dialogue
helps
establish
the
characters,
setting,
and
plot
without
too
much
exposition
B.
The
dialogue
reveals
the
tragic
pasts
of
her
orphaned
narrators
and
helps
establish
a
sense
of
sympathy
C.
The
dialogue
reveals
what
a
cad
Harry
is,
setting
him
up
for
the
failure
he
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is
likely
to
endure
by
the
end
of
the
story
D.
The
dialogue
helps
establish
a
love
triangle
that
is
likely
to
be
the
focus
of
the
storys
plot
This
question
may
not
seem
like
its
asking
you
about
structure,
but
in
fact
that
is
exactly
what
it
is
doing
--
trying
to
get
a
sense
for
whether
or
not
you
understand
WHY
an
author
made
a
certain
choice
in
writing
a
story
and
whether
or
not
that
choice
is
effective.
(It
also
asks
you
to
consider
the
authors
purpose
as
well
as
the
relationship
of
one
part
of
a
story
to
the
whole
of
the
story
--
three
skills
for
the
price
of
one!)
Consider
the
answer
choices.
Answer
A
is
certainly
correct
--
we
do
have
a
sense
of
the
characters
interests,
relationships,
and
personality
(Harry
is
a
grouch
with
a
crush,
Kate
is
a
sweetheart
who
loves
and
worries
about
her
brother,
and
Belle
is
apparently
perfect).
But
the
key
here
is
the
without
too
much
exposition
--
world-
building
is
difficult,
and
it
takes
skill
to
inundate
the
reader
with
information
about
the
characters
and
plot
without
being
boring
or
redundant.
In
effect,
Alcotts
clever
in
medias
res
(in
the
middle
of
things)
dialogue
strategy
plops
the
reader
directly
into
the
Lennoxes
sitting
room,
eliminating
the
need
for
a
tiresome
introduction
that
would
have
gone
something
like
this:
Harry
and
Kate
were
brother
and
sister,
but
Harry
had
been
away
in
France
for
five
years
and
was
pretty
cranky
about
having
to
be
back
in
a
boring
old
town
that
he
hated.
And
so
forth.
But
lets
consider
B.
The
specificity
of
the
other
answer
choices
certainly
makes
them
tempting,
but
consider
them
closely:
while
its
TRUE
that
Harry
and
Kate
are
orphaned,
this
is
in
no
way
the
purpose
or
entirety
of
their
dialogue.
They
mention
it
once,
towards
the
end
of
the
selection,
and
while
the
background
helps
establish
a
sense
of
context,
it
is
in
no
way
the
focus
of
the
piece.
Nor
does
Harry
come
off
as
being
particularly
sympathetic,
and
Kate
doesnt
need
the
tragic
orphan
detail
to
become
sympathetic
--
everything
she
does,
from
striving
to
set
up
her
brother
and
her
best
friend
to
her
strategy
of
caring
for
her
brother,
establishes
her
as
a
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sympathetic
character.
So
beware
of
extreme
specificity
--
with
questions
like
this,
which
ask
about
a
piece
as
a
whole,
generalized
answers
will
often
work
better
than
specific
ones.
Cs
flaw
is
similar
to
Bs;
it
is
simply
too
specific,
plus
there
isnt
a
ton
of
support/evidence
for
it.
Yes,
Harrys
kind
of
a
cad
--
but
its
highly
unlikely
that
his
sister,
who
clearly
loves
and
cares
about
him
and
her
best
friend,
would
be
plotting
to
set
the
two
up
if
she
didnt
think
they
would
work
well
together.
Plus,
theres
simply
no
evidence
that
the
two
wont
hit
it
off
--
in
fact,
the
evidence
is
to
the
contrary,
since
the
chances
are
that
youve
seen
some
variant
of
this
good
girl
reforms
bad
boy
trope
before.
Scratch
C.
Ditto
D.
You
may
be
tempted
to
pick
this
one
because
the
dialogue
does
indeed
establish
a
love
story
that
is
integral
to
the
storys
plot.
But
please
beware
of
this
expression
love
triangle.
As
of
now,
there
are
only
two
players
in
this
potential
love
story
--
Harry
and
Belle.
Kate
certainly
isnt
part
of
the
love
triangle,
as
shes
Harrys
sister
and
playing
matchmaker,
not
striving
for
the
romantic
affection
of
either
party.
Pay
attention
to
small
details
like
this.
Narrative
texts
may
also
be
structured
a-chronologically,
utilizing
literary
devices
such
as
flashbacks,
flash
forwards/foreshadowing,
or
internal
dialogue.
For
example,
look
at
this
following
excerpt,
which
is
heavy
on
internal
dialogue:
I
hate
this
stupid
place,
thought
Princess
Bluebell
to
herself
as
she
trudged
up
the
stairs
to
her
new
boarding
school,
The
KAPS
Academy
for
Young
Heroines.
I
hate
horses,
she
thought
murderously,
eyeing
the
portraits
of
noble
steeds
that
lined
the
hallways.
They
smell
terrible.
I
hate
archery,
she
continued,
looking
askance
at
the
bust
of
Diana
the
Huntress
that
dominated
the
front
entryway.
It
gives
me
splinters.
And
I
hate,
hate,
hate
that
the
whole
aim
of
this
stupid
school
is
to
teach
me
how
to
be
my
own
hero
instead
of
waiting
around
for
my
handsome
prince.
At
this,
she
sighed,
pulling
out
her
wallet-size
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photo
of
Charming,
the
handsome
prince
next
door
who
was
no
doubt
going
to
stop
loving
her
when
she
came
back
to
the
castle
over
summer
break,
all
tanned
and
strong
and
able
to
rescue
herself
instead
of
languishing
pale
and
malnourished
in
some
attic
tower
guarded
by
a
dragon.
Everyone
knew
princes
had
no
use
for
strong
girls.
He
would
stop
loving
her
in
an
instant!
Well,
I
just
wont
learn
anything,
she
swore,
and
Mom
and
Dad
will
let
me
come
home
after
a
semester
and
finally
send
me
off
to
that
witch
whos
been
agitating
to
keep
me
locked
in
a
tower
until
I
turn
16
and
Charming
can
come
rescue
me.
Everyone
wants
me
to
be
master
of
my
own
fate.
Ill
beat
them
at
their
game!
A
wicked
smile
curved
her
lips,
and
she
headed
up
the
stairs
to
her
first
class,
Damsels,
Maidens,
and
Other
Helpless
Twits:
Defying
the
Stereotypes
and
Daring
to
Be
Your
Own
Hero,
determined
not
to
learn
a
single
thing.
What
is
the
primary
effect
of
this
internal
dialogue
on
the
structure
of
the
text
as
a
whole?
A.
The
internal
dialogue
establishes
Bluebell
as
a
sympathetic
character
and
invites
the
reader
to
admire
her
master
plan
B.
The
internal
dialogue
establishes
Bluebell
as
a
foolish
character
deserving
of
mockery
and
invites
the
reader
to
laugh
at
her
C.
The
internal
dialogue
establishes
an
arc
for
plot
and
character
development
D.
The
internal
dialogue
establishes
the
passionate
love
story
sure
to
ensue
between
Bluebell
and
Charming
Again,
remember
that
in
questions
about
text
structure,
general
is
(generally)
better
than
super-specific.
Pay
attention
also
to
the
word
primary
--
what
is
the
MAIN
effect,
or
the
MAIN
purpose
of
this
internal
dialogue?
A
may
be
half-plausible
(its
possible
that
the
author
wants
to
portray
Bluebell
as
a
sympathetic
character,
though
from
the
gently
mocking
tone
its
fairly
clear
this
isnt
entirely
the
case)
but
surely
the
second
clause
of
the
sentence
(invites
the
reader
to
admire
her
master
124
plan)
will
make
it
easy
to
scratch
A,
as
Bluebells
plan
is
fairly
foolish
and
trades
heavily
in
antiquated
stereotypes
about
femininity.
B
is
plausible
too,
but
not
entirely
likely
--
after
all,
the
question
asks
about
the
PRIMARY
effect
of
the
internal
dialogue.
We
may
be
invited
to
roll
our
eyes
a
little
bit
at
Bluebell,
but
it
is
unlikely
that
the
author
would
have
written
this
piece
specifically
to
make
fun
of
the
main
character
as
this
is
a
fairly
big
waste
of
everyones
time
and
makes
for
a
less
than
enjoyable
reading
experience.
So
while
this
could
have
been
a
plausible
choice
had
the
question
not
been
asking
about
the
PRIMARY
effect
of
this
dialogue,
it
isnt
entirely
likely
to
be
the
main
reason
the
author
uses
this
literary
device.
C,
again,
is
a
nice
general
answer
and
entirely
true
--
this
sets
Bluebell
up
to
probably
revise
her
thinking,
and
also
gives
us
a
source
of
conflict
/
tension,
which
help
propel
the
plot
forward.
D
is
unlikely;
there
is
certainly
a
love
interest,
but
its
hard
to
say
what
will
ensue
between
Bluebell
and
Charming,
especially
considering
that
she
is
about
to
(probably)
go
through
some
very
intense
changes
to
her
worldview.
So
again,
the
general
answer
that
focuses
on
the
CRAFT
--
the
underlying
structure
--
of
a
story
rather
than
a
specific
element
of
the
story.
Expository
Texts
Expository
texts
will
make
up
the
bulk
of
the
passages
on
the
new
SAT,
so
its
important
to
understand
how
their
structures
will
affect
their
content.
As
discussed
in
a
previous
article,
there
are
multiple
types
of
expository
text
structures,
and
several
ways
to
determine
what
they
are.
Sometimes
texts
will
fall
into
easy-to-spot
structures
(chronological,
cause
and
effect,
compare
and
contrast),
all
of
which
are
briefly
reviewed
here.
But
there
are
multiple
devices
that
authors
use
to
frame
arguments
and
ideas
that
dont
necessarily
fit
into
these
three
neat
categories,
or
that
utilize
elements
from
one
or
more
of
them
in
order
to
effectively
establish
a
claim.
Those
will
be
reviewed
as
well.
125
Chronology
A
piece
that
is
structured
chronologically
or
sequentially
will
have
all
sorts
of
time
words
to
indicate
the
sequence
of
events:
first,
last,
second,
last
Tuesday,
then,
afterwards,
before.
Writers
often
use
this
type
of
structure
to
frame
a
journalistic
piece
whose
purpose
is
to
accurately
convey
information
in
the
order
in
which
it
happened.
This
is
useful
in
pieces
about
current
events
(or
historical
events),
where
dates
and
times
are
very
important
as
they
influence
whatever
will
happen
next.
For
example,
check
out
this
article
on
the
history
of
space
exploration,
from
aerospace.org.
As
you
read,
make
note
of
all
the
chronological
signal
words:
Humans
have
dreamed
about
spaceflight
since
antiquity.
The
Chinese
used
rockets
for
ceremonial
and
military
purposes
centuries
ago,
but
only
in
the
latter
half
of
the
20th
century
were
rockets
developed
that
were
powerful
enough
to
overcome
the
force
of
gravity
to
reach
orbital
velocities
that
could
open
space
to
human
exploration.
As
often
happens
in
science,
the
earliest
practical
work
on
rocket
engines
designed
for
spaceflight
occurred
simultaneously
during
the
early
20th
century
in
three
countries
by
three
key
scientists:
in
Russia,
by
Konstantin
Tsiolkovski;
in
the
United
States,
by
Robert
Goddard;
and
in
Germany,
by
Hermann
Oberth.
In
the
1930s
and
1940s
Nazi
Germany
saw
the
possibilities
of
using
long-
distance
rockets
as
weapons.
Late
in
World
War
II,
London
was
attacked
by
200-mile-range
V-2
missiles,
which
arched
60
miles
high
over
the
English
Channel
at
more
than
3,500
miles
per
hour.
After
World
War
II,
the
United
States
and
the
Soviet
Union
created
their
own
missile
programs.
On
October
4,
1957,
the
Soviets
launched
the
first
artificial
satellite,
Sputnik
1,
into
space.
Four
years
later
on
April
12,
1961,
Russian
Lt.
Yuri
Gagarin
became
the
first
human
to
orbit
Earth
in
Vostok
1.
His
flight
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your
S
AT
prep
to
the
next
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125
126
lasted
108
minutes,
and
Gagarin
reached
an
altitude
of
327
kilometers
(about
202
miles).
The
first
U.S.
satellite,
Explorer
1,
went
into
orbit
on
January
31,
1958.
In
1961
Alan
Shepard
became
the
first
American
to
fly
into
space.
On
February
20,
1962,
John
Glenns
historic
flight
made
him
the
first
American
to
orbit
Earth.
Landing
a
man
on
the
moon
and
returning
him
safely
to
Earth
within
a
decade
was
a
national
goal
set
by
President
John
F.
Kennedy
in
1961.
On
July
20,
1969,
Astronaut
Neil
Armstrong
took
a
giant
step
for
mankind
as
he
stepped
onto
the
moon.
Six
Apollo
missions
were
made
to
explore
the
moon
between
1969
and
1972.
Recognizing
these
signal
words
will
help
you
better
understand
the
structure
of
the
text
--
and
will
also
help
you
to
answer
questions
that
ask
specifically
about
a
sequence
of
events.
For
example,
a
question
may
ask
you
about
the
first
person
to
enter
space,
the
first
American
to
orbit
Earth,
the
first
person
to
step
on
the
moon
--
all
distinct
characters.
You
will
have
to
pay
attention
to
the
signal
words
and
the
dates
in
order
to
answer
those
questions
accurately.
A
question
about
the
structure
of
the
text
may
ask
you
something
like:
Why
does
the
author
choose
to
introduce
the
article
with
the
example
of
ancient
Chinese
ceremonial
rockets?
A,
These
were
the
first
rockets
into
space,
and
as
such
they
are
notable
and
relevant
to
an
article
about
space
exploration
B,
The
article
is
about
Chinese
space
exploration,
and
so
these
rockets
are
a
valuable
precursor
to
the
article
as
they
help
to
better
understand
the
timeline
C,
These
rockets
are
a
successful
framing
device
that
help
to
introduce
the
history
of
space
exploration,
from
rockets
that
tried
and
failed
to
reach
space
127
to
rockets
that
landed
human
beings
on
the
moon
D,
The
use
of
the
Chinese
rockets
example
is
irrelevant
to
the
text
as
a
whole
Of
course,
using
what
you
already
know
about
text
structure
--
go
general,
think
about
craft
and
purpose,
and
pay
close
attention
--
it
is
pretty
clear
that
C
is
the
best
answer.
A
is
incorrect
as
the
article
clearly
states
that
these
ancient
rockets
didnt
reach
space;
B
is
clearly
incorrect
because
the
Chinese
are
not
mentioned
as
being
pioneers
of
space
exploration;
and
D
simply
isnt
true
because
the
example
is
indeed
relevant
in
kicking
off
the
article.
128
The
new
SAT
may
also
focus
on
questions
such
as:
What
is
the
effect
of
using
multiple
dates
in
this
article
to
introduce
different
events?
A.
The
use
of
dates
imparts
information
in
the
simplest,
most
objective,
and
most
historically
accurate
way
B.
The
use
of
dates
is
meant
to
demonstrate
how
many
years
it
took
for
Americans
to
achieve
space
flight
C.
The
use
of
dates
is
meant
to
highlight
Soviet
achievement
at
the
expense
of
American
achievement
D.
The
use
of
dates
is
meant
to
demonstrate
that
it
has
been
a
long
time
since
the
American
economy
could
support
exploratory
space
flight
This
question
asks
you
to
analyze
why
an
author
chose
a
specific
structure,
and
potentially
to
evaluate
whether
this
choice
was
the
most
effective
one.
Again,
using
our
strategy
of
being
GENERAL
and
focusing
on
CRAFT
and
STRUCTURE
rather
than
specific
pieces
of
content,
it
should
be
fairly
clear
that
A
is
the
only
correct
answer.
The
objective
tone
of
the
article
(it
uses
no
laudatory
adjectives
and
offers
no
opinions,
just
lays
out
facts)
makes
it
obvious
that
the
author
is
not
interested
in
criticizing
or
lauding
either
the
Americans
or
the
Soviets,
eliminating
B
and
C.
And
there
is
simply
no
support
in
the
article
for
D,
as
there
is
no
mention
of
the
economy.
129
Cause
and
Effect
Use
of
the
cause
and
effect
structure
is
especially
prevalent
in
science
or
history
articles
that
seek
to
explain
or
understand
specific
phenomena.
This
structure
quickly
becomes
evident
with
words
like
due
to,
thanks
to,
because
of,
leading
to,
resulting
in
and
the
like.
This
article
about
diversity
on
television
uses
a
very
subtle
cause
and
effect
structure;
as
you
read,
pay
attention
to
words
that
signal
a
cause
and
an
effect.
Though
the
demographics
represented
on
television
have
shifted
--
with
greater
representation
of
blended,
mixed,
or
minority
families
--
there
is
still
work
to
be
done.
Blonda
Thimes,
the
creative
mastermind
behind
such
long-running
blockbuster
hits
as
Shays
Anatomy,
Disaster,
and
How
to
Get
Away
With
A
Terrible
Crime,
has
often
been
credited
for
bringing
minority
actors
to
the
forefront
of
American
television.
Lauded
for
her
color-blind
casting,
Thimes
had
a
lot
to
say
when
we
contacted
her
on
Thursday.
Its
pretty
sad,
Blonda
says,
that
in
2014
its
still
somehow
notable
or
strange
that
a
black
woman
is
a
heroine
or
a
main
character
instead
of
a
sassy
friend
or
sidekick.
Thimes
casting
has
also
led
to
a
minor
revolution
in
the
representation
of
gay
and
lesbian
characters
on
television,
as
her
shows
focus
on
diverse
representations
that
stray
quite
far
from
stereotypical
depictions
of
this
minority
group.
Thimes
called
these
stereotypes
lazy,
pathetic
writing
and
claimed
that
they
are
responsible
for
mass
social
ignorance.
Now,
there
are
multiple
causes
and
effects
here,
so
pay
close
attention
to
how
the
author
chooses
to
present
the
multiple
factors
that
went
into
this
article.
According
to
the
article,
what
is
the
main
effect
of
Thimes
color-blind
casting?
A.
Her
work
has
received
acclaim
and
success
B.
She
has
been
lauded
by
critics
130
C.
American
television
is
more
diverse
than
ever
before
D.
Stereotypical
depictions
of
the
GLBT
community
have
lessened
Now,
pay
close
attention
to
the
word
main
effect,
because
while
A
is
true,
it
clearly
isnt
the
focus
of
the
article.
B
is
also
true
--
in
fact,
it
is
nearly
identical
to
A
--
but
it
also
isnt
the
focus
of
the
article.
C
is
clearly
true
(the
article
states
she
has
led
to
a
minor
revolution
and
she
has
been
credited
with
--
i.e.
she
has
caused
--
greater
representation
of
minority
actors
on
television),
so
this
is
clearly
the
best
answer.
D
is
tricky,
because
while
Thimes
has
been
credited
with
positively
representing
the
gay
community,
this
does
not
mean
that
other
shows
have
suddenly
stopped
utilizing
reductive
stereotypes.
An
increase
in
positive
representation
does
NOT
equal
a
decrease
in
negative
representation,
so
be
careful
of
false
effects
like
this
and
take
care
to
pay
attention
to
the
underlying
structure
of
the
article.
Compare
and
Contrast
Many
articles
will
utilize
comparison
and
contrast
in
order
to
effectively
convey
a
point.
Compare
and
contrast
can
be
quite
subtle;
while
signal
words
like
worst,
best,
like,
dissimilar,
and
others
can
set
up
parallels,
authors
can
signal
a
compare
and
contrast
structure
by
using
disparate
examples
that
ask
the
reader
to
think
about
the
elements
that
are
implicitly
being
compared.
Take
a
look
at
this
article
from
the
New
York
Times
and
note
the
multiple
instances
of
compare
and
contrast:
Teenagers
might
not
be
needing
their
social
networks
in
the
way
that
you
or
I
as
adults
might
really
need
our
social
networks,
Emily
White,
author
of
the
book
Lonely:
Learning
to
Live
With
Solitude,
told
Op-
Talk.
When
she
and
her
spouse
separated,
she
said,
I
needed
help
in
all
sorts
of
ways,
and
if
that
help
hadnt
been
there
I
wouldve
felt
lonely,
whereas
if
I
was
16
and
you
asked
me
after
drama
class
whether
my
social
support
network
mattered
a
lot
to
me,
my
answer
might
have
been
no.
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130
131
She
also
floated
a
potential
explanation
for
the
finding
that
students
self-
reported
loneliness
dropped
even
as
social
network
isolation
increased.
Environmentalists,
she
said,
sometimes
use
the
term
environmental
amnesia.
What
it
means
is
that
every
generation
is
born
into
a
more
degraded
ecosystem,
she
explained,
and
they
take
that
degraded
ecosystem
as
their
baseline,
and
they
adjust
to
it.
Maybe
teenagers
today
have
a
sort
of
social
amnesia
Im
wondering
if
these
high-school
students
have
had
weaker
support
networks
their
whole
lives,
and
so
theyre
reporting
less
loneliness
because
thats
what
theyre
used
to.
The
first
paragraph
contains
a
fairly
obvious
type
of
comparison
and
contrast;
teenagers
and
adults
clearly
process
loneliness
in
different
ways
and
rely
on
social
networks
in
different
amounts
at
different
points
in
their
lives.
But
its
the
second
paragraph
that
interestingly
and
implicitly
compares
teenagers
and
adults.
The
word
weaker
should
have
you
thinking
Weaker
than
WHAT?
and
striving
to
answer
that
question
--
what
are
the
elements
being
compared
here?
Relational
words
like
this
are
always
a
signal
that
SOMETHING
is
being
compared
and
contrasted.
The
degraded
ecosystem
should
also
be
a
clue
--
clearly,
this
researcher
is
highlighting
a
difference
in
the
Social
ecosystem
a
teenager
in
2014
and
a
teenager
in,
say,
1994.
Understanding
that
this
text
has
a
cause
and
effect
structure
will
help
you
to
answer
questions
about
it
with
greater
accuracy.
How
does
Emily
White
explain
the
fact
that
teenagers
face
increased
social
isolation
yet
report
less
loneliness?
A.
She
argues
that
there
is
no
connection
between
social
isolation
and
loneliness
B.
She
gives
the
example
of
separating
from
her
spouse
to
demonstrate
that
teens
dont
feel
loneliness
the
way
adults
do
C.
She
claims
students
do
not
need
social
networks
to
get
over
loneliness
D.
She
uses
a
cross-disciplinary
example
to
demonstrate
that
teens
dont
understand
loneliness
and
support
the
way
older
generations
do.
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131
132
In
essence,
this
question
asks
you
to
figure
out
WHY
this
argument
was
structured
this
way
--
why
did
White
first
lead
with
her
example
about
being
16,
and
then
go
into
an
example?
What,
in
essence,
is
she
trying
to
establish
by
presenting
her
argument
in
this
fashion?
A
clearly
cannot
be
correct
as
White
is
obviously
not
claiming
that
there
is
no
connection
between
social
isolation
and
loneliness;
in
fact,
she
strives
to
explain
their
relationship
by
giving
the
example
of
the
degraded
ecosystem.
If
there
were
no
relationship
between
the
two,
why
would
White
try
to
explain
it?
Clearly,
A
is
incorrect.
B
could
be
plausible,
but
read
carefully
--
she
didnt
say
teens
dont
feel
lonely
like
adults
do.
She
said
teens
dont
need
social
networks
like
adults
do.
Those
are
two
separate
issues,
according
to
the
article.
C
is
also
incorrect
--
there
is
no
support
for
this
in
the
article.
She
never
once
says
that
teens
do
not
need
social
networks
to
get
over
loneliness,
only
that
they
view
social
networks
differently
than
adults
do.
D
is
the
best
answer
by
process
of
elimination,
but
also
because
it
is
true
--
she
DOES
use
a
cross-disciplinary
example
that
illustrates
that
the
older
generation
has
a
better
ecosystem
in
terms
of
relationships,
loneliness,
and
social
networks,
which
helps
to
explain
why
teens
view
these
differently
from
adults
and
why
their
loneliness
has
dropped
as
their
isolation
has
increased.
The
way
those
two
factors
interact
is
different
today
(she
claims)
than
it
was
twenty
years
ago,
before
the
rise
of
the
internet.
The
comparison
and
contrast
is
subtle
here,
and
often
the
new
SAT
will
rely
on
this
subtlety
in
order
to
potentially
confuse
you.
Be
on
the
lookout
for
words
that
subtly
signal
relationships
(weak
ER,
strong
ER,
etc.)
as
they
should
lead
you
to
look
for
and
try
to
understand
the
elements
that
are
being
compared.
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S
AT
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132
133
Use
of
Quotes
and
Dialogue
Chronological
and
relational
signal
words
are
simple
to
spot,
but
not
every
piece
of
journalism
will
come
with
a
helpful
string
of
dates,
times,
causes,
effects,
and
comparisons.
To
make
a
piece
interesting
and
informative,
writers
will
often
interview
experts,
eyewitnesses,
and
other
people
of
interest
who
will
bolster
(or
contradict)
whatever
claims
the
article
is
making.
Articles
like
this
are
certainly
more
interesting
than
a
dry
string
of
dates
and
facts,
but
they
can
be
confusing
to
follow
as
different
experts
can
have
different
opinions
and
you
need
to
differentiate
between
who
is
saying
what,
and
in
what
context.
For
example,
look
at
the
following
article
from
the
Atlantic,
on
the
importance
of
field
trips:
What
if
those
field
trips
actually
had
a
proven,
tangible
benefit
to
student
learning?
Thats
the
premise
set
out
in
a
new
study
by
Jay
Greene,
a
professor
of
education
reform
at
the
University
of
Arkansas.
Greene
evaluated
670
students,
who
were
divided
into
two
groups.
The
first
group
of
students
was
chosen
at
random
to
see
a
live
theater
performance
of
either
Hamlet
or
A
Christmas
Carol.
The
second
group
either
read
the
texts
of
the
plays
or
watched
film
versions.
When
compared
with
their
peers
in
the
second
group,
the
students
who
attended
live
theater
scored
significantly
higher
on
a
vocabulary
test
that
incorporated
language
from
plays,
and
they
were
also
better
able
to
answer
questions
about
the
plot
and
characters,
according
to
Greene's
findings.
The
live
theater
group
also
scored
higher
on
tests
that
measured
their
tolerance
of
diverse
points
of
view
and
ability
to
detect
emotions
in
other
people.
Those
gains
were
still
measurable
six
weeks
after
students
attended
the
live
theater
performance,
Greene
said.
"Schools
are
increasingly
focused
on
the
things
that
weve
told
them
to
be
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AT
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133
134
focused
on,
namely
improving
math
and
reading
test
scores,"
Greene
told
me.
"Anything
that
isnt
directly
related
to
that
doesnt
attract
as
much
of
their
attention,
their
resources,
or
their
time."
In
metro
Atlanta,
field
trips
are
being
used
as
both
a
means
of
reinforcing
classroom
instruction
and
providing
students
with
new
experiences.
"Its
important
for
[students]
to
learn
the
standards
and
perform
well
on
these
standardized
tests,"
Jason
Marshall,
a
principal
at
an
elementary
school
in
the
Atlanta
area,
told
the
Atlanta
Journal-Constitution.
"But
I
think
the
way
weve
always
approached
it
is
the
day
they
take
a
test
is
really
just
a
snapshot
of
what
they
learn.
Were
interested
in
them
learning
much
more
about
their
community,
their
state,
country,
world
and
how
all
those
things
are
interconnected."
A
question
about
text
structure
for
an
article
like
this
may
ask
you
what
a
specific
expert
says,
forcing
you
to
ensure
that
you
understand
and
can
differentiate
between
one
experts
opinion
and
anothers
(or
the
experts
opinion
and
the
opinion
of
the
writer).
Keep
your
eyes
peeled
for
quotes
and
make
sure
that
you
mark
down
who
is
saying
what,
as
the
use
of
multiple
quotes
from
multiple
sources
can
often
confuse
students
about
who
is
saying
what
and
why
they
are
saying
it.
For
example,
try
this
question:
Based
on
the
quotes
from
educators
in
this
article,
how
would
a
high-
school
principal
approach
field
trips
(leaving
aside
concerns
about
cost)?
A.
There
is
not
enough
information
in
this
article
to
answer
this
question
B.
A
high
school
principal
would
most
likely
be
opposed
to
a
field
trip,
as
it
would
distract
students
and
take
away
instructional
time
C.
A
high
school
principal
would
only
support
field
trips
to
go
see
Shakespearean
plays
135
D.
A
high
school
principal
would
be
invested
in
the
concept
of
an
educational
field
trip
as
it
encourages
different
forms
of
learning.
The
first
thing
you
must
do
when
answering
this
question
is
find
the
quotes
from
educators
so
that
you
can
make
a
reasonable
inference
about
how
a
principal
might
feel.
(Yes,
questions
about
text
structure
often
require
some
inferences
--
authors
generally
do
not
spell
out
WHY
they
make
certain
choices
in
writing,
leaving
it
to
the
reader
to
figure
it
out
for
themselves.)
Leave
A
for
now
--
lets
consider
the
other
answer
choices
and
whether
or
not
they
are
supported
by
the
article
before
we
decide
whether
or
not
there
is
enough
information
in
the
article
to
answer
the
question.
There
is
support
for
B
in
the
quote
Schools
are
focused
on
the
things
that
weve
told
them
to
be
focused
on
anything
that
isnt
directly
related
doesnt
attract
as
much
of
their
attention.
But
if
you
continue
reading
(and
paying
attention
to
the
way
this
article
is
structured,
with
quotes
introducing
and
FRAMING
an
issue),
then
it
becomes
clear
that
this
isnt
the
be-all,
end-all
of
quotes
when
it
comes
to
how
principals
feel
about
field
trips.
Look
at
the
quote
from
the
principal
in
the
last
paragraph:
The
day
they
take
the
test
is
just
a
snapshot;
were
interested
in
them
learning
much
more
about
their
community
This
doesnt
sound
like
the
perspective
of
a
person
opposed
to
educational
field
trips,
plus
it
goes
hand
in
hand
with
the
previous
statements
about
field
trips
being
educationally
useful.
So
while
B
is
somewhat
plausible
if
you
refer
only
to
one
quote
from
the
article,
the
end
quote
from
an
actual
school
principal,
coupled
with
the
statements
about
the
positive
effects
of
field
trips,
work
together
to
make
it
clear
that
B
cannot
be
the
answer.
C
is
too
specific;
while
the
research
focused
on
plays,
the
principal
quoted
in
the
last
paragraph
makes
no
distinction
between
the
types
of
field
trips
and
the
specific
content
knowledge
that
his
school
cares
most
about
imparting.
D
is
best
supported
by
the
principals
statement
in
the
last
paragraph
--
if
his
school
cares
most
about
supporting
different
types
of
learning,
then
a
field
trip
with
multiple
educational
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135
136
outcomes
is
actually
the
ideal.
Clearly,
there
was
enough
information
in
the
article
to
answer
the
question,
so
A
cannot
be
correct.
The
Structure
of
an
Argument
Finally,
many
of
the
texts
on
the
new
SAT
will
focus
on
rhetoric:
claims,
counterclaims,
and
arguments.
Later
articles
will
focus
with
greater
specificity
and
detail
on
these
issues,
but
as
they
are
closely
related
to
structure,
it
is
important
to
be
able
to
identify
them.
Writers
will
often
set
up
an
argument
by:
1.
Establishing
a
claim
2.
Defending
that
claim
3.
Potentially
addressing
other
claims
/
opinions
4.
Demonstrating
why
those
other
opinions
are
incorrect
Steps
1
and
2
are
essential.
Steps
3
and
4
are
optional
and
you
will
not
always
see
them.
But
it
is
essential
that
you
learn
to
identify
the
structure
of
an
argument
and
understand
how
a
claim
is
established
and
defended.
Look
at
this
article
and
try
to
understand
what
this
writer
is
agitating
for,
and
whether
the
structure
of
this
argument
is
effective:
But
if
the
University
wants
us
to
take
its
strictures
seriously,
the
least
it
can
do
is
pretend
to
listen
to
our
demands.
We
are
being
asked
to
fork
over
increasingly
high
tuitions
each
year,
to
partake
in
the
mandatory
(and
expensive)
dining
and
boarding
plan
for
the
sake
of
communal
class
bonding,
and
to
participate
in
community-building
exercises
that
benefit
no
one
and
alienate
a
significant
percentage
of
the
student
body.
The
University
would
do
well
to
consider
that
it
endangers
the
future
contributions
of
its
alumni
base
with
its
attitude
towards
its
students,
which
is
one
of
shameless
financial
wrangling
and
gross
neglect.
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your
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AT
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136
137
How
does
the
structure
of
this
argument
help
to
create
a
tone
of
indignation?
A.
The
author
clearly
establishes
her
indignation
by
ending
the
letter
with
a
subtle
threat
to
the
university
B.
The
author
clearly
establishes
her
indignation
with
the
use
of
informal
language
such
as
fork
over
C.
The
author
clearly
establishes
her
indignation
by
placing
certain
words
in
quotations
to
indicate
disdain
D.
The
author
clearly
establishes
her
indignation
by
making
a
specific
complaint
and
enumerating
the
reasons
for
it
This
is
an
interesting
question
because
it
doesnt
ask
you
to
evaluate
the
claim
or
even
to
evaluate
whether
the
structure
helps
establish
the
claim;
instead
it
asks
you
to
assess
how
the
structure
helps
to
create
a
tone.
This
is
a
double
whammy
question
that
gets
at
skills
like
analyzing
word
choice
as
well
as
analyzing
structure.
Have
a
look
at
the
answer
choices.
A
is
tempting
because
it
is
partially
true
--
the
author
DOES
end
the
letter
with
a
subtle
threat
--
but
it
is
clear
well
before
this
threat
in
the
last
sentence
that
she
is
unhappy.
Therefore
she
doesnt
ESTABLISH
her
indignation
in
the
last
sentence,
just
CEMENTS
it.
Pay
attention
to
distinctions
like
this
because
they
could
be
the
difference
between
choosing
the
right
answer
and
choosing
a
plausible
distractor.
B
is
implausible;
use
of
words
like
fork
over
makes
the
author
sound
a
little
bit
folksy,
but
doesnt
necessarily
establish
a
sense
of
indignation.
Its
not
like
fork
over
is
the
exclusive
phrase
of
people
who
are
unhappy
with
a
specific
financial
situation.
C
is
interesting;
its
clear
from
the
quotes
that
the
author
doesnt
think
much
of
this
so-called
communal
class
bonding,
but
she
doesnt
spend
much
time
critiquing
it,
nor
does
she
establish
her
indignation
by
using
this
phrase
--
her
indignation
was
138
established
well
before,
in
the
first
sentence.
So
C
cant
be
correct.
D
is
the
only
obvious
choice
--
not
only
is
it
the
most
all-encompassing/general,
it
also
best
reflects
the
structure
of
this
article
and
argument.
There
are
multiple
types
of
text
structures;
this
is
just
a
sampling.
But
if
you
take
away
anything
from
this
article,
it
should
be
to
pay
attention
to
the
subtleties
and
signal
words.
They
are
often
the
key
to
unlocking
the
entire
piece.
139
140
Sentence-to-Paragraph
Relationships
Logic
/
Set-up
In
order
to
ensure
that
you
fully
comprehend
structure,
the
new
SAT
will
often
ask
you
what
a
sentence
is
doing
in
the
middle
of
a
paragraph.
Youll
have
to
analyze
the
surrounding
context
in
order
to
correctly
answer
these,
as
not
every
sentence
functions
in
the
same
way
within
a
paragraph.
For
example,
an
expository
essay
may
start
with
an
introductory
or
topic
sentence
that
reveals
the
purpose
or
subject
of
the
paragraph,
while
a
narrative
selection
will
kick
off
with
a
first
sentence
that
helps
to
characterize
or
describe
someone.
These
bits
of
text
are
doing
the
hard
work
of
set-up,
and
often
they
set
the
tone
for
the
rest
of
the
piece.
For
example,
look
at
the
first
sentences
of
these
two
separate
paragraphs
and
try
to
figure
out
their
functions
and
relationship
to
the
paragraph
as
a
whole:
Lupita
didnt
much
care
for
bees,
but
she
wasnt
going
to
sit
idly
by
and
watch
as
Bobby
Valente
--
by
all
accounts
the
biggest
jerk
in
the
entire
seventh
grade
-
-
smashed
this
one
with
the
edge
of
his
Understanding
New
Horizons!
science
textbook.
You
cant
just
kill
something
just
because
you
dont
like
it,
she
informed
him,
edging
close
and
blocking
the
bee
from
his
reach.
Bobby
eyed
her
strangely.
But
its
a
bee,
he
said.
It
might
hurt
us
first.
----
(from
Wikipedia)
Bees
may
be
solitary
or
may
live
in
various
types
of
communities.
The
most
advanced
of
these
are
eusocial
colonies
found
among
the
honey
bees,
bumblebees,
and
stingless
bees.
Sociality,
of
several
different
types,
is
believed
to
have
evolved
separately
many
times
within
the
bees.
In
some
species,
groups
of
cohabiting
females
may
be
sisters,
and
if
there
is
a
division
of
labor
within
the
group,
then
they
are
considered
semi
social.
It
should
be
pretty
obvious
that
these
two
paragraphs
do
NOT
have
the
same
purpose.
Their
tones
are
different,
their
subject
matter
is
different,
and
their
organization
is
different.
Therefore,
if
we
break
down
these
paragraphs
into
their
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component
parts,
we
wont
find
that
every
sentence
corresponds
in
function
and
type.
Therefore,
beware
of
falling
into
traps
like
the
first
sentence
always
introduces
a
topic.
This
may
be
true
SOMETIMES,
or
for
CERTAIN
types
of
passages,
but
it
all
depends
on
the
surrounding
context.
What
is
the
purpose
of
the
first
sentence
in
the
first
selection?
A.
To
provide
a
thesis
statement
for
a
larger
argument
B.
To
demonstrate
Lupitas
feelings
about
bees
C.
To
establish
a
conflict
between
bees
and
humans
D.
To
flesh
out
a
character
It
should
be
fairly
clear
from
the
selection
that
this
selection
is
not
making
an
argument,
and
as
such
does
not
require
a
thesis
statement
to
establish
a
claim.
You
can
get
rid
of
answer
A.
While
B
is
semi-plausible,
this
does
not
seem
to
be
the
focus
of
the
selection
--
the
sentence
states
that
Lupita
didnt
care
for
bees,
yet
she
campaigned
for
the
bees
rights/safety
anyway.
This
says
more
about
Lupita
than
about
Lupitas
actual
feelings
about
bees.
Keep
B
until
you
can
eliminate
C
and
D.
C
is
clearly
incorrect
--
there
isnt
actually
a
conflict
here
between
bees
and
humans;
if
there
were,
Lupita
wouldnt
be
agitating
to
save
the
bee.
D
is
the
best
answer,
because
what
actually
matters
in
this
paragraph
(and
this
sentence)
is
the
establishment
of
a
character
who
cares
about
the
helpless
and
isnt
afraid
to
stand
up
to
the
biggest
jerk
in
the
entire
seventh
grade
in
order
to
defend
her
beliefs,
even
though
these
beliefs
might
be
unpopular.
You
get
more
information
about
Lupita
here
than
about
Lupitas
feelings
about
bees
or
the
conflict
between
bees
and
humans,
which
is
a
pretty
good
indicator
that
D
is
the
best
answer.
When
in
doubt,
consider
the
answer
choices
in
terms
of
the
information
they
impart;
the
one
that
seems
like
it
imparts
the
most
relevant
information
will
probably
be
the
right
answer.
What
is
the
function
of
the
first
sentence
in
the
second
paragraph?
A.
To
introduce
various
specialized
terms
and
vocabulary
that
will
be
used
in
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the
article
B.
To
lend
support
for
an
argument
C.
To
set
up
the
purpose
and
topic
of
the
paragraph.
D.
To
counter
a
claim
If
you
read
the
first
sentence
of
the
second
article
carefully,
youll
see
that
there
is
no
specialized
vocabulary
until
the
second
sentence;
here,
the
question-writers
are
hoping
youll
see
the
word
introduce,
stop
reading,
and
pick
A.
This
is
a
bad
strategy.
Read
the
whole
question
and
the
whole
answer.
B
cant
be
right
since
there
is
no
preceding
argument,
so
the
first
sentence
cant
support
an
argument
that
doesnt
exist.
C
is
obviously
true
--
the
second
paragraph
is
all
about
the
different
types
of
communities
in
which
bees
live,
and
the
first
sentence
clearly
indicates
this.
D,
like
B,
cant
be
correct
since
there
is
no
preceding
argument
or
claim
to
support
or
refute.
Focus
Every
text
has
(or
should
have)
a
focus
--
in
essence,
a
point.
And
every
component
of
the
text
(sentences,
paragraphs,
etc)
should
reinforce
the
central
point
--
or
introduce
new
points
for
consideration.
Think
of
texts
almost
like
interlocking
puzzle
pieces
--
every
sentence
should
fit
in
some
way
with
the
one
before
it,
so
even
if
a
sentence
is
introducing
a
new
point,
it
shouldnt
come
out
of
nowhere.
For
example,
here
are
two
examples
of
excerpts,
one
of
which
keeps
its
focus
and
one
of
which
doesnt:
1. The
books
were
organized
alphabetically.
There
was
a
gap
on
the
shelf
between
Melville
and
Milton,
where
Mencken
had
been
pulled
out.
2. The
books
were
organized
alphabetically.
Cheese
is
delicious.
Its
not
too
difficult
to
see
that
retaining
focus
is
important,
or
else
the
reader
will
give
up.
The
excerpt
below
contains
a
good
example
of
an
excerpt
that
shifts
focus
subtly,
without
descending
into
incoherence.
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Vampires
--
in
all
their
various
incarnations
--
are
dead.
The
pale,
the
tortured,
the
lonely,
the
en-souled,
the
menacing,
even
the
sparkling:
as
a
romantic
trope
or
an
object
of
nightmares,
vampires
have
had
their
moment
in
the
sun,
and
their
long
dark
night
has
finally
come.
They
are
dead,
but
our
obsession
with
the
supernatural
isnt.
In
short
order,
hopeful
Young
Adult
writers
and
cynical
movie
producers
have
foisted
upon
us
every
half-baked
example
of
the
liminal,
undead,
or
unknown:
zombies,
ghosts,
half-demons,
fallen
angels,
werewolves,
rockstars
masquerading
as
college
students
What
these
varyingly
successful
attempts
to
breathe
new
life
into
the
creature
story
fail
to
understand,
however,
is
that
it
is
the
human
monster
that
is
the
scariest,
the
darkest,
the
most
intense
and
ultimately
the
most
interesting.
How
does
the
first
sentence
establish
the
tone
of
the
rest
of
the
article?
(logic/set-up)
A.
By
dispassionately
stating
a
fact,
therefore
creating
an
objective,
journalistic
tone
B.
By
passionately
declaiming,
therefore
creating
a
fiery
tone
C.
By
including
a
pun,
therefore
creating
a
dry
tone
D.
By
utilizing
a
dependent
clause
within
the
two
hyphens,
therefore
creating
a
digressive
tone
This
question
asks
you
to
consider
the
first
sentence
in
context
of
the
rest
of
the
article;
you
must
pick
out
specific
words
and
phrases
that
establish
a
tone
in
order
to
accurately
answer
the
question.
Consider
Option
A.
The
sentence
does,
in
some
way,
include
a
fact
--
vampires
are
indeed
dead.
But
the
tone
in
the
remainder
of
the
article
is
hardly
objective;
the
author
uses
a
lot
of
strong
language
(foisted
upon
us,
half
baked,
varyingly
successful,
fail
to
understand,)
to
establish
a
clear
and
obvious
opinion.
Answer
A
can
therefore
not
be
correct.
(This
is
why
it
pays
to
read
the
entire
answer
choice!)
B
is
clearly
incorrect:
the
author
does
not
passionately
declaim
in
the
first
sentence,
even
though
parts
of
the
selection
do
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indeed
utilize
fiery
language.
C
is
correct
--
there
is
a
pun
here
(vampires
are
dead
in
the
literal
sense,
but
they
are
also
dead
in
the
sense
that
they
are
culturally
irrelevant),
and
the
tone
of
the
article
is
indeed
dry
(the
quote
vampires
have
had
their
moment
in
the
sun
and
the
inclusion
of
rockstars
masquerading
as
college
students
in
a
list
of
undead/unknown
creatures
both
indicate
that
the
writer
has
a
somewhat
wry
sense
of
humor
about
this
topic.)
D
is
half-correct
as
well
--
there
is
a
dependent
clause
hidden
within
those
two
hyphens
--
but
it
does
not
necessarily
create
a
digressive
tone,
as
the
article
stays
on
focus
the
whole
time,
demonstrating
that
vampires
were
once
culturally
relevant
and
now
no
longer
are,
or
should
be.
Dont
be
impressed
by
Ds
grammar-speak;
this
is
the
SATs
transparent
attempt
to
try
and
trick
you
into
choosing
an
answer
just
because
it
sounds
like
it
might
be
right.
Which
sentence
in
the
selection
introduces
a
shift
in
focus?
A.
The
pale,
the
tortured,
the
lonely...
because
it
shifts
the
focus
of
the
article
back
to
when
vampires
were
culturally
relevant.
B.
They
are
dead
because
it
shifts
its
focus
from
vampires
to
other
creatures.
C.
In
short
order
because
it
shifts
the
focus
of
the
article
to
writers
and
movie
producers
D.
What
these
varyingly
successful
attempts
because
it
introduces
the
authors
premise
This
is
a
difficult
question
because
it
asks
you
both
to
understand
what
the
focus
of
the
article
is
as
well
as
how
the
author
creates
a
subtle
shift
in
focus.
From
reading
the
paragraph,
it
should
be
clear
that
the
focus
of
the
article
isnt
necessarily
going
to
remain
on
vampires,
so
you
need
to
be
able
to
make
a
logical
inference
about
where
the
focus
of
the
article
will
later
rest.
Look
at
A.
The
second
sentence
of
the
article
is
still
about
vampires,
and
in
fact
categorizes
all
these
different
types
of
vampires
in
order
to
demonstrate
that
yes,
all
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of
them
are
now
culturally
irrelevant
(their
long
dark
night
has
finally
come),
so
A
cant
be
correct.
B
reinforces
the
idea
that
vampires
are
dead,
and
introduces
creatures
who,
like
vampires,
command
our
attention
as
a
culture
--
perhaps
signaling
a
shift
from
vampires
to
other
creatures.
B
is
actually
a
good
answer,
so
lets
keep
it
in
our
back
pocket
until
we
read
the
other
answer
choices.
C
is
an
example
of
a
thought
that
B
introduces,
so
it
cant
be
the
shift,
because
its
dependent
on
another
sentence.
D,
however,
is
the
best
answer
--
it
shifts
away
from
vampires
and
all
the
other
supernatural
creatures
that
our
culture
is
obsessed
with,
and
establishes
a
premise
-
-
that
all
of
these
books
and
films
about
supernatural
creatures
are
missing
a
treasure
trove
of
literary
inspiration
(from
humans).
D
indicates
(correctly)
that
the
preceding
example
of
vampires
just
serves
to
introduce
or
set
up
the
premise
--
that
the
human
psyche
could
be
a
darker/better
inspiration
for
literature
than
made-up
creatures.
Though
B
is
a
good
answer,
D
is
better.
Support
Expository
texts
will
make
claims;
a
good
expository
text
will
support
those
claims.
The
SAT
will
test
your
understanding
of
how
these
supports
/
evidence
work.
For
example,
it
is
pretty
clear
from
the
following
two
examples
that
the
second
sentence
supports
the
first
by
giving
some
sort
of
reason
or
explanation
for
it:
Dont
be
fooled
by
sentences
like
this,
though,
which
look
like
they
are
making
a
well-supported
claim:
The
person
who
wrote
the
above
sentence
is
clearly
a
sad,
sad
human
being.
Animals
are
awesome.
While
both
sentences
are
true,
the
writer
doesnt
take
the
time
to
demonstrate
the
relationship
between
them,
leaving
the
reader
to
make
the
connection.
But
in
truth,
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these
are
two
disparate
clauses
that
have
nothing
to
do
with
one
another
--
so
make
sure
that
the
sentences
actually
do
support
each
other.
Test
your
understanding
of
supports
with
the
following
excerpt:
Team
Voldemort
is
not
exactly
what
it
sounds
like.
This
group
of
12
fifteen-
year-old
girls
from
British
Columbia
has
no
interest
in
magic,
spells,
or
world
domination
--
though
they
do
often
enter
the
field
with
two
red
slashes
painted
under
their
eyes.
It
symbolizes
the
blood
of
our
enemies,
says
Katie
Canuckie,
the
cheerful,
pigtailed
tenth-grade
captain
of
the
team.
Were
preparing
for
victory
and
we
will
win.
She
flashes
a
smile
that
glints
with
heavy
orthodontia.
The
award-winning
girls
lacrosse
team,
which
has
broken
three
international
records
with
its
15-year
winning
streak,
was
renamed
in
2002
to
symbolize
that
we
should
be
taken
seriously,
quoth
Brenda
Ballyhoo,
the
teams
coach
and
a
former
Olympic
hopeful,
who
was
behind
the
name
change.
Look,
she
says,
speaking
frankly,
people
dont
take
girls
sports
seriously.
That
is
a
documented
fact.
How
much
attention
does
the
WNBA
receive
as
compared
to
the
NBA?
How
about
womens
soccer
in
comparison
to
football,
or
to
the
World
Cup
nationwide?
Womens
hockey
as
opposed
to
mens?
Face
it:
people
dont
care
about
girls
sports.
Well,
were
here
to
change
that.
Our
name
might
be
cutesy,
but
were
dead
serious
about
our
mission.
When
asked
whether
she
was
concerned
about
the
message
that
the
name
Team
Voldemort
sends,
Brenda
laughed
darkly.
Well
see
whos
concerned
when
were
done
with
our
season.
Which
sentence
provides
the
best
support
for
Brendas
claim
that
people
dont
take
girls
sports
seriously?
A.
Our
name
might
be
cutesy,
but
were
dead
serious
about
our
mission.
B.
Well
see
whos
concerned
when
were
done
with
our
season.
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C.
Thats
a
documented
fact.
D.
How
much
attention
does
the
WNBA
receive
as
compared
to
the
NBA?
Ballyhoos
assertion
is
that
no
one
cares
about
girls
sports.
Claims
made
in
A
and
B
about
the
dead
serious-ness
of
Team
Voldemort
are
a
response
to
the
idea
that
no
one
cares
about
girls
sports,
NOT
a
refutation
of
it.
C
is
a
plausible
choice
--
but
it
doesnt
actually
support
the
claim
because
without
actual
statistics
or
verification,
its
an
easy
claim
to
make,
and
it
doesnt
need
to
be
proven
in
any
way.
The
best
answer
for
this
question
is
D,
because
it
provides
an
example
of
what
Ballyhoo
is
talking
about
--
she
says
that
no
one
cares
about
girls
sports
and
gives
a
clear
example
of
a
type
of
sport
in
which
women
are
underrepresented
or
neglected
by
the
public.
How
does
the
writer
of
the
article
support
the
assertion
that
Team
Voldemort
is
not
what
it
sounds
like?
A.
By
asking
the
coach
whether
she
is
concerned
about
the
message
implied
by
the
teams
name
B.By
giving
statistics
about
the
teams
victories
and
awards
C.
By
subtly
contrasting
the
aims
and
attitudes
of
the
team
with
Voldemorts
aims
D.
By
describing
Katie
Canuckies
orthodontia
Often
with
support
questions,
the
support
for
the
assertion
will
be
directly
after
the
claim
itself
(which
gets
back
to
text
organization/structure
and
focus
--
having
the
support
placed
too
far
from
the
claim
would
lead
to
confusion!)
Look
at
A
--
at
the
end
of
the
article
(far
away
from
the
actual
claim
itself,
which
is
made
at
the
very
beginning
of
the
article),
the
writer
asks
the
coach
if
she
is
concerned
about
the
teams
name.
But
this
question
has
little
to
do
with
the
fact
that
the
team
isnt
what
it
sounds
like.
Giving
statistics
about
the
teams
victories
and
awards
does
paint
the
team
positively
(in
contrast
to
the
team
name,
which
could
be
construed
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negatively),
but
this
contrast
isnt
strong
or
explicit
enough
to
provide
support
for
the
fact
that
Team
Voldemort
isnt
what
it
sounds
like.
C
is
plausible,
however,
as
the
author
does
contrast
the
attitudes
of
the
team
with
Voldemorts;
the
author
states:
This
group
has
no
interest
in
magic,
spells,
or
world
domination;
s/he
may
as
well
say
unlike
Voldemort.
Describing
Katies
orthodontia
does
somewhat
subtly
set
up
a
contrast
between
this
innocent
teenage
girl
and
the
menacing
Voldemort,
but
again,
as
in
B,
this
contrast
isnt
strong
or
explicit
enough
to
really
be
construed
as
support
for
this
claim.
Paragraph
to
Whole-Text
Relationships
The
previous
questions
asked
about
the
relationship
between
a
sentence
and
a
paragraph.
Just
as
each
sentence
does
its
work
within
a
paragraph,
each
paragraph
has
a
specific
function
within
the
text
as
a
whole.
Obviously,
however,
paragraphs
within
literary
texts
will
perform
very
different
functions
than
paragraphs
within
expository
texts.
Still,
each
paragraph
should
be
doing
one
or
more
of
the
following:
Maintaining Focus
Informing
Each
function
will
come
with
signal
words.
Some
words
that
might
be
associated
with
greater
support
or
refutations
would
be:
because,
in
support
of,
therefore,
thus,
ergo,
hence,
due
to
this,
moreover,
additionally,
as
well,
also,
and,
further,
an
example
of
this
is
Pay
attention
to
these
words;
they
will
most
likely
show
up
in
non-fiction
expository
texts,
as
opposed
to
narrative
works,
but
even
narrative
works
have
signal
words
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149
that
indicate
a
paragraphs
function(s).
As
you
read
below,
underline
or
annotate
the
words
that
seem
to
indicate
the
function
of
the
paragraph.
The
following
excerpt
is
a
narrative
piece.
1.
I
never
considered
myself
an
immigrant,
though
I
was
with
my
parents
on
the
ten-hour
Iberia
flight
from
Casablanca
to
Newark
that
took
us
farther
from
home
than
any
of
us
had
ever
been
before.
But
a
five-year-old
is
already
an
immigrant
anyway,
confronting
confusing
new
rules
and
codes
every
time
she
leaves
the
house;
maybe
this
was
why
I
took
to
America
so
much
more
quickly
than
either
of
my
parents.
Or
maybe
I
was
always
going
to
be
like
an
American,
trying
desperately
to
find
my
way
home.
My
parents
wanderlust
--
not
to
mention
the
lack
of
economic
opportunity
in
the
Old
Country
--
just
took
the
guesswork
out
of
it.
2.
By
the
age
of
ten,
my
accent
had
melted
away,
my
French
was
rusty
enough
to
make
my
aunts
click
their
tongues
at
my
mother
whenever
I
attempted
transatlantic
conversation,
and
though
twice-weekly
Arabic
school
had
kept
me
functionally
literate,
my
spelling
was
a
disaster.
3.
On
the
other
hand,
I
excelled
at
my
role
as
a
mediator
between
my
parents
and
the
phalanx
of
bureaucrats
who
controlled
seemingly
every
aspect
of
American
life.
From
parent-teacher
conferences
(Maman,
my
teacher
wants
to
speak
with
you
on
Tuesday.
Why?
What
have
you
done?!
Nothing,
I
swear!
Theyre
speaking
to
everyones
parents!)
to
doctors
visits
(Baba,
he
says
I
need
another
shot.
What,
only
one?
Surely
youre
at
risk
for
more
than
one
disease),
I
became
an
expert
navigator
of
the
foibles,
interests,
and
various
idiocies
of
the
adult
world.
4.
By
the
time
I
was
sixteen,
my
parents
English
was,
if
not
flawless,
then
at
least
less
fractured
than
before.
Certainly
it
was
sufficient
to
embarrass
me
at
every
college
fair
we
attended
(naturally,
my
parents
were
obsessed
with
getting
me
into
a
good
college,
which
to
them
meant
Harvard
and
Harvard
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150
only,
watching
me
graduate
from
medical
school,
and
then
marrying
me
off
to
another
doctor
who
had
also
graduated
from
Harvard;
naturally,
I
was
obsessed
with
piercing
as
much
of
my
body
as
I
could
and
studying
photography.
Thus
far
I
had
not
made
these
desires
known
to
either
of
them,
but
as
we
had
learned
in
English
class,
things
fall
apart.
If
I
were
forced
into
another
AP
Biology
or
Chemistry
class,
the
center
would
not
only
no
longer
hold,
but
would
implode
completely.)
What
is
the
relationship
between
the
first
and
the
fourth
paragraph
of
this
text?
A.
The
fourth
paragraph
provides
a
counterexample
to
the
first
B.
The
fourth
paragraph
gives
a
thorough
analysis
of
principles
outlined
in
the
first
C.
The
fourth
paragraph
refutes
the
first
paragraph
D.
The
fourth
paragraph
expands
in
detail
on
the
general
principles
outlined
in
the
first
paragraph
Literary
or
narrative
texts
dont
often
utilize
the
same
rhetorical
devices
and
strategies
as
other
non-fiction
texts,
which
may
make
your
job
of
figuring
out
these
questions
much
easier.
After
all,
its
pretty
clear
that
this
writer
isnt
trying
to
persuade
the
reader,
but
instead
to
tell
a
story.
Therefore,
words
like
thorough
analysis,
counterexample,
and
refute
wont
necessarily
apply
to
works
like
this.
You
can
automatically
scratch
A
(there
is
no
example,
let
alone
a
counterexample,
to
analyze
here),
B
(there
is
no
thorough
analysis
here)
and
C
(this
kind
of
narrative
wouldnt
be
interested
in
refuting
itself
--
the
author
is
telling
a
story,
not
trying
to
make
a
claim.
It
would
be
counterintuitive
for
the
writer
to
try
and
refute
herself!)Though
D
may
not
seem
immediately
obvious,
its
certainly
the
best
answer
--
the
general
principle
outlined
in
paragraph
one
is
the
idea
of
immigration,
of
being
a
foreigner
in
some
sense,
and
of
the
narrator
being
an
American
by
disposition.
By
the
fourth
paragraph,
in
which
the
narrator
is
disillusioned
with
her
parents
ideals
and
interested
in
expressing
her
individuality,
it
should
be
clear
that
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this
is
just
a
further
example
of
the
general
idea
expressed
in
paragraph
one.
Taken
in
context,
what
is
the
purpose
of
Paragraph
3?
A.
Paragraph
3
provides
examples
that
vividly
illustrate
the
narrators
point
B.
Paragraph
3
further
reinforces
the
points
made
in
Paragraph
2
C.
Paragraph
3
provides
an
analysis
of
the
various
ways
that
being
an
immigrant
has
changed
the
narrator
D.
Paragraph
3
provides
a
set-up
for
Paragraph
4
Look
closely
at
these
answer
options
and
read
carefully.
As
per
Option
A,
paragraph
3
certainly
is
full
of
examples,
as
evidenced
by
the
multiple
parenthetical
asides
that
humorously
illustrate
the
authors
interactions
with
her
parents
as
well
as
the
other
adults
in
her
world.
Keep
answer
A
for
now.
Look
at
B.
B
requires
that
you
also
be
familiar
with
paragraph
2,
but
Paragraph
2
simply
states
that
the
narrator
no
longer
speaks
French
and
Arabic
with
native
proficiency.
This
does
not
mean,
however,
that
the
narrator
would
automatically
be
better
equipped
to
deal
with
the
adult
American
world
than
her
parents;
it
simply
means
that
she
no
longer
speaks
good
French.
In
fact,
Paragraph
3
goes
in
a
completely
different
direction
from
Paragraph
2
--
it
gives
examples
about
an
entirely
different
part
of
the
narrators
life,
so
it
cant
be
taken
as
reinforcement
of
anything
stated
in
Paragraph
2.
C
could
be
a
good
answer,
but
again
--
this
isnt
an
analysis
so
much
as
a
list
of
examples.
Additionally,
we
dont
know
if
this
is
a
change
in
the
narrators
personality
--
all
she
has
ever
been
is
an
immigrant
--
so
C
is
in
fact
a
fairly
worthless
answer
to
begin
with.
Lastly,
look
at
D;
while
its
tempting
to
assume
that
all
paragraphs
will
be
linearly
linked,
as
they
often
are
in
expository
texts,
this
is
obviously
not
always
the
case,
especially
with
literary
narratives.
Additionally,
Paragraph
3
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does
not
set
up
Paragraph
4,
as
3
documents
how
helpful
the
narrator
is
to
her
parents,
and
how
she
acted
as
a
go-between,
while
Paragraph
4
discusses
the
fact
that
she
now
wishes
to
be
her
own
person
instead
of
playing
a
pre-
ordained
part.
Moreover,
Paragraph
4
starts
off
with
a
transition
(by
the
time
I
was
16),
which
indicates
that
theres
a
shift
in
perspective.
A
is
the
best
answer.
When
answering
questions
like
this,
you
must
think
critically
about
what
each
paragraph
strives
to
do,
not
just
what
each
paragraph
says.
Pay
attention
to
the
words
that
the
writer
uses;
transition
words
that
indicate
the
passing
of
time
(as
in
Paragraph
4)
or
a
change
of
opinion
or
topic
(on
the
other
hand,
in
Paragraph
3)
will
help
you
figure
out
whether
a
paragraph
is
setting
up,
expanding,
extending,
refuting,
or
shifting
focus
completely.
Expository
Texts
There
are
multiple
signal
words
that
help
indicate
the
purpose
of
each
paragraph.
As
you
may
remember
from
the
review
of
text
structure,
signal
and
relational
words
can
indicate
the
type
of
text
as
a
whole,
which
will
help
you
understand
what
each
paragraph
is
doing
in
service
of
the
larger
whole.
For
example,
look
at
this
chronologically
structured
text
from
the
Public
Library
of
Science
Blogs
Network,
and
figure
out
from
the
signal
words
what
purpose
each
paragraph
holds
within
the
text
as
a
whole:
1.
Within
5
years
I
think
people
will
know
what
an
exome
is,
because
analyzing
it
will
be
as
common
as
a
CBC
or
blood
lipid
profile
is
today
before
visiting
the
doc.
As
costs
decrease
and
gene
discoveries
increase,
weve
reached
a
tipping
point,
by
definition
when
a
series
of
small
changes
or
incidents
becomes
significant
enough
to
cause
a
larger,
more
important
change.
Until
exome
becomes
a
household
world,
clever
studies
are
illuminating
pioneering
applications
of
the
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2.
The
exome,
the
part
of
the
genome
that
encodes
protein,
harbors
85%
of
disease-causing
gene
variants
(were
not
supposed
to
say
mutation
anymore,
but
thats
what
I
mean).
Results
from
several
large
studies
have
been
published
over
the
past
3
years,
but
a
paper
in
last
weeks
Science
Translational
Medicine
from
Stephen
Kingsmores
group
at
Childrens
MercyKansas
City
offers
the
most
promising
results
yet.
3.
It
heralds
the
dawning
of
the
new
age
of
clinical
genetics.
Weve
been
waiting
for
this
to
come
around
for
10
to
15
years,
and
its
finally
here,
says
Robert
Marion,
MD,
chief
of
the
division
of
genetics
at
The
Childrens
Hospital
at
Montefiore
and
a
developmental
pediatrician
at
the
Albert
Einstein
College
of
Medicine,
about
the
paper
(hes
not
part
of
the
team).
I
devoured
his
book
Genetic-Rounds:
A
Doctors
Encounters
in
the
Field
that
Revolutionized-
Medicine.
4.
Last
month,
the
Journal
of
the
American
Medical
Association
published
findings
of
two
ongoing
prospective
exome
sequencing
studies
of
individuals
with
symptoms
suggesting
an
inherited
condition.
A
group
from
UCLA
diagnosed
213
of
814
(26%)
cases
that
hadnt
been
diagnosed
clinically
or
with
single-gene
tests
or
panels.
The
26%
rose
to
31%
if
parents
had
their
exomes
sequenced
too.
The
second
report,
from
Baylor
College
of
Medicine,
diagnosed
504
of
2000
(25.2%)
patients.
Both
studies
werent
just
children.
As
you
may
have
noticed,
there
are
multiple
words
here
that
signal
that
this
is
a
chronological
text
(within
5
years,
over
the
past
3
years,
heralds
the
dawning
of
a
new
age,
last
month,
etc.);
knowing
that
this
is
a
chronological
text
may
help
you
understand
the
authors
purpose
and
therefore
why
she
chose
to
structure
this
essay
the
way
she
did.
What
is
the
function
of
paragraph
2
within
the
larger
text?
A.
Paragraph
2
illustrates
the
authors
larger
point
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B.
Paragraph
2
provides
a
thesis
for
the
rest
of
the
text
C.
Paragraph
2
introduces
a
change
in
focus
from
Paragraph
1
D.
Paragraph
2
summarizes
the
rest
of
the
article
Look
at
option
A.
To
rule
it
out,
you
need
to
know
what
the
authors
larger
point
is.
Because
this
is
an
expository
text,
there
is
a
good
chance
that
this
thesis
statement
resides
somewhere
in
the
first
paragraph;
sure
enough,
the
first
paragraph
is
home
to
the
authors
claim
that
exome
will
soon
become
a
household
word
thanks
to
its
importance
to
medical
science.
Therefore,
we
now
need
to
see
whether
Paragraph
2
illustrates
this
claim.
Paragraph
2
gives
a
definition
for
the
word
and
highlights
its
importance
to
medical
science
based
on
the
past
few
studies
on
exomes.
This
does
help
illustrate
that
exome
may
become
a
household
word
(there
have
been
many
studies
and
apparently
many
medically
important
findings),
but
before
we
settle
on
this
answer,
lets
examine
the
other
options.
B
is
clearly
untrue;
the
thesis
is
found
in
Paragraph
1.
Paragraph
2
provides
illustration
for
a
thesis.
Scratch
B.
You
can
scratch
C,
too.
There
is
no
shift
in
focus
--
its
a
continuation
of
the
focus.
Nor
can
D
be
true;
the
second
paragraph
in
a
four-paragraph
article
certainly
cant
summarize
the
rest
of
the
article,
since
the
article
has
barely
begun
by
Paragraph
2.
Clearly,
A
is
the
best
answer.
Whether
or
not
the
chronological
signal
words
helped
you
assess
the
function
of
each
paragraph,
its
still
a
good
idea
to
make
sure
you
understand
text
structure
as
this
can
potentially
influence
the
rest
of
the
text.
The
new
SAT
may
not
necessarily
word
its
questions
so
bluntly;
rather
than
ask
you
the
purpose
or
function
of
each
paragraph
in
a
text,
the
test
may
ask
about
the
way
the
author
creates
an
argument,
structures
his/her
claim,
reinforces
his/her
position,
builds
on
the
argument,
refutes
the
argument,
or
similar.
These
are
really
just
forms
of
asking
you
What
is
the
purpose
of
this
paragraph
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since
it
is
through
the
organization
and
structure
of
each
individual
paragraph
that
writers
most
effectively
structure
and
word
their
arguments.
156
157
Every
day
seems
to
turn
up
opportunities
to
abuse
science
in
new
and
perverse
ways,
especially
when
it
comes
to
health.
You
open
a
newspaper
or
news
site,
and
you
read
about
a
health
claim
making
the
rounds:
a
diet
that
will
give
you
the
energy
of
a
teenager,
an
exercise
routine
that
will
elongate
your
legs,
a
policy
that
will
protect
Americans
from
scary
viruses.
Many
of
these
claims
even
the
ones
that
come
from
the
lips
of
the
most
esteemed
doctors
and
public
officials
aren't
backed
by
any
good
evidence.
Some
even
run
in
the
opposite
direction
of
what
the
best-available
evidence
tells
us.
In
the
interest
of
the
correcting
the
record,
we
rounded
up
the
most
egregious
abuses
of
health
science
in
2014.
What
are
some
words
that
signal
the
authors
perspective
on
these
health
claims?
Well,
we
have
the
sarcastic
phrases
a
diet
that
will
give
you
the
energy
of
a
teenager,"
"an
exercise
routine
that
will
elongate
your
legs,"
"a
policy
that
will
protect
Americans
from
scary
viruses.
All
of
these
are
semi-sarcastic
indications
that
the
author
thinks
that
these
claims
are
silly
--
clearly,
if
you
use
logic,
it
is
easy
to
see
that
no
diet
can
actually
elongate
your
legs.
But
perhaps
more
obvious
are
the
following
phrases
arent
backed
by
any
good
evidence
run
in
the
opposite
direction
of
what
the
best-available
evidence
tells
us.
And
finally,
most
egregious
abuses
of
health
science
should
indicate
pretty
clearly
that
what
is
about
to
follow
is,
in
the
authors
opinion,
arrant
nonsense.
All
of
this
is
established
by
certain
signal
words,
which
establish
the
tone,
which
make
it
pretty
clear
what
the
authors
perspective
is.
Broadly
categorized,
its
obvious
that
the
perspective
is
negative.
But
within
that
negativity
lie
shades
and
nuances,
as
indicated
in
the
following
question:
The
authors
perspective
in
this
piece
is
that
of
A.
A
social
reformer
on
a
crusade
B.A
medical
professional
dispensing
advice
C.A
scholar
exposing
bedrocks
of
hypocrisy
D.
An
observer
interested
in
scientific
integrity
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Now,
it
becomes
quite
clear
from
these
answer
choices
that
these
answer
choices
reach
far
beyond
the
negative,
positive,
and
neutral
designations.
So
examine
them
closely.
Option
A
is
tempting
--
after
all,
this
writer
is
very
unimpressed
with
the
egregious
abuses
of
health
science
committed
in
2014.
And
one
could
argue
that
correcting
these
misimpressions
is
a
type
of
social
reform.
So
though
this
isnt
a
perfect
analogy,
keep
it
for
now.
B
is
tempting
too;
however,
there
is
no
evidence
that
this
writer
is
a
medical
professional,
nor
is
there
any
advice
being
dispensed
--
only
facts
(presumably).
Be
careful
of
choices
like
these
and
again,
pay
attention
to
the
nuance.
The
third
option
is
also
tempting
--
however,
there
isnt
any
hypocrisy
here,
just
misinformation.
And
again,
theres
no
indication
that
this
person
is
any
sort
of
scholar.
Finally,
D
is
tempting
--
observer
is
general
enough
to
be
true
(clearly,
this
person
did
observe
what
s/he
feels
to
be
egregious
abuses
of
health
science)
without
inserting
any
background
or
credential
that
isnt
stated
in
the
text
(i.e.
medical
professional
or
scholar),
and
the
second
part
works
as
well
--
correcting
this
misinformation
is
indeed
a
form
of
pursuing
scientific
integrity.
So
between
A
and
D,
think
about
which
is
more
accurate
--
theres
more
evidence
for
the
pursuit
of
scientific
integrity
than
for
the
crusade
for
various
social
reformers.
The
SAT
will
ask
you
about
the
perspectives
of
multiple
kinds
of
texts.
Try
this
one,
from
a
New
York
Times
entitled
Should
You
Have
Things:
...the
loss
of
possessions,
ones
deeply
associated
with
the
self,
can
cause
real
grief.
At
The
New
Yorker,
Allen
Kurzweil
writes
about
one
such
possession
an
Omega
Seamaster
watch
that
had
belonged
to
his
father,
who
died
when
he
was
5.
The
watch
fell
victim,
he
believes,
to
the
influence
of
his
boarding-school
bully,
Cesar
Augusto
Viana:
Within
the
week,
his
henchman
admitted
that
hed
hurled
my
watch
off
a
balcony
on
a
dare.
I
ran
down
the
stairs,
dashed
outside,
and
dug
through
knee-
deep
snow
until
my
fingers
turned
white
and
tingly.
The
watch
never
surfaced.
The
loss
left
me
more
than
bereft.
I
felt
annihilated.
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Much
later,
after
hes
confronted
Mr.
Viana
as
an
adult,
Mr.
Kurzweil
realizes:
My
fathers
Omega
turned
out
to
be
more
than
a
talisman.
It
was
a
time
machine
that
had
transported
me
back
to
a
moment
when
my
family
was
intact
and
I
was
happy.
And,
he
writes:
When
I
told
my
wife
and
son
that
I
was
banishing
Cesar
from
our
lives,
they
celebrated
his
eviction
by
giving
me
an
extravagant
gift.
I
am
wearing
it
on
my
wrist.
Experiences,
good
or
bad,
may
become
stories,
but
Mr.
Kurzweils
account
suggests
that
things
may
have
a
narrative
power,
too.
They
may
help
us
tell
the
stories
of
our
lives,
of
what
weve
lost
and
what
weve
gained.
This
is
a
slightly
more
challenging
text
to
parse,
as
the
author
does
not
necessarily
offer
his
or
her
own
perspective
--
at
least
not
a
strongly-worded
one.
But
if
you
read
carefully,
paying
attention
to
text
structure
(i.e.
differentiating
between
the
quotes
from
outside
sources
and
the
perspective
of
the
writer
his
or
herself),
and
highlighting
important
signal
words,
youll
be
able
to
accurately
answer
this
question:
The
writers
perspective
on
material
objects
is
that
A.
Attachment
to
material
objects
signals
an
underdeveloped
sense
of
self
B.
Attachment
to
material
objects
encourages
a
sense
of
victimhood
C.
We
must
be
careful
of
the
power
of
our
attachment
to
material
objects
D.
Attachment
to
material
objects
is
psychologically
powerful
for
a
reason
This
will
be
easy
to
answer
if
you
pay
attention
to
the
fact
that
the
writer
is
careful
not
to
express
a
strongly
worded
opinion;
instead,
s/he
allows
the
sources
and
the
quotes
to
speak
for
themselves.
Nowhere
does
the
writer
indicate
that
s/he
believes
that
A
is
correct,
and
while
B
clearly
plays
on
the
story
of
bullying
described
in
the
third
paragraph,
this
story
of
bullying
itself
was
not
motivated
by
the
material
object,
nor
was
the
attachment
to
the
object
the
reason
for
Mr.
Kurzweils
sense
of
victimhood.
C
is
somewhat
plausible,
as
the
author
does
state
in
the
last
paragraph
that
material
objects
have
a
narrative
power,
but
the
author
doesnt
indicate
that
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this
is
a
power
that
should
cause
us
to
be
wary
or
careful.
Instead,
D
is
clearly
the
best
answer,
as
it
indicates
that
these
material
objects
do
have
power
and
that
this
power
does
have
a
reason
(they
may
help
us
tell
the
stories
of
our
lives.)
As
you
can
see,
perspective
isnt
always
indicated
in
strongly
worded
rants;
it
is
just
one
of
the
ways
that
writers
can
frame
or
illustrate
their
ideas.
Understanding
point
of
view
requires
a
fair
amount
of
reading
comprehension.
You
must
be
comfortable
with
analyzing
word
choice
and
text
structure,
with
isolating
details
from
the
text,
and
with
citing
textual
evidence
for
the
correct
answer.
Additionally,
you
must
read
the
text
carefully
in
order
to
differentiate
between
the
authors
perspective
and
that
of
the
figures
involved
in
the
narrative.
Finally,
the
SAT
will
present
a
multitude
of
seemingly
plausible
choices
when
it
asks
you
to
parse
the
particular
perspective
of
a
piece.
Try
assessing
the
perspectives
found
in
the
following
article,
excerpted
from
The
Atlantic,
which
presents
multiple
perspectives:
And
yet,
on
Tuesday
morning,
the
nuns
and
priests
who
presented
the
findings
of
[a
report
about
American
nuns]
seemed
hopefulfor
the
future
of
American
nuns,
but
also
for
the
relationship
between
U.S.
sisters
and
the
Vatican,
which
has
been
strained.
The
report
recognizes
some
women's
"perception
of
not
having
enough
input
into
pastoral
decisions
which
affect
them
or
about
which
they
have
considerable
experience
and
expertise."
And
the
Vatican
let
[a
nun]
fully
design
and
execute
the
report,
which
other
[nuns]
appreciated:
When
representatives
visited
her
congregation,
Holland
said,
"it
was
evident
that
these
were
sisters
like
us,
to
whom
we
could
speak
openly
and
honestly."
Holland's
reaction
is
particularly
revealing,
because
she
speaks
for
an
organization
of
American
sisters
that
has
long
been
criticized
by
the
Vatican.
[Nuns]
in
the
United
States
are
represented
by
two
organizations:
The
Leadership
Conference
of
Women
Religious,
or
LCWR,
an
association
of
congregation
leaders
that
represents
about
80
percent
of
American
sisters;
and
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the
Council
of
Major
Superiors
of
Women
Religious,
or
CMSWR,
which
represents
the
other
20
percent.
The
Council
is
typically
characterized
as
more
"conservative,"
or
traditional:
Most
of
the
women
it
represents
wear
habits,
and
some
live
in
cloisters.
The
LCWR,
on
the
other
hand,
represents
many
congregations
whose
members
wear
street
clothes
and
work
in
their
local
communities.
The
chairwoman
of
the
more
conservative
CMSWR,
Mother
Agnes
Mary
Donovan,
was
very
positive
about
the
report,
saying
the
information-gathering
process
"was
overwhelmingly
a
beautiful
experience."
She
noted
that
the
average
age
of
women
religious
represented
by
the
CMSWR
is
53,
which
is
"well
below
the
average
trend."
Nearly
1,000
women
are
preparing
to
take
their
final
vows
into
CMSWR
organizations,
which
she
said
was
a
good
sign
for
recruitment.
But
the
report
warned
that
the
less
traditional
lifestyles
of
the
majority
of
U.S.
congregations
might
be
a
turn-off
for
women
who
are
interested
in
religious
life.
"Candidates
often
desire
the
experience
of
living
in
formative
communities
and
many
wish
to
be
externally
recognizable
as
consecrated
women
[by
wearing
habits],"
it
says.
"This
is
a
particular
challenge
in
institutes
whose
current
lifestyle
does
not
emphasize
these
aspects
of
religious
life."
Among
the
women
who
live
in
those
less
traditional
congregations,
the
report
will
likely
be
met
with
mixed
reactions.
As
Holland
said
during
the
press
conference,
"The
visitation
was
met
by
some
...
with
suspicion
and
apprehension."
Not
all
congregations
agreed
to
participate
in
the
study,
which
representatives
of
the
Vatican
called
"a
painful
disappointment."
And
this
report
says
nothing
about
the
ongoing
investigation
into
the
activities
and
teachings
of
the
LCWR,
which
"often
contradict
or
ignore
magisterial
teaching,"
as
a
2012
Church
document
put
it.
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Although
there
may
be
hope
for
healing
between
American
nuns
and
the
Vatican,
and
although
there's
clearly
a
strong
will
to
address
the
issues
facing
women
religious,
this
report
mostly
surfaces
issues,
rather
than
resolving
them.
"I'm
concerned
about
those
who
may
still
be
angry,"
Holland
said."
Now,
this
piece
presents
multiple
perspectives
--
as
well
as
a
shifting
timeline
--
on
one
report.
Because
this
is
the
excerpt
to
a
larger
piece,
and
because
this
text
details
the
lifestyles
of
a
particular
subculture
that
may
not
be
known
to
you,
this
may
be
a
difficult
text
to
parse.
But
if
you
annotate
the
text,
keeping
the
different
players
straight,
then
you
should
be
able
to
answer
the
following
questions
without
an
issue.
First,
read
the
questions
and
see
whose
perspectives
the
question
is
asking
about;
then,
go
back
to
the
text
and
underline,
star,
or
color-code
the
particular
players
that
the
article
is
asking
you
about.
This
should
make
it
easier
to
keep
track
of
who
is
speaking,
and
what
their
particular
perspective
is.
Based
on
the
article,
the
majority
of
American
nuns
would
take
which
perspective
on
the
results
of
this
report?
A.
Most
American
nuns
would
react
with
painful
disappointment
B.
Most
American
nuns
would
have
no
unified
perspective
on
this
report
C.
Most
American
nuns
would
be
angry
about
this
report
D.
Most
American
nuns
would
be
very
positive
about
this
report
In
order
to
answer
this
question,
you
must
understand
who
this
majority
of
American
nuns
is.
After
all,
there
are
two
major
groups
mentioned:
"[Nuns]
in
the
United
States
are
represented
by
two
organizations:
The
Leadership
Conference
of
Women
Religious,
or
LCWR,
an
association
of
congregation
leaders
that
represents
about
80
percent
of
American
sisters;
and
the
Council
of
Major
Superiors
of
Women
Religious,
or
CMSWR,
which
represents
the
other
20
percent.
The
Council
is
typically
characterized
as
more
"conservative,"
or
traditional:
Most
of
the
women
it
represents
wear
habits,
and
some
live
in
cloisters.
The
LCWR,
on
the
other
hand,
represents
many
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congregations
whose
members
wear
street
clothes
and
work
in
their
local
communities."
Clearly,
the
article
is
asking
you
about
that
80%,
i.e.
the
slightly
less
traditional
group
of
sisters
who
wear
street
clothes
(as
opposed
to
habits)
and
work
in
their
local
communities.
This
automatically
eliminates
any
answer
choice
that
gives
the
perspective
of
that
20%
of
more
traditional
nuns.
Now
that
you
recognize
this,
read
answer
A.
The
article
does
mention
the
words
painful
disappointment,
but
this
isnt
part
of
the
perspective
of
the
nuns
--
instead,
its
the
reaction
of
the
Vatican
to
some
congregations
unwillingness
to
participate
in
this
survey.
Scratch
A.
B
claims
that
most
nuns
would
have
no
unified
perspective.
If
you
read
the
article
closely,
youll
see
that
Holland,
who
seems
to
speak
for
that
80%
of
less
traditional
sisters,
at
times
is
hopeful
(other
nuns
appreciated;
it
was
obvious
these
were
sisters
like
us
and
we
could
speak
honestly
and
openly;
the
visit
was
met
by
some
with
suspicion
and
apprehension;
Im
concerned
about
those
who
may
still
be
angry.)
Most
tellingly,
the
article
states
that
these
less
traditional
nuns
--
i.e.,
eighty
percent
of
nuns
in
America,
i.e.
the
majority
that
this
question
is
asking
about
--
will
have
mixed
reactions
to
this
report.
Taking
all
of
these
factors
into
consideration,
it
is
clearly
difficult
to
find
a
unified
perspective
here
that
all
American
nuns
would
espouse.
B
is
clearly
the
correct
answer.
C
claims
that
most
American
nuns
would
be
angry,
but
theres
no
evidence
for
that
from
the
text
--
the
text
does
claim
that
some
might
be
angry,
but
this
isnt
the
majority
of
American
sisters.
D
claims
that
these
nuns
would
feel
very
positive
about
the
report,
but
again,
there
is
no
evidence
for
this
in
the
text;
it
is
the
minority
of
American
nuns
(that
20%
of
more
conservative
nuns)
who
would
probably
feel
very
positive
about
the
report,
considering
that
their
spokeswoman
called
the
experience
of
gathering
information
for
the
report
overwhelmingly
a
beautiful
experience.
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This
was
a
hard
question
to
answer,
because
it
asks
you
to
understand
each
part
of
the
text
as
well
as
to
rely
on
inference
and
nuance
rather
than
the
more
obvious
triggers
of
strong
language,
description,
and
tone.
Based
on
the
article,
most
American
nuns
take
which
of
the
following
perspectives
on
the
Vatican?
A.
They
are
above
all
devoted
to
the
Vaticans
strictures
B.
They
have
entirely
broken
from
the
Vaticans
decrees
C.
They
have
an
uneasy
relationship
to
the
Vaticans
authority
D.
They
remain
objectively
neutral
to
the
Vatican
Remember,
this
question
asks
you
about
most
American
nuns,
so
be
sure
that
you
are
paying
attention
to
that
80%
of
nuns
instead
of
the
20%.
If
you
read
the
article
carefully,
youll
see
that
the
relationship
[between
the
two]
has
been
strained,
and
that
many
American
sisters
have
been
criticized
by
the
Vatican
for
contradicting
and
ignoring
magisterial
teachings.
Moreover,
some
congregations
refused
to
participate
in
this
Vatican-sponsored
fact-finding
mission,
clearly
indicating
that
they
have
little
interest
in
helping
the
Vatican.
All
of
this
helps
to
get
rid
of
Option
A.
Option
B
clearly
cant
be
true
since
many
of
these
women
DID
participate
in
this
Vatican
survey,
and
had
mixed
feelings
towards
it
--
if
they
have
entirely
broken
from
the
Vatican,
surely
they
wouldnt
have
cared
about
healing
their
relationship
to
the
institution.
C
surely
seems
to
be
true,
whereas
D
is
clearly
false.
Clearly,
C
is
the
only
correct
answer.
Determining
point
of
view
is
about
more
than
just
figuring
out
if
the
article
is
written
in
first,
second,
or
third
person.
Signal
words,
adjectives,
and
other
descriptions
can
help
you
figure
out
the
perspective
espoused
by
the
writer
or
by
one
of
his/her
sources,
but
its
also
important
to
remember
that
you
must
bear
in
mind
text
structure
and
organization
when
reading
to
discover
perspectives,
as
these
will
help
you
follow
along
and
understand
the
multiple
perspectives
that
may
be
contained
in
a
single
text.
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166
war,
and
to
outlive
the
menace
of
tyranny,
if
necessary
for
years,
if
necessary
alone.
At
any
rate,
that
is
what
we
are
going
to
try
to
do.
That
is
the
resolve
of
His
Majestys
Government-every
man
of
them.
That
is
the
will
of
Parliament
and
the
nation.
The
British
Empire
and
the
French
Republic,
linked
together
in
their
cause
and
in
their
need,
will
defend
to
the
death
their
native
soil,
aiding
each
other
like
good
comrades
to
the
utmost
of
their
strength.
Even
though
large
tracts
of
Europe
and
many
old
and
famous
States
have
fallen
or
may
fall
into
the
grip
of
the
Gestapo
and
all
the
odious
apparatus
of
Nazi
rule,
we
shall
not
flag
or
fail.
We
shall
go
on
to
the
end,
we
shall
fight
in
France,
we
shall
fight
on
the
seas
and
oceans,
we
shall
fight
with
growing
confidence
and
growing
strength
in
the
air,
we
shall
defend
our
Island,
whatever
the
cost
may
be,
we
shall
fight
on
the
beaches,
we
shall
fight
on
the
landing
grounds,
we
shall
fight
in
the
fields
and
in
the
streets,
we
shall
fight
in
the
hills;
we
shall
never
surrender,
and
even
if,
which
I
do
not
for
a
moment
believe,
this
Island
or
a
large
part
of
it
were
subjugated
and
starving,
then
our
Empire
beyond
the
seas,
armed
and
guarded
by
the
British
Fleet,
would
carry
on
the
struggle,
until,
in
Gods
good
time,
the
New
World,
with
all
its
power
and
might,
steps
forth
to
the
rescue
and
the
liberation
of
the
old.
The
purpose
of
this
speech
was
most
likely:
A.A
declaration
of
independence
B.
The
setting
of
a
new
agenda
for
the
nation
C.
An
inspirational
battle
cry
D.
The
pillorying
of
a
public
enemy
From
context,
you
should
have
figured
out
that
this
speech
was
given
sometime
during
WWII.
Knowing
this,
you
can
easily
scratch
A
--
this
isnt
a
declaration
of
independence
so
much
as
a
call
to
war.
B
is
also
uninspiring
--
while
Churchill
is
setting
an
agenda
of
war
for
the
nation
with
his
insistence
that
we
shall
not
flag
or
fail.
we
shall
fight
on
the
seas
and
oceans
his
passionate
declamation
is
at
odds
with
the
dry,
corporate
tone
of
B.
C
is
certainly
correct,
as
evidenced
by
Churchills
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obvious
passion
and
fiery
language
(we
shall
never
surrender
even
if
this
Island
were
subjugated
then
our
empire
beyond
the
seas
would
carry
on
the
struggle)
Clearly,
he
is
attempting
to
inspire
his
people
and
assure
them
of
their
victory
over
the
Nazis.
And
while
he
clearly
has
no
love
for
the
Nazi
regime,
this
speech
is
less
concerned
with
pillorying
(criticizing)
this
public
enemy
than
inspiring
the
British
population.
Every
text,
even
the
driest
one,
has
some
kind
of
purpose;
sometimes,
as
with
this
text,
paying
attention
to
the
intended
audience
will
also
help
you
to
understand
the
purpose
of
a
text.
This
speech
was
given
at
the
House
of
Commons
but
likely
broadcast
on
the
wireless,
so
its
safe
to
assume
that
the
audience
was
the
entire
population
of
England.
When
the
audience
is
that
large,
the
writers
purpose
will
clearly
be
different
from
the
his/her
purpose
when
addressing
a
small,
intimate
gathering.
For
example,
try
to
assess
the
audience
and
the
purpose
of
the
following
excerpt,
given
by
First
Lady
Michelle
Obama
at
the
Brookings
Institute
in
December
2014:
And
then
there
are
the
issues
of
quality
and
value,
which
are
similarly
complex.
As
you
know,
when
deciding
whether
its
worth
sending
their
girls
to
school,
parents
arent
just
asking
themselves,
will
this
be
a
good
experience
for
my
daughter,
theyre
calculating
what
those
school
fees
will
mean
for
their
familys
food
budget,
theyre
contemplating
the
loss
of
household
help
that
is
critical
to
the
survival
of
that
family.
So
they
want
to
see
real
evidence
that
their
daughter
is
learning
real,
marketable
skills
-
things
like
literacy,
numeracy,
vocational
skills
that
will
help
her
provide
for
herself
and,
ultimately,
her
family.
Thats
the
kind
of
bar
that
we
need
to
clear
as
we
move
forward.
Because
in
our
work
to
educate
girls,
especially
adolescent
girls,
were
often
asking
families
to
do
what
seems
to
be
in
the
exact
opposite
of
their
daughters
and
their
families
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best
interests.
Often,
were
asking
them
to
change
or
disregard
some
of
their
most
strongly
held
values
and
traditions.
So,
yes,
we
need
more
infrastructure.
We
need
more
resources.
And,
yes,
we
need
more
good
laws
and
policies
-
those
are
absolutely
the
necessary
building
blocks
for
change.
But
we
also
need
buy-in
from
those
families
and
those
communities.
We
need
parents
to
actually
believe
that
their
daughters
are
as
worthy
of
an
education
as
their
sons,
and
that
sending
girls
to
school
is
a
good
investment
for
their
future.
And
that
might
take
some
real
effort
on
the
ground
to
actually
understand
peoples
concerns,
to
gain
their
trust,
to
determine
what
resources
they
need
to
make
the
sacrifice
of
educating
their
daughters.
What
is
First
Lady
Obamas
purpose
in
giving
this
talk?
A.
To
inform
the
nation
about
a
major
problem
facing
girls
and
women
worldwide.
B.
To
criticize
the
mishandling
of
an
international
crisis.
C.
To
persuade
the
members
of
this
institute
to
contribute
funds
for
the
amelioration
of
this
issue.
D.
To
spur
greater
involvement
among
key
players
poised
to
redress
the
issue
of
girls
neglected
educations
worldwide
Remember,
the
context
of
this
speech
is
given
to
you:
First
Lady
Obama
is
speaking
at
the
Brookings
Institute.
Even
if
you
dont
know
that
the
Institute
is
a
think
tank
based
in
Washington
D.C.,
it
should
be
clear
that
this
isnt
a
State
of
the
Union
address
aimed
at
the
entirety
of
the
nation,
but
a
talk
given
to
a
limited
number
of
members
of
the
American
public.
Therefore
you
can
scratch
A
immediately
--
the
First
Lady
is
not
informing
the
nation
but
instead
addressing
a
group
of
people
who
are
likely
already
acquainted
with
the
depths
of
this
issue.
Nor
does
B
have
any
basis
in
the
text
--
there
is
no
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criticism,
nor
any
indication
that
the
First
Lady
believes
that
there
has
been
a
mishandling
of
the
crisis.
C
isnt
particularly
convincing
either
--
though
the
First
Lady
does
detail
some
of
the
challenges
that
girls
worldwide
face,
nowhere
does
she
ask
for
more
funds
to
address
these
issues.
Clearly,
D
is
the
only
correct
answer
--
the
First
Lady
succinctly
highlights
some
of
the
issues
that
girls
worldwide
face,
as
well
as
possible
avenues
to
take
when
addressing
those
problems.
And
the
fact
that
she
is
giving
this
speech
to
a
small
number
of
people
at
a
think
tank
clearly
indicates
that
these
are
the
people
who
have
some
sort
of
influence
and
ways
to
deal
with
this
problem.
So
while
this
certainly
falls
under
the
broad
umbrella
of
informing,
with
a
slight
tinge
of
persuading,
this
speech
is
clearly
far
more
nuanced
than
either
of
those
designations
can
adequately
capture.
The
SAT
will
also
test
your
understanding
of
the
purpose
of
literary
narratives.
Obviously,
a
literary
narratives
purpose
will
always
be,
on
some
level,
to
entertain.
But
when
reading,
try
to
go
beyond
the
idea
of
literature
as
entertainment.
Delve
into
the
context
and
pay
attention
to
signal
words
that
will
help
you
to
understand
the
true
purpose
of
the
authors
writing.
With
questions
about
purpose,
the
answer
choices
are
your
friend
--
youre
not
being
asked
to
get
into
the
authors
mind,
necessarily,
just
to
pick
the
most
plausible
out
of
a
range
of
options.
In
essence,
the
work
has
already
been
done
for
you;
you
just
need
to
recognize
the
right
answer.
Try
to
figure
out
the
purpose
of
this
brief
literary
passage,
Snow,
by
Julia
Alvarez:
Our
first
year
in
New
York
we
rented
a
small
apartment
with
a
Catholic
school
nearby,
taught
by
the
Sisters
of
Charity,
hefty
women
in
long
black
gowns
and
bonnets
that
made
them
look
peculiar,
like
dolls
in
mourning.
I
liked
them
a
lot,
especially
my
grandmotherly
fourth
grade
teacher,
Sister
Zoe.
I
had
a
lovely
name,
she
said,
and
she
had
me
teach
the
whole
class
how
to
pronounce
it.
Yo-
lan-da.
As
the
only
immigrant
in
my
class,
I
was
put
in
a
special
seat
in
the
first
row
by
the
window,
apart
from
the
other
children
so
that
Sister
Zoe
could
tutor
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me
without
disturbing
them.
Slowly,
she
enunciated
the
new
words
I
was
to
repeat:
laundromat,
cornflakes,
subway,
snow.
Soon
I
picked
up
enough
English
to
understand
holocaust
was
in
the
air.
Sister
Zoe
explained
to
a
wide
eyed
classroom
what
was
happening
in
Cuba.
Russian
missiles
were
being
assembled,
trained
supposedly
on
New
York
City.
President
Kennedy,
looking
worried
too,
was
on
the
television
at
home,
explaining
we
might
have
to
go
to
war
against
the
Communists.
At
school,
we
had
air
raid
drills:
an
ominous
bell
would
go
off
and
we'd
file
into
the
hall,
fall
to
the
floor,
cover
our
heads
with
our
coats,
and
imagine
our
hair
falling
out,
the
bones
in
our
arms
going
soft.
At
home,
Mami
and
my
sisters
and
I
said
a
rosary
for
world
peace.
I
heard
new
vocabulary:
nuclear
bomb,
radioactive
fallout,
bomb
shelter.
Sister
Zoe
explained
how
it
would
happen.
She
drew
a
picture
of
a
mushroom
on
the
blackboard
and
dotted
a
flurry
of
chalk
marks
for
the
dusty
fallout
that
would
kill
us
all.
The
months
grew
cold,
November,
December.
It
was
dark
when
I
got
up
in
the
morning,
frosty
when
I
followed
my
breath
to
school.
One
morning
as
I
sat
at
my
desk
daydreaming
out
the
window,
I
saw
dots
in
the
air
like
the
ones
Sister
Zoe
had
drawn
random
at
first,
then
lots
and
lots.
I
shrieked,
"Bomb!
Bomb!"
Sister
Zoe
jerked
around,
her
full
black
skirt
ballooning
as
she
hurried
to
my
side.
A
few
girls
began
to
cry.
But
then
Sister
Zoe's
shocked
look
faded.
"Why,
Yolanda
dear,
that's
snow!"
She
laughed.
"Snow."
"Snow,"
I
repeated.
I
looked
out
the
window
warily.
All
my
life
I
had
heard
about
the
white
crystals
that
fell
out
of
American
skies
in
the
winter.
From
my
desk
I
watched
the
fine
powder
dust
the
sidewalk
and
parked
cars
below.
Each
flake
was
different,
Sister
Zoe
had
said,
like
a
person,
irreplaceable
and
beautiful.
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What
is
the
authors
purpose
in
recounting
this
story?
A.
To
illustrate
the
hardships
that
new
immigrants
face
when
assimilating
to
their
new
country
B.
To
provide
a
searing
indictment
of
Americas
Cold
War
policy
C.
To
give
a
poignant
snapshot
of
the
various
joys
and
challenges
of
learning
to
be
an
American
D.
To
demonstrate
the
fear
that
many
children
felt
during
the
Cold
War
Though
the
excerpt
is
brief,
you
can
easily
isolate
its
main
subject,
which
is
immigration
and
assimilation
into
American
society.
Yet
Option
A
is
clearly
incorrect
--
though
immigrating
to
the
United
States
is
no
doubt
a
difficult
enterprise,
especially
without
an
adequate
command
of
English,
this
brief
excerpt
details
none
of
the
hardships
of
assimilation.
You
may
have
highlighted
the
holocaust
was
in
the
air
line
to
support
this
answer,
yet
remember
that
any
hardships
that
came
with
being
in
America
during
the
early
1960s
were
shared
by
all
Americans,
not
just
immigrants.
(We
know
that
the
story
takes
place
in
the
early
1960s
because
of
the
mention
of
President
Kennedy,
who
served
as
President
from
1961
-
1963.)
B
is
also
incorrect
--
this
is
clearly
not
a
polemic
against
American
policies
since
no
policies
are
even
mentioned
here.
The
author
presents
the
holocaust
in
the
air
as
a
fact
of
life,
not
something
to
rail
against.
C
seems
to
be
the
best
answer,
as
the
piece
as
a
whole
is
largely
about
the
different
aspects
of
learning
to
be
an
American
--
everything
from
learning
a
language
to
experiencing
snow
for
the
first
time
is
part
and
parcel
of
these
joys
and
hardships.
D
isnt
a
terrible
answer,
as
this
passage
does
clearly
demonstrate
fear,
yet
considering
the
upbeat
ending
and
the
matter-of-fact
way
in
which
the
author
discusses
the
fear
that
she
and
her
family
and
classmates
felt,
this
is
a
less
convincing
answer
than
C,
which
more
fully
encompasses
every
aspect
of
the
passage.
172
In
learning
to
parse
purpose,
you
must
consider
the
text
as
a
whole.
What
is
its
main
focus?
What
most
concerns
the
author?
Are
there
ideas
or
themes
that
are
consistently
repeated?
Who
is
the
intended
audience?
All
of
these
considerations
will
help
you
to
better
understand
purpose
and
to
accurately
answer
questions
about
an
authors
purpose
in
writing
and
publishing
a
text.
173
174
identify
the
claim,
as
a
sophisticated
argument
will
also
include
what
is
called
a
counterclaim.
Counterclaims:
Counterclaims
provide
an
opposing
viewpoint
to
the
central
claim.
Including
a
counterclaim
in
your
writing
helps
you
to
prove
that
yes,
your
opinion
is
the
best-
substantiated
/
most
widely-supported
one.
By
giving
the
opposition
a
voice
and
then
knocking
it
down,
the
writer
demonstrates
a
deep
competence
and
familiarity
with
the
topic
--
provided
that
s/he
can
effectively
address
the
counterclaim.
Look
at
the
way
this
author
structured
his
counterclaim:
One
of
the
ways
in
which
ordinary
people
can
prevent
gingivitis
is
by
gargling
twice
daily
with
a
dentist-approved
mouthwash.
However,
in
a
recent
survey
of
American
dentists,
some
questioned
the
use
of
mouthwash
as
a
tactic
to
prevent
gingivitis.
As
you
can
see,
the
second
sentence
indicates
that
the
author
is
presenting
a
counterclaim
--
a
refutation
to
the
central
claim
that
using
mouthwash
is
an
effective
tactic
for
preventing
gingivitis.
One
easy
way
to
spot
a
counterclaim
is
to
look
for
signal
words
like
however,
but,
on
the
other
hand,
yet,
in
contrast,
otherwise,
notwithstanding,
nevertheless,
on
the
contrary
--
any
words
that
signal
a
contrast
will
help
you
find
the
counterclaim.
In
fact,
if
youre
having
a
hard
time
finding
the
actual
argument
in
the
essay,
work
backwards.
Look
for
the
transitional
words
that
may
signal
a
counterclaim,
and
assess
what
the
counterclaim
says.
Then
figure
out
the
claim
it
is
attempting
to
refute.
Countering
the
Counterclaim:
Sophisticated
essays
counter
their
counterclaims
in
order
to
illustrate
how
thoroughly
they
have
considered
the
topic
and
how
effectively
they
can
argue.
Writers
include
counterclaims
either
to
knock
them
down,
as
in
a
persuasive
essay,
or
to
maintain
objectivity
by
showing
the
other
side
of
the
story,
as
in
a
piece
of
journalism.
What
is
the
aim
in
this
piece?
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One
of
the
ways
in
which
ordinary
people
can
prevent
gingivitis
is
by
gargling
twice
daily
with
a
dentist-approved
mouthwash.
However,
in
a
recent
survey
of
American
dentists,
some
questioned
the
use
of
mouthwash
as
a
tactic
to
prevent
gingivitis.
The
survey,
which
was
released
on
Tuesday,
apparently
polled
a
total
of
three
dentists,
none
of
whom
had
completed
their
dental
studies.
Clearly,
this
writer
used
the
counterclaim
in
order
to
further
bolster
his
own
argument
--
by
discrediting
the
opposition.
Read
the
following
passage
--
a
commencement
address
by
Ursula
K.
LeGuin,
delivered
in
May
of
1983
--
and
determine
how
LeGuin
establishes
claims
and
counterclaims.
As
you
read,
evaluate
the
effectiveness
of
the
writers
strategy,
and
determine
the
purpose
of
setting
up
a
claim,
counterclaim,
and
refutation.
Intellectual
tradition
is
male.
Public
speaking
is
done
in
the
public
tongue,
the
national
or
tribal
language;
and
the
language
of
our
tribe
is
the
men's
language.
Of
course
women
learn
it.
We're
not
dumb.
If
you
can
tell
Margaret
Thatcher
from
Ronald
Reagan,
or
Indira
Gandhi
from
General
Somoza,
by
anything
they
say,
tell
me
how.
This
is
a
mans
world,
so
it
talks
a
mans
language.
The
words
are
all
words
of
power.
Youve
come
a
long
way,
baby,
but
no
way
is
long
enough.
You
cant
even
get
there
by
selling
yourself
out:
because
there
is
theirs,
not
yours.
Maybe
weve
had
enough
words
of
power
and
talk
about
the
battle
of
life.
Maybe
we
need
some
words
of
weakness.
Instead
of
saying
now
that
I
hope
you
will
all
go
forth
from
this
ivory
tower
of
college
into
the
Real
World
and
forge
a
triumphant
career
or
at
least
help
your
husband
to
and
keep
our
country
strong
and
be
a
success
in
everything
--
instead
of
talking
about
power,
what
if
I
talked
like
a
woman
right
here
in
public?
It
wont
sound
right.
Its
going
to
sound
terrible.
What
if
I
said
what
I
hope
for
you
is
first,
if
--
only
if
--
you
want
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175
176
kids,
I
hope
you
have
them.
Not
hordes
of
them.
A
couple,
enough.
I
hope
theyre
beautiful.
I
hope
you
and
they
have
enough
to
eat,
and
a
place
to
be
warm
and
clean
in,
and
friends,
and
work
you
like
doing.
Well,
is
that
what
you
went
to
college
for?
Is
that
all?
What
about
success?
Success
is
somebody
elses
failure.
Success
is
the
American
Dream
we
can
keep
dreaming
because
most
people
in
most
places,
including
thirty
million
of
ourselves,
live
wide
awake
in
the
terrible
reality
of
poverty.
No,
I
do
not
wish
you
success.
I
dont
even
want
to
talk
about
it.
I
want
to
talk
about
failure.
Because
you
are
human
beings
you
are
going
to
meet
failure.
You
are
going
to
meet
disappointment,
injustice,
betrayal,
and
irreparable
loss.
You
will
find
youre
weak
where
you
thought
yourself
strong.
Youll
work
for
possessions
and
then
find
they
possess
you.
You
will
find
yourself
--
as
I
know
you
already
have
--
in
dark
places,
alone,
and
afraid.
...So
what
I
hope
for
you
is
that
you
live
there
not
as
prisoners,
ashamed
of
being
women,
consenting
captives
of
a
psychopathic
social
system,
but
as
natives.
That
you
will
be
at
home
there,
keep
house
there,
be
your
own
mistress,
with
a
room
of
your
own.
That
you
will
do
your
work
there,
whatever
youre
good
at,
art
or
science
or
tech
or
running
a
company
or
sweeping
under
the
beds,
and
when
they
tell
you
that
its
second-class
work
because
a
woman
is
doing
it,
I
hope
you
tell
them
to
go
to
hell
and
while
theyre
going
to
give
you
equal
pay
for
equal
time.
I
hope
you
live
without
the
need
to
dominate,
and
without
the
need
to
be
dominated.
I
hope
you
are
never
victims,
but
I
hope
you
have
no
power
over
other
people.
And
when
you
fail,
and
are
defeated,
and
in
pain,
and
in
the
dark,
then
I
hope
you
will
remember
that
darkness
is
your
country,
where
you
live,
where
no
wars
are
fought
and
no
wars
are
won,
but
where
the
future
is.
177
What
is
LeGuins
central
claim?
A.
That
men
abuse
their
power
B.
That
victimhood
is
a
physically
and
emotionally
untenable
situation
C.
That
every
person
should
strive
to
define
themselves
as
they
want
D.
That
to
be
human
is
to
be
doomed
to
fail
LeGuin
makes
a
few
claims
over
the
course
of
this
argument,
and
they
are
all
subtly
constructed.
Though
she
would
probably
not
disagree
with
choice
A
--
the
language
of
our
tribe
is
the
mans
language
--
this
does
not
appear
to
be
her
central
claim;
remember,
a
central
claim
is
the
most
important
or
main
one
that
an
author
makes.
Though
LeGuin
discusses
the
language
of
the
tribe
she
does
not
focus
on
male
abuse
of
power.
Nor
does
she
focus
on
victimhood
--
she
mentions
it
once
in
the
last
line
of
her
speech.
C
is
a
well-supported
claim,
as
she
devotes
the
majority
of
the
speech
to
talking
like
a
woman
--
refuting
traditional
(ie
male)
ideas
of
success
by
encouraging
women
to
do
or
be
what
they
want
(including
mothers,
their
own
mistresses,
doing
whatever
[theyre]
good
at.
And
though
D
seems
correct
--
she
does
talk
about
failure
quite
extensively
--
the
word
doomed
suggests
that
LeGuin
sees
failure
as
something
negative,
to
be
avoided,
instead
of
natural
and
to
embraced.
Clearly,
C
is
the
best
answer.
Which
line
from
the
text
provides
the
best
counterclaim
to
LeGuins
central
assertion?
A.
No,
I
do
not
wish
you
success.
I
dont
even
want
to
talk
about
it.
B.
You
will
find
yourself
in
dark
places,
alone
and
afraid.
C.
I
hope
you
have
no
power
over
other
people.
D.
Well,
is
that
what
you
went
to
college
for?
Is
that
all?
Remember,
LeGuins
central
assertion
is
that
people
should
define
themselves
how
they
want,
without
recourse
to
external
benchmarks
about
what
constitutes
happiness.
Were
looking
for
an
effective
counter
to
that.
A
is
simply
an
extension
of
her
argument,
not
in
any
way
a
counter
of
it.
B
is
also
an
extension
of
her
argument
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178
(that
no
one
should
be
afraid
of
ending
up
in
dark
places.)
C,
too,
is
an
extension
of
her
argument.
Only
D
is
another
voice,
providing
another
perspective
on
her
argument.
D
asks
well,
what
about
success?
What
about
why
you
even
went
to
this
college
in
the
first
place?
D
makes
a
counterclaim
to
LeGuins
assertion
that
its
just
fine
to
make
motherhood
your
only
ambition.
This
question
what
about
success
/
why
did
you
go
to
college
is
only
important
to
LeGuins
argument
because
she
knocks
it
down
immediately,
saying
it
is
irrelevant.
Clearly,
she
only
includes
a
counterclaim
in
order
to
demonstrate
that
her
argument
takes
the
best
perspective.
What
is
LeGuins
tone
in
this
commencement
address?
A.
The
tone
of
an
optimist
who
believes
that
everything
will
turn
out
the
way
it
should
B.
The
tone
of
a
pessimist
who
believes
that
everyone
is
destined
to
fail
C.
The
tone
of
a
realist
who
acknowledges
the
various
possibilities
and
opportunities
that
exist
in
this
world
D.
The
tone
of
an
idealist
who
places
her
trust
in
a
higher
power
This
is
a
review
question
designed
to
jog
your
memory
about
strategies
used
to
analyze
tone.
It
should
be
clear
from
reviewing
LeGuins
claim
and
counterclaim
that
she
acknowledges
the
realities
of
the
world
--
she
talks
about
failure
and
darkness
too
much
to
be
considered
an
optimist.
But
nor
is
she
a
pessimist.
Clearly,
she
believes
in
the
power
of
possibility
as
well
as
the
strength
of
the
human
spirit.
There
is
no
evidence
that
she
places
her
trust
in
a
higher
power,
which
leaves
only
C
as
the
best
option
--
she
does
acknowledge
that
various
opportunities
and
possibilities
exist
in
this
world,
as
evidenced
by
her
obvious
hope
that
each
woman
is
her
own
mistress
and
her
insistence
that
darkness
is
your
country.
The
structure
and
content
of
this
argument
is
somewhat
unusual.
Try
your
hand
at
another
narrative
text,
and
this
time
consider
the
author's
purpose
in
including
the
various
claims
and
counterclaims
found
in
the
article.
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We
sent
you
to
college
to
learn
THIS?
That
was
the
reaction
that
Matilda
Flanagan,
19,
received
from
her
incensed
mother
after
she
came
home
during
winter
break
of
her
sophomore
year
of
college,
flushed
with
pride
and
relief
at
finally
having
chosen
a
major.
Flanagans
mother,
Brunhilde,
a
nurse,
had
hoped
her
daughter
--
a
straight
A
student
who
won
a
national
science
fair
in
the
eleventh
grade
for
her
rather
gory
project
on
the
life
cycle
of
a
tapeworm
--
would
go
on
to
major
in
chemical
engineering
or
biology,
something
really
practical
and
lucrative,
as
Brunhilde
bluntly
puts
it.
But
instead,
the
19
year
old
Flanagan,
who
describes
herself
as
a
huge
nerd,
had
chosen
to
take
another
path:
Fandom
Studies.
More
specifically,
her
concentration
was
on
the
collective
fascination
with
cultural
artifacts
of
the
1990s,
i.e.
Buffy
the
Vampire
Slayer
and
My
So
Called
Life.
Shes
majoring
in
television!
Brunhilde
Flanagan
raged
during
a
recent
interview.
I
mean,
why
are
we
paying
45k
a
year
for
her
to
write
some
essays
on
a
TV
show?
She
could
have
easily
done
that
while
living
at
home
and
working
at
Walgreens!
(Matilda
worked
15
hours
a
week
at
Walgreens
during
high
school.)
The
elder
Flanagan
isnt
alone
in
her
ire.
Increasingly,
the
parents
of
students
at
expensive
private
liberal
arts
colleges
are
throwing
up
their
hands
and
asking:
Where
exactly
is
my
money
going?
Bob
Litchfield,
a
litigator
from
Denver,
echoed
Brunhilde
Flanagans
frustration.
Why
exactly
is
Yale
charging
my
son
--
or
more
accurately,
me
--
over
fifty
thousand
dollars
a
year
so
that
he
can
study
Pokemon?
Please,
explain
this
to
me,
he
said
in
a
phone
interview,
the
anger
palpable
in
his
voice.
Litchfield
had
hoped
that
his
son,
a
20-year-old
classically
trained
violinist,
would
follow
his
footsteps
and
enter
the
rarefied
(not
to
mention
remunerative)
world
of
corporate
litigation.
But
Humperdinck
Litchfield
is
far
more
interested
in
demonstrating
how
Charmander
represents
the
shattered
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179
180
dreams
of
a
nation.
Since
matriculating
at
Yale,
he
has
become
fluent
in
Japanese,
and
has
committed
the
contents
of
every
Pokemon
card
ever
released
to
memory.
This
is
an
outrage,
says
Brandywine
Buckley,
a
stay-at-home
mother
of
quadruplets
who
attend
the
University
of
Florida.
Why
exactly
are
my
four
daughters
studying
pop
music?
One
of
them
recently
wrote
a
term
paper
on
what
Britney
Spears
means
for
our
culture.
Ill
tell
you
what
she
means:
she
means
youll
never
get
a
job
like
this!
We
wanted
our
daughter
to
become
a
statistician.
Why
is
she
wasting
her
time?
Money
is
certainly
a
central
concern
for
these
apoplectic
parents,
but
these
students
have
a
quick
response.
In
a
way,
this
is
the
definition
of
academics,
Matilda
said,
animated.
I
mean,
what
could
be
more
academic
than
pursuing
knowledge
that
is
by
definition
completely
and
entirely
useless
in
the
context
of
the
real
world?
I
dont
see
anybody
questioning
history
nerds
who
choose
to
spend
7
years
of
their
lives
in
the
library,
pursuing
pointless
degrees
in
medieval
history.
Why
is
that
allowed
--
heck,
even
celebrated
--
when
a
study
of
our
own
pop
culture
is
demonized?
To
which
her
mother
responded
drily,
medieval
historians
dont
exactly
make
any
money,
either.
The
battle
between
practical
parents
footing
impressively
(some
might
say
frighteningly)
high
tuition
bills
and
passionate
students
who
have
chosen
to
pursue
their
own
untraditional
paths
wont
end
anytime
soon,
as
more
and
more
universities
add
Cultural
Studies
classes
to
their
course
offerings.
It
is
impossible
to
say
whether
these
impractical
courses
of
study
will
outlive
the
current
decade,
as
more
and
more
graduates
of
cultural
studies
programs
graduate
with
serious
debt
and
no
immediately
applicable
job
skills
--
unless
you
count
the
ability
to
name
every
single
episode
of
Buffy
the
Vampire
Slayer
in
a
single
breath.
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AT
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180
181
This
is
an
interesting
piece
to
parse,
because
--
unlike
the
previous
straightforward
text
--
this
article
offers
multiple
perspectives
and
has
a
somewhat
untraditional
structure
with
seemingly
no
central
argument.
But
if
you
read
closely,
youll
see
two
sides
of
an
argument
emerge,
with
the
author
taking
a
position
of
her
own.
Its
important
that
you
are
able
to
apply
the
ability
to
assess
claims
and
counterclaims
even
to
texts
with
an
untraditional
structure,
as
you
will
be
learning
to
assess
all
forms
of
informative
texts
is
an
essential
skill
on
the
SAT,
in
college,
and
later
in
life.
What
is
the
central
claim
of
the
text
as
a
whole?
A.
That
cultural
studies
are
a
pointless
waste
of
time
B.
That
cultural
studies
are
the
purest
form
of
academic
inquiry
C.
That
cultural
studies
are
a
recent
phenomenon
that
has
sparked
strong
feelings
D.
That
cultural
studies
are
an
important
part
of
college
If
you
read
the
question
closely,
youll
see
that
you
are
being
asked
to
assess
the
central
claim
of
the
whole
text,
NOT
any
individual
claim
espoused
by
one
person.
This
question
is
basically
asking
you
what
the
text
is
ABOUT.
While
answers
A
and
B
are
opinions
held
by
the
various
players
in
this
article,
neither
is
the
point
of
the
text,
or
the
central
claim
that
the
author
makes.
All
the
author
is
trying
to
do
is
illustrate
a
recent
trend,
making
C
the
best
answer;
there
is
no
evidence
for
D.
Based
on
the
article,
what
is
the
primary
underlying
motivation
for
these
irate
parents
anger?
A.
Parents
are
concerned
that
cultural
studies
will
interfere
with
their
childrens
social
skills
B.
Parents
are
concerned
that
cultural
studies
will
not
adequately
prepare
their
children
for
the
job
market
C.
Parents
are
concerned
that
cultural
studies
are
shallow
and
unproductive
D.
Parents
are
concerned
that
cultural
studies
are
extremely
expensive
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AT
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181
182
This
question
asks
you
to
assess
the
claims
made
by
the
parents
interviewed
in
the
article
and
evaluate
the
reasoning
behind
them.
It
is
fairly
obvious
that
parents
think
that
cultural
studies
are
a
waste
of
time,
but
though
obsessive
fandom
may
interfere
with
students
social
skills,
there
is
no
real
evidence
for
this
in
the
article
or
in
any
of
the
parents
arguments,
so
you
can
scratch
A.
B
is
a
strong
contender,
especially
considering
that
every
single
parent
interviewed
expressed
hopes
for
their
childrens
future
in
the
job
market
(see:
the
father
who
wanted
his
son
to
be
a
lawyer,
the
mother
who
hoped
her
daughter
would
be
a
statistician).
And
though
C
is
a
reasonable
inference,
it
doesnt
seem
to
be
the
primary
motivator
for
these
parents
anger.
D
is
also
a
reasonable
contender,
as
parents
mention
money
often
--
but
if
you
read
very
closely,
its
clear
that
they
are
willing
to
spend
a
lot
of
money
on
their
childrens
education
provided
their
children
actually
acquire
usable
skills
in
the
job
market.
So
its
not
necessarily
that
parents
are
reticent
about
spending
money
--
the
argument
has
more
to
do
with
disappointment
that
they
will
not
recoup
this
investment.
Clearly,
B
is
the
best
choice.
How
does
the
author
subtly
demonstrate
her
own
opinion
in
this
article?
A.
By
quoting
more
irate
parents
than
fandom-loving
students
B.
By
calling
Matilda
Flanagan
a
huge
nerd
C.
By
quoting
Matilda
Flanagan
extensively,
demonstrating
an
acceptance
of
Matildas
opinion
D.
By
subtly
insinuating
that
cultural
studies
are
impractical
Again,
this
really
is
a
question
about
claims
--
what
is
the
author
subtly
claiming,
and
how?
A
may
be
tempting
--
it
is
true
that
the
author
quotes
three
irate
parents
and
only
one
cultural
studies
student.
But
this
is
not
necessarily
indicative
of
an
obvious
bias;
its
possible
that
the
writer
did
not
have
the
same
access
to
students
as
she
did
to
parents.
Keep
this
answer
for
now,
but
consider
the
other
options.
B
is
clearly
incorrect,
because
Matilda
calls
herself
a
huge
nerd
(seemingly
as
a
point
of
pride).
And
C
cant
be
true
because
quoting
someone
extensively
does
not
imply
an
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AT
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182
183
endorsement
of
their
opinion
--
if
that
were
the
case,
both
A
and
C
would
be
correct.
But
the
last
paragraph
of
the
text
provides
evidence
for
D
--
the
author
calls
into
question
the
continued
existence
of
these
cultural
studies
program,
claiming
that
they
leave
students
with
no
applicable
job
skills
and
subtly
denigrating
the
skills
they
do
impart
(the
ability
to
name
all
the
episodes
of
Buffy
the
Vampire
Slayer
in
a
single
breath).
Though
this
is
supposedly
a
neutral
text
(the
author
sets
up
multiple
claims),
the
inclusion
of
this
last
sentence
is
a
not-so-subtle
hint
that
the
author
also
has
some
feelings
about
this
issue.
When
evaluating
a
claim
and/or
a
bias,
consider
any
reason
the
author
may
have
for
including
information.
If
it
doesnt
serve
the
obvious
purpose
of
bolstering
the
central
claim
(as
the
quotes
from
parents
and
students
do),
then
there
is
a
very
good
chance
that
it
is
being
included
for
the
sole
purpose
of
demonstrating
the
authors
opinion.
Claims
and
counterclaims
are
an
important
part
of
many
forms
of
writing,
whether
narrative,
expository,
or
persuasive.
If
you
can
spot
a
claim
when
it
is
being
made
and
analyze
its
purpose,
you
are
already
poised
for
success
on
the
SAT
as
well
as
in
any
later
academic
context.
184
Assessing Reasoning
As
demonstrated
in
previous
articles,
the
new
SAT
is
very
concerned
with
testing
your
ability
to
understand
arguments
--
in
structure,
tone,
style,
and
reasoning.
But
it
is
not
enough
to
simply
identify
the
claims
and
counterclaims
that
an
author
makes
over
the
course
of
an
argument.
It
is
crucial
that
you
are
able
to
assess
those
claims
and
arguments,
and
evaluate
whether
or
not
they
are
sound.
When
assessing
a
claim,
you
must
consider
both
its
soundness
and
its
validity.
A
valid
argument
is
one
that
follows
logically
(even
if
it
isnt
true).
For
example:
Premise:
All
people
can
fly.
Beyonce
is
a
person.
Therefore,
Beyonce
can
fly.
This
is
a
perfectly
valid
argument.
It
happens
to
be
complete
nonsense,
but
it
follows
logically.
When
analyzing
an
authors
argument,
you
must
consider
whether
the
argument
follows
logically
--
whether
each
premise
builds
logically
on
the
next.
This
is
one
very
important
part
of
assessing
reasoning.
The
SAT
isnt
only
asking
you
to
assess
whether
a
text
is
valid,
however;
it
also
asks
you
to
assess
whether
an
authors
reasoning
is
sound
--
i.e.,
whether
the
argument
is
not
only
logical
but
true.
You
may
not
have
deep
familiarity
with
every
topic
that
the
SAT
Reading
section
will
cover;
often,
you
will
be
presented
with
persuasive
or
expository
texts
that
contain
information
that
you
will
not
be
able
to
assess
because
you
dont
have
the
content
knowledge
to
do
so.
For
readings
like
that,
assume
that
the
content
is
actually
true
--
the
SAT
will
not
trip
you
up
or
try
to
trick
you
by
presenting
you
with
false
information.
Therefore,
as
you
read,
assume
the
argument
is
true
(unless
presented
with
evidence
otherwise,
i.e.
if
the
piece
is
intended
to
be
185
absurdist
or
satiric)
and
assess
instead
its
logic
and
the
flow
or
structure
of
its
premises.
Assess
the
following
excerpts
validity
and
soundness;
as
you
read,
it
may
be
helpful
to
annotate,
underline,
or
number
key
portions
of
the
text
that
make
up
the
argument.
See
if
you
can
follow
the
arguments
trajectory.
This
speech,
The
Perils
of
Indifference,
was
given
by
Elie
Weisel
in
1999.
In
a
way,
to
be
indifferent
to...
suffering
is
what
makes
the
human
being
inhuman.
Indifference,
after
all,
is
more
dangerous
than
anger
and
hatred.
Anger
can
at
times
be
creative.
One
writes
a
great
poem,
a
great
symphony.
One
does
something
special
for
the
sake
of
humanity
because
one
is
angry
at
the
injustice
that
one
witnesses.
But
indifference
is
never
creative.
Even
hatred
at
times
may
elicit
a
response.
You
fight
it.
You
denounce
it.
You
disarm
it.
Indifference
elicits
no
response.
Indifference
is
not
a
response.
Indifference
is
not
a
beginning;
it
is
an
end.
And,
therefore,
indifference
is
always
the
friend
of
the
enemy,
for
it
benefits
the
aggressor
--
never
his
victim,
whose
pain
is
magnified
when
he
or
she
feels
forgotten.
The
political
prisoner
in
his
cell,
the
hungry
children,
the
homeless
refugees
--
not
to
respond
to
their
plight,
not
to
relieve
their
solitude
by
offering
them
a
spark
of
hope
is
to
exile
them
from
human
memory.
And
in
denying
their
humanity,
we
betray
our
own.
Indifference,
then,
is
not
only
a
sin,
it
is
a
punishment.
And
this
is
one
of
the
most
important
lessons
of
this
outgoing
century's
wide-ranging
experiments
in
good
and
evil.
What
is
the
reasoning
behind
Elie
Weisels
claim
that
indifference
is
the
greatest
evil?
A.
Indifference
is
a
sin
and
a
punishment
B.
Indifference
is
more
dangerous
than
anger
and
hatred
186
C.
Indifference
benefits
the
aggressor
D.
Indifference
denies
the
humanity
of
others
In
order
to
answer
this
question,
you
must
consider
how
Weisel
structures
his
argument.
His
central
claim
is
that
indifference
is
the
greatest
evil,
but
how
does
he
justify
this
claim?
Read
answer
A
closely
--
while
he
does
say
that
indifference
is
a
sin
and
a
punishment,
this
does
not
reveal
the
reasoning
behind
his
argument.
In
fact,
this
answer
option
simply
repeats
or
extends
his
claim
without
actually
providing
the
reasoning
behind
it.
The
same
is
true
for
answer
B
and
partially
for
answer
C
--
none
actually
explain
Weisels
reasoning,
or
the
way
he
configures
the
argument
behind
the
central
premise.
Only
answer
D
logically
explains
why
indifference
is
the
greatest
evil.
When
you
think
about
the
way
reasoning
works,
ask
yourself:
does
this
explain
WHY
the
author
has
made
this
central
claim?
If
you
cant
answer
that
question,
then
the
answer
option
is
probably
incorrect.
One
way
to
tackle
this
problem
is
to
map
out
the
argument
itself
and
see
which
pieces
of
it
lead
logically
to
others.
1.
In
a
way,
to
be
indifferent
to...
suffering
is
what
makes
the
human
being
inhuman.
This
is
the
central
claim.
The
rest
of
the
argument
should
prove
this,
and
answer
the
question
why
is
this
claim
true?
2.
Indifference,
after
all,
is
more
dangerous
than
anger
and
hatred.
This
does
not
answer
the
question
of
why
is
this
claim
true;
it
simply
extends
the
premise
that
indifference
to
suffering
is
evil.
3.
Anger
can
at
times
be
creative.
One
writes
a
great
poem,
a
great
symphony.
One
does
something
special
for
the
sake
of
humanity
because
one
is
angry
at
the
injustice
Take
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186
187
that
one
witnesses.
But
indifference
is
never
creative.
Even
hatred
at
times
may
elicit
a
response.
You
fight
it.
You
denounce
it.
You
disarm
it.
This
begins
to
answer
the
question
of
why:
indifference
is
the
greatest
evil
because,
unlike
anger
or
hatred,
it
is
not
creative.
4.
Indifference
elicits
no
response.
Indifference
is
not
a
response.
Indifference
is
not
a
beginning;
it
is
an
end.
And,
therefore,
indifference
is
always
the
friend
of
the
enemy,
for
it
benefits
the
aggressor
--
never
his
victim,
whose
pain
is
magnified
when
he
or
she
feels
forgotten.
The
political
prisoner
in
his
cell,
the
hungry
children,
the
homeless
refugees
--
not
to
respond
to
their
plight,
not
to
relieve
their
solitude
by
offering
them
a
spark
of
hope
is
to
exile
them
from
human
memory.
And
in
denying
their
humanity,
we
betray
our
own.
Again,
this
reinforces
the
premise
by
answering
the
question
of
why:
why
is
indifference
the
greatest
evil?
Because
it
isnt
creative
and
has
no
response,
and
ignores
and
forgets
the
people
who
need
the
most
help.
In
so
doing
it
betrays
the
humanity
we
all
share.
5.
Indifference,
then,
is
not
only
a
sin,
it
is
a
punishment.
And
this
is
one
of
the
most
important
lessons
of
this
outgoing
century's
wide-ranging
experiments
in
good
and
evil.
This
extends
the
argument
--
BECAUSE
indifference
is
the
greatest
evil
(the
then
indicates
the
idea
of
because),
it
is
both
a
sin
and
a
punishment.
This
subtly
moves
on
from
the
central
premise
and
extends
it
so
that
it
is
even
more
damning.
When
youre
stuck,
use
this
numbering
/
why
strategy,
and
see
if
it
helps
you
better
assess
and
evaluate
the
reasoning
behind
an
argument.
188
Try
this
strategy
one
more
time
with
the
following
text
from
the
Atlantic,
entitled
North
Korea
Is
Not
Funny.
As
you
read,
ask
yourself:
What
is
the
authors
claim?
What
is
the
reasoning
behind
it?
Is
the
reasoning
behind
it
logical,
valid,
and
sound?
If
you're
not
sure
how
to
do
this,
number
the
claims
and
make
sure
that
all
of
them
answer
the
question
of
why.
This
film
(The
Interview,
about
the
assassination
of
Kim
Jong
Un)
is
not
an
act
of
courage.
It
is
not
a
stand
against
totalitarianism,
concentration
camps,
mass
starvation,
or
state-sponsored
terror.
It
is,
based
on
what
we
know
of
the
movie
so
far,
simply
a
comedy,
made
by
a
group
of
talented
actors,
writers,
and
directors,
and
intended,
like
most
comedies,
to
make
money
and
earn
laughs.
The
movie
would
perhaps
have
been
better
off
with
a
fictitious
dictator
and
regime;
instead,
it
appears
to
serve
up
the
latest
in
a
long
line
of
cheap
and
sometimes
racism-tinged
jokes,
stretching
from
Team
America:
World
Police
to
ongoing
sketches
on
Saturday
Night
Live.
Humor
can
be
a
powerful
tool
for
surviving
in
a
closed
society,
and
lampooning
dictators
can
lend
latent
popular
movements
the
confidence
they
need
to
challenge
their
oppressors.
In
Libya,
dissidents
heaped
mockery
on
the
Qaddafi
family
in
the
early
stages
of
their
Arab
Spring
revolution.
In
the
Soviet
Union,
activists
like
Natan
Sharansky
employed
dark
humor
to
weather
persecution
and
labor
camps.
In
a
confrontation
with
evil,
Sharansky
once
observed,
it
is
important
to
take
yourself
and
everything
thats
happening
very
seriously,
to
understand
that
you
are
part
of
a
very
important
historical
process,
and
thats
why
everything
[that]
youll
say
and
do
has
tremendous
importance
for
the
future.
Nevertheless,
he
added,
its
very
important
not
to
take
anything
seriously,
to
be
able
to
laugh
at
everything,
at
the
absurdity
of
this
regime,
at
this
KGB
prison,
and
even
at
yourself.
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189
Yes,
North
Korea
has
long
been
ruled
by
an
eccentric
dynasty
of
portly
dictators
with
bad
haircuts.
Yes,
the
propaganda
the
regime
regularly
trumpets
to
shore
up
its
cult
of
personality
is
largely
ridiculous.
And
yes,
we
on
the
outside
know
better,
and
can
take
comfort
in
pointing
fingers
and
chuckling
at
the
regimes
foibles.
But
it
takes
no
valor
and
costs
precious
little
to
joke
about
these
things
safely
oceans
away
from
North
Koreas
reach.
When
a
North
Korean
inmate
in
a
political
prison
camp
or
a
closely
monitored
Pyongyang
apparatchik
pokes
fun
at
Kim
Jong
Un
and
the
system
he
representsthat
is
an
act
of
audacity.
It
very
literally
can
cost
the
persons
life,
and
those
of
his
or
her
family
members.
To
pretend
that
punch
lines
from
afar,
even
in
the
face
of
hollow
North
Korean
threats,
are
righteous
acts
is
nonsense.
Whats
more,
crowding
the
North
Korea
story
with
anecdotes
of
nutty
behavior
and
amusing
delusions
may
ironically
benefit
those
in
charge
in
Pyongyang.
It
serves
to
buffer
and
obscure
the
sheer
evil
of
a
regime
that
enslaves
children
and
sentences
entire
families
to
death
for
crimes
of
thought,
while
building
ski
resorts,
dolphinariums,
and
other
luxury
escapes
for
elites
with
funds
that
could
feed
its
malnourished
people
for
several
years.
How
many
people
would
have
watched
The
Interview
and
concluded
that
they
should
do
something
to
help
change
this
odious
regime
and
bring
about
human
rights
for
North
Koreans?
In
Charlie
Chaplins
1964
autobiography,
the
star
discussed
the
backlash
that
he
faced
from
Hollywood
and
the
German
and
British
governments
when
plans
for
The
Great
Dictators
release
were
announced.
He
moved
forward
with
the
project
despite
these
concerns,
but
years
later
suggested
that
he
regretted
that
decision:
Had
I
known
of
the
actual
horrors
of
the
German
concentration
190
camps,
I
could
not
have
made
The
Great
Dictator;
I
could
not
have
made
fun
of
the
homicidal
insanity
of
the
Nazis.
Kim
Jong
Un
and
his
barons
are
also
representative
of
a
singularly
horrific
system,
one
in
which
the
scale
and
scope
of
suffering
among
25
million
North
Koreans
does
not,
as
a
recent
United
Nations
inquiry
noted,
have
any
parallel
in
the
contemporary
world.
North
Korea
is
not
funny.
It
is
hard
to
imagine
a
comparable
comedy
emerging
about
quirky
Islamic
State
slavers
or
amusing
and
complicated
genocidaires
in
the
Central
African
Republic.
The
suffering
in
question
is
happening
now,
as
I
write.
The
day
will
soon
come
when
North
Koreans
are
finally
free,
and
liberated
concentration
camp
survivors
will
have
to
learn
that
the
world
was
more
interested
in
the
oddities
of
the
oppressors
than
the
torment
of
the
oppressed.
What
is
the
central
claim
of
this
text?
A.
That
films
can
never
adequately
capture
the
horror
of
mans
evils
B.
That,
like
Charlie
Chaplin,
the
makers
of
this
film
will
regret
their
decision
to
parody
an
evil
regime
C.
That
comedy
in
the
face
of
evil
is
a
bold
and
audacious
response
D.
That
The
Interview
is
a
poor
vehicle
for
adequately
expressing
the
evils
of
the
North
Korean
regime
Consider
the
title
of
this
text:
North
Korea
Isnt
Funny.
From
there
it
should
be
fairly
simple
to
isolate
the
central
claim.
Answer
A
is
too
much
of
a
stretch;
in
fact,
the
writer
says
The
movie
would
perhaps
have
been
better
off
with
a
fictitious
dictator
and
regime,
suggesting
that
there
is
a
certain
value
--
even
if
it
is
just
entertainment
-
-
to
depicting
evil
on
film.
Nor
is
there
evidence
for
B.
C
is
certainly
an
assertion,
as
evidenced
by
this
quote:
Humor
can
be
a
powerful
tool
for
surviving
in
a
closed
society,
and
lampooning
dictators
can
lend
latent
popular
movements
the
confidence
they
need
to
challenge
their
oppressors.
But
if
you
follow
the
structure
of
the
argument,
that
is
a
counterclaim,
not
a
central
claim,
and
it
does
not
apply
to
the
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191
main
premise,
which
is
D
--
that
The
Interview
is
a
poor
vehicle
for
this
kind
of
commentary,
and
that
North
Korea
is
not
funny,
certainly
not
when
those
of
us
poking
fun
at
it
live
thousands
of
miles
away
from
this
regime.
As
the
writer
says:
But
it
takes
no
valor
and
costs
precious
little
to
joke
about
these
things
safely
oceans
away
from
North
Koreas
reach.
When
a
North
Korean
inmate
in
a
political
prison
camp
or
a
closely
monitored
Pyongyang
apparatchik
pokes
fun
at
Kim
Jong
Un
and
the
system
he
representsthat
is
an
act
of
audacity.
It
very
literally
can
cost
the
persons
life,
and
those
of
his
or
her
family
members.
To
pretend
that
punch
lines
from
afar,
even
in
the
face
of
hollow
North
Korean
threats,
are
righteous
acts
is
nonsense.
What
is
the
writers
reasoning
behind
the
claim
that
The
Interview
is
a
poor
vehicle
through
which
to
express
outrage
at
North
Koreas
various
abuses
of
human
rights?
A.
The
film
is
slightly
racist,
and
thus
inappropriate
B.
The
film
is
not
funny,
and
thus
it
is
inappropriate
C.
The
film
is
a
comedy
and
not
a
meaningful
stand
D.
The
film
will
be
overly
sympathetic
to
the
North
Korean
regime
This
question
asks
you
to
trace
the
writers
reasoning.
If
the
central
claim
is
that
the
film
is
inappropriate,
you
must
ask
yourself
as
you
read
each
answer
choice
Does
this
answer
the
question
of
WHY
the
film
is
an
inappropriate
vehicle?
A
is
partially
true
--
the
writer
does
say
that
the
portrayal
is
cheap
and
sometimes
racism-
tinged.
Keep
it
for
now.
B
is
not
supported
by
the
text;
the
writer
has
not
seen
the
film
and
makes
no
mention
of
its
quality,
just
its
subject
matter.
C
is
supported
repeatedly
throughout
the
text,
as
the
writer
continually
makes
clear
that
making
a
comedy
about
North
Korea
is
deeply
insensitive
(The
day
will
soon
come
when
North
Koreans
are
finally
free,
and
liberated
concentration
camp
survivors
will
have
to
learn
that
the
world
was
more
interested
in
the
oddities
of
the
oppressors
than
the
torment
of
the
oppressed)
as
well
as
lacking
in
any
actual
meaning:
(But
it
takes
no
valor
and
costs
precious
little
to
joke
about
these
things
safely
oceans
away
from
North
Koreas
reach.
Whats
more,
crowding
the
North
Korea
story
with
anecdotes
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192
of
nutty
behavior
and
amusing
delusions
may
ironically
benefit
those
in
charge
in
Pyongyang.
It
serves
to
buffer
and
obscure
the
sheer
evil
of
[the]
regime.
How
many
people
would
have
watched
The
Interview
and
concluded
that
they
should
do
something
to
help
change
this
odious
regime
and
bring
about
human
rights
for
North
Koreans?)
All
of
these
arguments
demonstrate
the
writers
line
of
reasoning
when
s/he
claims
that
the
film
is
inappropriate.
So
while
A
may
be
partially
true,
it
is
in
no
way
the
best
or
most
widely-supported
answer.
As
you
can
see
from
this
article,
in
order
to
assess
reasoning,
you
must
also
be
able
to
cite
evidence
accurately
to
justify
your
assessment;
the
easiest
and
best
way
to
do
this
is
by
asking
yourself
why?
or
"Does
this
support
the
central
claim?"
You
will
learn
more
about
this
skill
in
the
next
article.
193
Analyzing Evidence
Analyzing
Evidence
As
discussed
in
the
last
article,
part
of
being
able
to
assess
an
authors
argument
is
the
ability
to
analyze
the
evidence
that
s/he
brings
to
justify
the
central
claims
of
the
argument
s/he
makes.
You
must
be
able
point
to
the
claim,
prove
how
the
author
uses
reasoning
to
support
it,
and
analyze
whether
or
not
this
reasoning
(i.e.
the
evidence
presented)
is
convincing.
As
always,
you
must
be
able
to
ask
yourself
why?
Why
does
the
author
make
this
claim?
How
does
the
author
justify
this
claim?
If
pieces
of
evidence
thoroughly
and
convincingly
answer
the
central
question
of
why,
then
they
work;
if
not,
then
they
dont.
Try
with
this
scathing
review
of
Love
Actually
from
the
Atlantic.
As
you
read,
assess
what
the
central
claim
is,
and
how
the
writer
supports
the
claim.
Are
his
reasoning
and
his
evidence
convincing?
(Can
you
think
of
a
counter
to
any
of
them?)
...So
take
the
film
on
its
own
titular
terms.
What
does
Love
Actually
tell
us
about
love,
actually?
Well,
I
think
it
tells
us
a
number
of
things,
most
of
them
wrong
and
a
few
of
them
appalling.
Now,
anyone
who
goes
to
the
cineplex
with
any
regularity
knows
that
the
last
decade
has
seen
more
than
its
share
of
bad
romantic
comedies.
But
Love
Actually
is
exceptional
in
that
it
is
not
merely,
like
so
many
other
entries
in
the
genre,
unromantic.
Rather,
it
is
emphatically,
almost
shockingly,
anti-romantic.
...The
bulk
of
the
film
offers
up
at
least
three
disturbing
lessons
about
love.
First,
that
love
is
overwhelmingly
a
product
of
physical
attraction
and
requires
virtually
no
verbal
communication
or
intellectual/emotional
affinity
of
any
kind.
Second,
that
the
principal
barrier
to
consummating
a
relationship
is
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193
194
mustering
the
nerve
to
say
I
love
youpreferably
with
some
grand
gesture
and
that
once
you
manage
that,
youre
basically
on
the
fast
track
to
nuptial
bliss.
And
third,
that
any
actual
obstacle
to
romantic
fulfillment,
however
surmountable,
is
not
worth
the
effort
it
would
require
to
overcome.
Begin
with
the
elevation
of
physical
attraction
over
any
of
the
other
factors
typically
associated
with
romantic
compatibility:
similar
likes
and
dislikes,
overlapping
senses
of
humor,
shared
values,
what
have
you.
[One
character]
falls
in
love
with
[another]
the
first
time
he
speaks
with
herGet
a
grip,
he
chides
himself
moments
afterwardwhen
essentially
the
only
thing
he
knows
about
her
is
that
she
accidentally
uses
profanity
a
lot.
(Charming?
Sure.
Evidence
of
a
soul
mate?
Unlikely.)
[Two
characters]
meanwhile,
fall
in
love
despite
not
sharing
a
word
of
language
in
common.
Moreover,
the
movie
telegraphs
very
clearly
that
the
moment
when
Firth
really
falls
for
Moniz
is
when
he
watches
her
strip
down
to
her
underwear.
...The
pattern
is
repeated
throughout
the
film.
[One
character]
is
in
love
with
a
beautiful,
popular
girl
at
school
with
whom
hes
never
spoken.
[One
character]
recognizes
that
a
ray
of
sunshine
may
enter
his
entombed
love
life
the
instant
he
meets
a
mom
who
looks
exactly
like
(i.e.,
is
played
by)
Claudia
Schiffer.
We
can
assume,
I
suppose,
that
[two
characters]
have
had
some
conversations
they
do
work
in
the
same
office,
after
allbut
the
film
doesnt
bother
to
show
them
having
any.
All
we
know
about
him
is
that
she
thinks
hes
too
good
for
her
and,
later,
that
he
has
washboard
abs.
The
storyline
regarding
[one
character]s
quest
for
American
babes
is
played
as
a
gag,
of
course:
dorky
British
guy
is
convinced
that
his
accent
will
prove
irresistible
to
super-hotties
in
Wisconsinand,
lo
and
behold,
hes
right!
But
the
plotlines
comically
exaggerated
infatuation
with
physical
attraction
is
actually
not
very
far
out
of
keeping
with
the
rest
of
the
film.
195
Creepiest
of
all
is
the
storyline
involving
[two
characters].
Why
is
he
so
desperately
in
love
with
his
best
friends
bride?
Well,
its
not
the
result
of
any
conversation
theyve
had
or
experience
theyve
shared,
because
the
movie
is
at
pains
to
note
that
hes
barely
spoken
to
her
and
he
goes
out
of
his
way
to
avoid
her
company.
Indeed,
the
video
tribute
to
her
bridal
radiance
that
he
records
at
her
wedding
makes
pretty
clear
what
it
is
about
her
that
so
captivates
him.
(Hint:
not
her
mind.)
And
he,
too,
like
[another
character]
ultimately
suggests
that
the
only
way
he
will
ever
get
over
this
love
of
his
life
is
by
hooking
up
with
a
supermodel.
Im
barely
scratching
the
surface
of
whats
wrong
with
this
subplotthe
movies
worstwhich
somehow
manages
to
present
the
idea
that
its
romantic
to
go
behind
a
friends
back
to
ostentatiously
declare
your
everlasting
love
for
his
wife.
But
lets
not
get
off
track.
This
is
the
point
at
which
defenders
of
the
film
will
reply,
reasonably
enough:
So
what?
In
movies
beautiful
people
always
fall
in
love
with
other
beautiful
people!
Whats
wrong
with
love
at
first
sight,
anyway?
Which
are
both
fair
responses,
as
far
as
they
go.
But
Love
Actually
is
a
considerable
outlier
among
romantic
comedies
in
its
rigorous
conviction
not
only
that
people
fall
in
love
without
really
knowing
one
another,
but
that
they
dont
even
need
to
learn
anything
about
each
other
to
confirm
their
initial
attraction.
This
is
not
some
abstruse
or
esoteric
component
of
high-end
cinema.
The
core
of
most
romantic
comediesthe
core,
for
that
matter,
of
most
romantic
comedies
written
and/or
directed
by
Richard
Curtisis
one
form
or
another
of
mutual
exploration
between
potential
lovers.
Some
movies
do
it
well
and
some
do
it
poorly,
but
almost
all
at
least
make
an
effort
to
do
it.
The
protagonists
bicker
their
way
into
love
(27
Dresses,
Sweet
Home
Alabama,
Something's
Gotta
Give...).
The
guy
gradually
persuades
the
gal
that
hes
worthy,
or
vice
versa
(Groundhog
Day,
Knocked
Up,
Working
Girl
...).
One
helps
the
other
overcome
a
foolish
obsession
with
a
Mr.
(or
Mrs.)
Wrong
(The
Wedding
Singer,
Forgetting
Sarah
Marshall,
While
You
Were
Sleeping
...).
The
free
spirit
teaches
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196
the
control
freak
to
let
go
and
embrace
life
(Along
Came
Polly,
Pretty
Woman,
The
Ugly
Truth
...).
Opposites
discover
that
they
are
attracted
(Two
Weeks
Notice,
Notting
Hill,
Maid
in
Manhattan
...).
Etc.,
etc.
My
point
is
in
no
way
to
suggest
that
these
are
all
good
movies.
(Theyre
emphatically
not.)
Rather
it
is
to
point
out
just
how
far
outside
the
ordinary
it
is
that
none
of
Love
Actuallys
fated
couples
spends
any
meaningful
time
getting
to
know
one
another
at
all.
What
is
the
authors
main
source
of
support
for
his
central
claim
that
the
film
Love
Actually
is
anti-romantic?
A.
Unlike
other
films,
it
doesnt
accurately
portray
relationships
B.
The
film
offers
up
three
disturbing
lessons
about
love
C.
The
film
is
about
love
at
first
sight,
which
is
an
unrealistic
concept
D.
The
film
emphasizes
physical
attraction
over
everything
else
The
author
is
clearly
building
a
case
against
Love
Actually.
While
he
does
compare
it
to
other
films,
he
does
not
suggest
that
these
other
films
are
accurate,
which
leaves
A
in
the
dust.
B
is
true,
and
a
direct
quote
from
the
text,
but
it
is
not
support
for
the
idea
that
Love
Actually
is
anti-romantic;
its
more
an
extension
of
the
argument
as
it
does
not
adequately
answer
the
question
of
why.
It
just
makes
a
claim
but
doesnt
back
it
up.
C
is
also
true-ish,
but
it
isnt
the
main
source
from
where
the
author
draws
his
argument.
Instead,
the
author
spends
nearly
the
entirety
of
this
article
proving
that
D,
the
film
emphasizes
physical
attraction
over
everything
else,
and
this
is
the
real
reason
that
the
film
is
anti-romantic.
How
does
the
author
use
evidence
to
support
his
argument?
A.
The
author
gives
multiple
examples
from
the
film
that
all
function
as
support
for
his
central
claim
B.
The
author
compares
Love
Actually
to
other
films
to
support
his
central
claim
C.
The
author
effectively
addresses
a
counterclaim
in
order
to
support
his
197
argument
D.
All
of
the
above
This
question
doesnt
ask
you
what
the
authors
evidence
IS,
but
rather
asks
you
to
evaluate
his
strategy.
A
is
clearly
true;
the
majority
of
the
article
is
given
over
to
discussing
the
various
characters
and
their
relationships.
The
author
does
compare
the
film
to
others
in
its
genre,
all
to
demonstrate
that
its
conception
of
relationships
is
far
outside
the
ordinary.
The
author
does
address
the
counterclaim
(beautiful
people
fall
in
love
all
the
time)
by
saying
that
Love
Actuallys
idea
of
love
at
first
sight
does
not
fit
any
sort
of
accepted
love
at
first
sight
model
because
the
characters
do
not
even
speak
to
each
other
once
they
have
fallen
in
love.
Clearly,
D
is
the
best
answer
--
the
author
uses
multiple
tactics
in
order
to
demonstrate
his
main
point.
Try
once
again
to
analyze
the
evidence
that
an
author
uses
to
structure
and
support
the
following
argument.
As
you
read,
make
sure
you
are
paying
attention
to
the
central
claim
as
well
as
to
HOW
the
author
uses
evidence
to
prove
his
point,
as
well
as
the
actual
content
of
the
evidence,
and
whether
or
not
it
effectively
supports
the
central
claim.
This
article
is
also
from
The
Atlantic.
One
of
the
most
celebrated
pieces
of
advice
to
writers
is
Write
what
you
know.
Unfortunately,
it
shows.
The
demographics
of
published
writers
in
the
West
are
largely
homogeneous,
and
as
a
result,
our
literature
is
also
largely
homogeneous.
Growing
up,
for
example,
my
heroes
were
Atreju,
Frodo,
and
Paul
Atreides.
All
I
ever
really
wanted
to
do
was
go
on
adventures
like
them.
I
readily
identified
with
them,
and
their
trials
became
my
scripture:
the
loss
of
Artax,
the
recovery
at
Lothlrien,
the
knife
fight
with
Feyd-Rautha.
Despite
a
liberal
upbringing
and
an
education
at
a
womens
college,
it
didnt
occur
to
me
that
my
identification
with
male
heroes
had
damaged
me
in
any
waythat
is,
until
I
became
a
writer,
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197
198
and
found
myself
weirdly
reluctant
to
write
a
woman
hero.
This
wasnt
an
accident.
As
Vanessa
Veselka
wrote
in
The
American
Reader,
there
is
a
profound
relative
lack
of
female
road
narratives
in
the
Western
literary
tradition.
This
absence
hurt
her
in
much
more
concrete
ways.
When
recounting
her
years
as
a
teenage
hitchhiker,
Veselka
writes,
my
survival
depended
on
other
peoples
ability
to
envision
a
possible
future
for
me[but]
there
was
no
cultural
narrative
for
[us]
beyond
rape
and
death.
Male
hitchhikers
had
Jack
Kerouac,
Walt
Whitman,
and
dozens
of
others.
Veselka
had
bodies
in
dumpsters
on
the
six
oclock
news.
Meanwhile,
in
Joseph
Campbells
The
Hero
With
a
Thousand
Faces,
a
work
that
compares
mythologies
from
cultures
around
the
globe,
the
hero
pretty
much
just
has
one
face:
that
of
a
white
(or
white-washed)
man.
Women
are
usually
guiding
spirits
or
goddesses
encountered
along
the
way,
not
the
heroes
themselves.
This
has
troubling
implications
when
we
view
writing
stories
as
an
act
of
creation:
not
just
of
a
narrative,
but
of
the
society
in
which
we
live,
and
the
possibilities
prescribed
for
the
people
who
live
in
it.
Literature
is
our
collective
creation
myth.
...Western
writers
still
make
up
the
majority
of
published
English
language
authors,
and
English
is
one
of
the
global
lingua
franca.
Western
literature
already
has
extraordinary
women
heroes
created
by
extraordinary
writers:
Toni
Morrisons
Sethe,
Ursula
Le
Guins
Tenar,
Chimamanda
Ngozi
Adichies
Ifemelu.
But
theyre
a
tiny
proportion
of
the
whole.
We
need
more.
Writing
characters
different
from
usfor
all
creators,
in
all
directionsis
integral
to
creating
a
literature
in
which
all
phenotypes
are
heroic,
and
therefore,
all
are
humanized.
I
wont
go
so
far
as
to
say
that
creators
have
a
responsibility
to
do
so.
But
I
do
submit
that
our
increasingly
global
society
offers
an
unprecedented
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199
opportunity
for
all
creators
to
write
what
we
dont
know.
The
defining
heroic
journey
of
the
20th
century
was
to
conquer
evil:
the
Nothing,
Sauron,
the
Harkonnens.
But
the
defining
heroic
journey
of
the
21st
century
will
be
to
reconcile
the
Other
with
the
Self.
What
is
the
writers
central
premise
in
this
text?
A.
That
the
lack
of
diversity
in
Western
literature
has
concrete
negative
effects
on
our
society
B.
That
writers
have
a
responsibility
to
the
reader
to
create
more
diverse
characters
C.
That
the
advice
write
what
you
know
is
mistaken
and
should
be
rethought
D.
That
identification
with
male
heroes
is
damaging
The
writer
does
spend
the
bulk
of
the
text
lamenting
the
lack
of
diversity
in
Western
literature,
first
citing
her
own
experiences
reading
exclusively
male
protagonists,
then
citing
other
cases
of
women
who
have
found
themselves
stymied
and
frustrated
by
the
lack
of
protagonists
and
narratives
that
accurately
represent
the
vast
spectrum
of
humanity.
Keep
A
for
now.
B
is
clearly
wrong,
as
the
writer
says
in
the
last
paragraph
I
wont
go
so
far
as
to
say
that
creators
have
a
responsibility
[to
write
characters
different
from
themselves].
She
does
start
off
with
C
--
that
write
what
you
know
is
popular
advice
--
but
she
doesnt
advocate
letting
go
of
this
advice
entirely.
And
while
she
does
claim
that
her
identification
with
male
heroes
was
personally
damaging,
this
is
not
the
central
claim
of
her
article
--
rather,
it
is
a
piece
of
evidence
that
she
uses
to
bolster
her
claim.
(It
answers
the
question
why?)
Which
is
the
most
effective
piece
of
evidence
that
the
writer
uses,
and
why?
A.
Her
assertion
that
her
own
identification
with
male
heroes
was
damaging,
because
it
adds
a
personal
touch
to
this
persuasive
text
that
helps
the
reader
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200
connect
better
with
its
content
B.
Her
example
of
Vanessa
Veselkas
lack
of
female
role
models
in
the
road
narrative,
because
it
graphically
emphasizes
the
gulf
between
what
is
viewed
as
possible
for
men
and
what
is
viewed
as
possible
for
women
C.
Her
example
of
the
different
evils
our
literature
has
had
to
conquer,
because
they
give
a
real
face
to
the
problem
that
our
literature
and
our
society
face
D.
Her
assertion
that
literature
is
our
collective
creation
myth,
because
this
illustrates
just
how
deep
this
problem
runs.
Remember,
the
writer
uses
evidence
to
support
her
central
claim
that
the
lack
of
diversity
in
modern
literature
is
deeply
problematic.
To
be
effective,
these
pieces
of
evidence
must
answer
the
question
of
WHY
this
assertion
is
true.
Read
A;
while
this
is
certainly
evidence
that
she
used,
and
while
it
does
add
a
personal
touch,
consider
whether
it
indeed
helps
the
reader
connect
better
with
the
content.
Does
this
accurately
demonstrate
the
extent
or
seriousness
of
the
damage
done
to
our
society?
Keep
A
for
now,
as
it
does
reflect
a
form
of
damage,
but
consider
whether
its
the
best
answer.
B
is
certainly
true;
it
is
extremely
damaging
for
a
young
woman
to
see
only
two
(very
dark)
options
for
herself
as
she
embarks
on
a
road
trip.
The
fact
that
women
are
missing
entirely
from
the
road
narrative
certainly
constitutes
a
compelling
piece
of
evidence
from
the
assertion
that
the
lack
of
diversity
in
literature
is
indeed
damaging
to
our
society.
C
is
a
clever
answer
that
in
fact
has
nothing
to
do
with
the
argument;
she
gives
an
example
of
these
evils
(the
Nothing,
Sauron,
etc)
only
to
contrast
these
villains
with
the
villains
that
we
find
within
ourselves
(the
Self
and
the
Other).
And
D
is
also
a
clever
answer,
but
it
doesnt
prove
her
point
since
there
is
no
tangible
evidence
for
it;
it
is
just
another
piece
or
extension
of
her
central
argument.
Between
A
and
B,
B
is
the
better
answer;
while
both
provide
examples
of
the
kind
of
damage
caused
by
the
lack
of
diversity
in
literature,
Bs
example
is
far
more
graphic,
pervasive,
and
violent,
and
therefore
more
convincing
as
an
example
of
"damage."
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As
you
read
and
analyze
evidence
and
claims,
make
sure
that
you
understand
the
distinction
between
evidence
/
support
and
the
actual
argument
itself.
The
new
SAT
will
attempt
to
distract
you
by
offering
you
answer
choices
about
pieces
of
evidence
that
are
simply
extensions
of
the
authors
argument.
Watch
out
for
this,
and
make
sure
you
are
always
asking
yourself
does
this
answer
the
question
of
why?
202
Part
III:
Synthesis
(Reading)
203
204
Of
the
various
skills
required
for
success
on
the
SAT
(as
well
as
other
academic
pursuits),
one
of
the
most
important
(and
sometimes
the
most
difficult
for
students)
is
synthesis,
or
the
ability
to
understand
and
integrate
the
information
found
in
multiple
texts.
A
truly
high-level
student
can
extract
relevant
information
from
multiple
texts
and
weave
together
a
coherent
argument
that
takes
into
account
these
various
sources
of
information.
Synthesis
is
just
a
combination
of
the
skills
you
have
reinforced
over
the
course
of
the
previous
articles,
but
in
the
context
of
multiple
texts.
This
skill
requires
you
to
read
carefully,
think
critically,
make
inferences,
asses
reasoning,
analyze
evidence,
and
form
justifiable
opinions
--
on
basis
of
more
than
one
passage.
Sometimes
the
texts
will
present
two
sides
of
the
same
argument
--
in
some
ways
making
your
job
of
analysis
easier
--
and
sometimes
they
will
not.
Try
your
hand
at
analyzing
the
following
two
texts;
as
you
read,
pay
careful
attention
to
similarities
and
differences
between
the
two.
It
may
be
helpful
to
make
a
chart
of
the
various
ways
in
which
these
texts
discuss
the
same
main
ideas:
Text
One,
from
The
University
of
Florida
Institute
of
Food
and
Agricultural
Sciences
A
species
is
endangered
when
it
is
threatened
with
extinction.
Since
time
began,
countless
species
have
gone
extinct
from
natural
processes.
The
extinction
of
dinosaurs
is
the
best
known
example.
Why
Save
Endangered
Species?
If
extinction
is
a
natural
process,
why
should
we
make
an
effort
to
save
endangered
species?
Because
we
can
no
longer
attribute
the
accelerating
extinction
of
plants
and
animals
to
natural
causes.
Today
most
species
of
plants
and
animals
become
extinct
because
of
habitat
destruction
(loss
of
living
space
to
development
or
pollution),
introduction
of
non-native
organisms,
and
direct
killing
(over-harvesting,
poisoning)....
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Our
understanding
of
the
value
of
endangered
species
to
humans
has
increased
together
with
the
recognition
that
human
activities
cause
extinction.
In
general,
benefits
of
species
can
be
classified
as
ecological,
economic,
and
social.
Different
combinations
of
benefits
occur
for
any
particular
species,
and
some
species
are
obviously
more
"valuable"
than
others.
More
important
than
knowing
why
a
particular
species
is
valuable
is
understanding
why
so
many
kinds
of
plants
and
animals
are
valuable.
Biological
Diversity
The
assemblage
of
populations
of
plants
and
animals
in
an
area
is
termed
its
"biological
diversity."
The
term
biological
diversity
is
often
used
interchangeably
(sometimes
confusingly)
with
two
other
terms,
"genetic
diversity"
and
"ecological
diversity."
Genetic
diversity
(amount
of
genetic
variability
among
individuals
of
the
same
species)
and
ecological
diversity
(number
and
relative
abundance
of
species)
are
both
components
of
biological
diversity.
Genetic
diversity
is
directly
related
to
a
species'
ability
to
survive
environmental
change.
For
example,
plants
and
animals
can
be
characterized
by
their
ability
to
exist
under
different
climatic
(moisture
and
temperature)
conditions.
However,
within
different
species
there
is
a
certain
amount
of
variability
in
the
tolerance
of
individuals
to
climatic
conditions.
The
ability
of
different
species
to
cope
with
environmental--in
this
example
climatic--
change
depends
on
this
variability.
When
genetic
variability
is
reduced,
as
with
the
Florida
panther,
the
risk
of
extinction
increases.
The
loss
of
a
single
species
can
set
off
a
chain
reaction
affecting
many
other
species.
The
total
impact
of
extinction
is
not
always
apparent,
and
is
difficult
to
206
predict,
but
it
is
clear
that
conserving
biological
diversity
is
essential
for
maintaining
intact
ecosystems.
Benefits
of
Biological
Diversity
How
does
maintaining
biological
diversity
benefit
humanity?
It
only
takes
a
moment
to
realize
that
throughout
history
plants
and
animals
have
provided
humans
with
food,
clothing,
energy,
medicines,
and
structural
materials.
Today,
solutions
to
problems
in
agricultural
production
in
tropical
countries,
reliance
on
petrochemicals,
and
the
cures
for
cancers
may
lie
in
organisms
not
yet
discovered.
It
would
be
a
shame
to
lose
these
benefits
without
even
knowing
we
had
them.
Text
Two,
Public
Library
Of
Science
Blogs
Network
-
Plants
with
Personality
If
you
had
to
be
an
endangered
animal,
youd
be
better
off
as
a
tiger
than
a
toad.
If
you
were
a
tiger,
filmmakers
might
cast
you
in
wildlife
documentaries
and
journalists
might
write
heart-rending
stories
about
the
disappearance
of
your
kind.
Your
furry
mug
might
appear
on
magazine
covers
and
postage
stamps.
And
conservation
organizations
just
might
make
you
their
flagship
species,
a
stand-in
for
all
the
critters
whose
survival
is
threatened.
In
other
words,
if
you
were
a
tiger,
you
might
have
a
fighting
chance
of
at
least
making
humans
care
about
your
predicament.
Thats
a
taller
order
if
youre
a
toad,
an
animal
that
wins
over
few
human
hearts.
Instead,
we
prefer
the
so-called
charismatic
mega
fauna,
funneling
our
emotional
and
conservational
energies
into
species
like
tigers,
lions,
elephants,
dolphins,
pandas,
and
the
like.
A
number
of
psychologists
and
biologists
have
begun
to
uncover
why
some
species
appeal
to
us
more
than
others,
identifying
a
number
of
factors
that
make
certain
kinds
of
critters
especially
attractive.
For
instance,
we
have
a
soft
spot
for
our
fellow
mammals,
and
we
prefer
big
beasts
to
smaller
ones.
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206
207
also
strongly
attracted
to
neotenic,
or
juvenile-looking,
features.
The
youngsters
of
many
species
have
large
heads,
large
eyes,
big
foreheads,
and
snub
noses.
Human
infants
have
these
characteristics,
as
do
puppies,
kittens,
and
all
sorts
of
other
critters
that
we
find
cute.
In
some
species,
adult
animals
retain
features
associated
with
youthsuch
as
oversized
eyesand
were
naturally
drawn
to
these
neotenic
faces.
...Our
preferences
for
certain
species
over
others
have
serious
implications
for
conservation.
Studies
have
shown
that
charismatic
mega
fauna
attract
more
than
their
fair
share
of
conservation
attention
and
funding.
As
Stokes
put
it
in
his
2006
paper:
Much
of
the
worlds
biodiversity
will
survive
only
if
humans
choose
to
protect
it.
Given
that
people
are
likely
to
protect
what
is
important
to
them,
human
preferences
will
be
important
determinants
of
many
species
prospects
for
survival
As
you
read,
take
note
of
the
fact
that
these
two
articles
clearly
discuss
a
similar
theme
--
but
that
they
take
very
different
angles
on
this
theme.
Make
sure
that
you
pay
attention
to
similarities
and
differences
in
context,
tone,
style,
and
structure
--
and,
of
course,
to
the
content
of
the
passages
themselves.
What
is
the
best
way
to
characterize
the
difference
between
Text
One
and
Text
Two?
A.
Text
One
is
persuasive,
while
Text
Two
is
purely
informative
B.
Text
One
contains
much
scientific
jargon,
whereas
Text
Two
is
highly
descriptive
C.
Text
One
provides
general
information
about
a
scientific
context
while
Text
Two
details
a
phenomenon
specific
to
that
context
D.
Text
One
is
a
call
to
action
whereas
Text
Two
is
clearly
written
increase
awareness
208
These
two
texts,
while
somewhat
related
in
their
subject
matter,
are
in
fact
very
different
--
partially
because
of
their
structure,
partially
because
of
their
tone,
and
partially
because
of
their
content.
However,
A
claims
that
Text
One
is
persuasive,
which
--
if
you
read
it
closely
--
it
isnt.
It
doesnt
contain
much
of
a
central
claim,
other
than
the
fact
that
extinction
is
a
bad
thing;
nor
does
it
spend
too
much
time
trying
to
convince
you
that
extinction
is
a
bad
thing.
Instead,
it
simply
and
clearly
lays
out
the
facts
about
extinction
and
genetic,
ecological,
and
biological
diversity.
For
this
reason
alone
answer
A
is
wrong.
B
is
incorrect
as
well
--
while
its
true
that
Text
One
contains
many
scientific
definitions,
Text
Two
contains
at
least
two
unfamiliar
scientific
words
as
well
(charismatic
megafauna
and
neotenic.)
Additionally,
Text
Two
hardly
contains
multiple
adjectives
or
long
descriptions;
it
is
somewhat
informal,
rather
than
highly
descriptive.
Answer
C
is
true;
Text
One
DOES
provide
general
information
about
why
endangerment
and
extinction
are
highly
negative
phenomena,
and
Text
Two
DOES
detail
a
specific
phenomenon
within
the
context
of
endangerment
and
extinction,
as
it
describes
the
animals
that
are
most
likely
to
be
helped
or
saved
by
concerned
humans.
D
is
incorrect;
Text
One,
objective
as
it
is,
is
hardly
a
call
to
action.
There
are
no
strong
words
and
there
is
no
direct
address
of
the
reader;
simply
detailing
why
extinction
and
endangerment
are
negative
things
surely
does
not
constitute
a
call
to
action.
And
while
Text
Two
DOES
inform
the
reader
of
a
specific
phenomenon,
its
hard
to
get
away
with
saying
that
its
primary
aim
is
to
raise
awareness,
as
that
has
a
political
connotation
that
is
absent
here.
All
in
all,
C
is
the
best
answer.
In
what
way
do
the
structures
of
these
two
texts
help
to
shape
the
way
they
convey
information?
A.
Text
One
provides
a
sequence
of
events
that
allows
readers
to
better
understand
the
process
of
extinction;
Text
Two
offers
no
such
sequence
B.
Both
texts
provide
in-depth,
objective
explanations
of
scientific
phenomena,
allowing
the
reader
to
better
understand
the
material
C.
Both
texts
lay
out
a
problem
and
suggest
possible
solutions,
offering
the
reader
an
insight
into
some
scientists
approaches
to
mass
extinctions
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208
209
D.
Text
One
defines
important
terms
while
Text
Two
outlines
cause
and
effect,
so
that
readers
are
better
able
to
understand
the
immediacy
and
importance
of
the
phenomena
described
There
is
a
definite
text
structure
to
Text
One;
the
multiple
subheadings
should
alert
you
to
that
immediately.
However,
this
text
structure
is
not
at
all
a
sequence
of
events;
youll
be
hard
pressed
to
find
even
one
chronologically
significant
signal
word
(e.g.
first,
second,
third,
etc.)
For
this
alone
you
can
get
rid
of
answer
A.
B
is
certainly
true
of
Text
One,
but
its
hard
to
make
that
same
case
for
Text
Two,
as
the
majority
of
the
content
is
taken
up
with
a
catchy
introduction
and
a
less-than-
objective-sounding
tone.
Keep
B
for
now
but
consider
better
options.
The
first
part
of
C
is
true
--
both
texts
do
lay
out
a
problem
--
but
neither
proposes
a
possible
solution.
D
is
true
--
Text
One
is
full
of
important
terms
that
help
the
reader
better
understand
the
phenomena
described,
while
Text
Two
does
provide
a
cause
(humans
are
predisposed
to
like
neotenic
animals)
and
effect
(non-neotenic
endangered
animals
are
in
greater
danger
than
neotenic
ones).
Of
all
the
answers,
D
is
the
most
true.
Both
texts
can
be
said
to
have
the
aim
of
A.
Galvanizing
the
reader
towards
change
B.
Frightening
the
reader
with
grim
tidings
C.
Educating
the
reader
with
accessible
language
D.
Propelling
the
reader
towards
an
unavoidable
conclusion
This
question
asks
you
to
make
inferences
regarding
why
both
of
these
texts
were
written.
Assess
the
tone
of
these
texts
--
one
is
neutral
and
objective,
laying
out
facts,
while
the
other
is
informal
and
engages
more
with
the
reader.
But
both
contain
important
scientific
information
that
sheds
light
on
certain
aspects
of
the
same
phenomenon.
A
may
be
correct
--
its
possible
that
the
writers
of
both
these
texts
wished
to
spur
the
reader
towards
some
kind
of
action
--
but
its
also
quite
doubtful
considering
that
neither
of
these
can
really
be
considered
a
call
to
action,
as
neither
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209
210
uses
fiery
language
or
impels
the
reader
towards
any
real
kind
of
action.
Additionally,
B
is
also
possible
--
but
it
is
unlikely
considering
the
notable
absence
of
any
strong
language
or
sobering
statistics.
C
is
certainly
true
--
though
these
articles
do
contain
some
jargon,
they
both
take
care
to
either
define
these
terms
or
to
give
the
reader
enough
context
to
understand
them,
and
both
pieces
are
written
in
a
style
that
is
easy
to
follow;
additionally,
the
textbook-like
tone
of
the
first
passage
is
a
strong
indicator
that
the
author
wished
to
educate
and
inform
the
reader.
D
is
interesting,
but
not
very
compelling
--
which
conclusion,
exactly,
does
the
second
article
try
to
propel
the
reader
towards?
What
words
or
sentences
can
be
said
to
be
propelling
the
reader?
Though
you
may
indeed
reach
an
unavoidable
conclusion
after
reading
these
pieces,
the
neutral,
subdued
tone
of
the
first
piece
and
the
lack
of
any
conclusion
in
the
second
make
it
very
hard
to
find
evidence
for
D
being
the
right
answer.
C
is
the
best
answer.
Both
Text
One
and
Text
Two
contain
unfamiliar
words
and
phrases.
What
is
the
approach
these
texts
take
to
defining
these
phrases?
A.
Both
texts
consistently
define
every
unfamiliar
phrase
they
use
B.
Text
One
consistently
defines
phrases
whereas
Text
Two
defines
some
phrases
and
lets
the
reader
infer
the
meaning
of
others
C.
Text
One
does
not
define
relevant
phrases
whereas
Text
Two
does
D.
Neither
text
adequately
explains
the
scientific
phrases
it
uses
As
explained
above,
these
texts
have
similar
aims
in
that
they
both
seek
to
make
scientific
phenomena
clear
and
easy
for
the
layperson
to
understand.
Therefore
their
approach
to
phrasing
and
terminology
is
very
important;
if
you
look
closely
at
Text
One,
it
certainly
defines
all
the
terms
it
uses,
from
endangered
to
genetic
diversity.
Yet
Text
Two
does
not
ever
define
the
phrase
charismatic
mega
fauna,
leaving
it
to
the
reader
to
figure
it
out.
This
invalidates
Answer
A
and
makes
Answer
B
the
only
correct
choice.
211
Based
on
Text
Two,
charismatic
mega
fauna
most
closely
means
A.
Those
with
great
personalities
B.
Humans
invested
in
saving
animals
C.
Animals
that
humans
feel
compelled
to
save
D.
Plants
with
personality
You
may
be
tempted
to
choose
A
based
on
your
understanding
of
the
word
charisma
(magnetism),
but
remember,
this
is
a
scientific
article
about
animals,
so
its
unlikely
that
the
writer
would
devote
much
time
to
considering
animals
great
personalities.
B
is
clearly
wrong;
the
article
uses
the
phrase
in
the
following
context:
Thats
a
taller
order
if
youre
a
toad,
an
animal
that
wins
over
few
human
hearts.
Instead,
we
prefer
the
so-called
charismatic
megafauna,
funneling
our
emotional
and
conservational
energies
into
species
like
tigers,
lions,
elephants,
dolphins,
pandas,
and
the
like.
Replace
the
word
charismatic
megafauna
with
humans
invested
in
saving
animals
and
it
quickly
becomes
clear
how
ridiculous
this
answer
is.
C
is
a
much
better
choice.
D
references
the
title
of
the
piece,
but
as
there
is
no
mention
of
plants
yet,
it
makes
little
sense
in
this
context.
Lastly,
if
you
know
the
meaning
of
flora
(plants)
and
fauna
(animals),
the
meaning
of
this
should
be
clear,
as
only
one
of
the
choices
is
animals.
How
do
the
varying
tones
of
these
works
influence
the
relationship
between
the
reader
and
the
texts?
A.
The
objective
tone
of
Text
One
introduces
a
problem
to
the
reader,
whereas
the
informal
tone
of
Text
Two
allows
the
reader
to
feel
satisfied
that
the
problem
is
being
addressed
B.
The
second-person
tone
of
Text
Two
contains
a
subtle
indictment
of
the
reader,
whereas
the
detached
tone
of
Text
One
distances
the
reader
from
the
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211
212
immediate
problems
of
endangered
species
C.
The
jargon
in
the
first
text
gives
the
reader
an
unbiased,
in-depth
perspective,
while
the
informal
tone
of
the
second
text
clearly
reveals
the
authors
perspective
D.
The
textbook-like
tone
of
the
first
text,
contrasted
with
the
informal
tone
of
the
second,
make
it
clear
that
these
articles
would
be
read
in
very
different
contexts.
This
question
is
in
essence
asking
you
about
the
tone
of
the
text.
Dont
be
fooled
by
this
jargon-y
idea
of
the
relationship
between
the
reader
and
the
texts;
simply
focus
on
the
fact
that
the
question
is
asking
you
about
the
tone.
Assess
the
answer
choices
and
see
which
makes
the
most
sense
--
even
if
you
dont
understand
the
question,
you
should
be
able
to
eliminate
answer
choices
because
some
of
them
will
contain
blatantly
inaccurate
information
such
as
answer
A.
While
the
first
part
is
true,
the
informal
tone
of
Text
Two
does
nothing
to
address
the
problem.
In
fact,
all
the
text
does
is
present
a
problem,
without
even
a
mention
of
a
solution.
This
answer
is
wrong.
B
is
also
wrong;
there
is
absolutely
no
subtle
indictment
of
the
reader
here.
Or
rather,
if
there
is
a
subtle
indictment
(criticism)
of
the
reader,
it
is
so
subtle
as
to
be
nonexistent.
There
are
simply
no
words
in
this
text
that
contain
any
sort
of
criticism
of
the
reader,
or
even
imply
it.
This
alone
makes
the
answer
wrong.
C
is
also
wrong;
we
have
no
idea
what
the
authors
perspective
is
for
the
second
article.
Just
because
an
article
is
informal
does
not
mean
it
is
biased;
this
is
important
to
remember.
The
second
article
still
clearly
lays
out
all
of
the
facts,
and
quotes
experts
in
the
field
--
while
at
the
same
time
not
even
hinting
at
the
authors
perspective.
The
only
answer
left
is
D,
and
it
is
clearly
true
--
these
clearly
WERE
written
for
very
different
contexts,
such
as
a
textbook
or
a
magazine.
In
fact,
you
dont
need
much
beyond
the
little
blurb
at
the
top
of
each
text
to
tell
you
this
--
Text
One
comes
from
a
college
website
while
Text
Two
comes
from
the
Public
Library
of
Sciences
Blogs
network.
Even
if
youre
not
totally
sure
what
a
question
is
asking
you,
simply
paying
attention
to
the
context
can
sometimes
be
enough
to
propel
you
213
towards
the
right
answer.
These
two
passages
are
best
read
together
because
A.
Text
Two
defines
and
explains
Text
One
B.
Text
Two
gives
a
reason
for
a
phenomenon
found
in
Text
One
C.
They
give
two
oppositional
sides
of
one
story
D.
Text
One
contains
a
general
picture
of
a
phenomenon
while
Text
Two
details
a
specific
feature
of
this
phenomenon
This
question
asks
you
to
consider
why
the
evil
geniuses
behind
the
SAT
paired
these
texts.
Clearly,
all
paired
texts
will
have
some
sort
of
relationship.
Clearly,
A
is
incorrect;
considering
its
definition-heavy
tone,Text
One
needs
no
additional
definition
or
explanation.
B
is
tempting,
but
please
consider
that
Text
Two
does
not
actually
give
a
REASON
that
certain
species
are
endangered
--
it
simply
gives
a
reason
for
why
certain
endangered
species
are
more
cared
about
or
impacted
by
conservation
efforts.
Nor
is
C
correct;
these
two
articles
do
not
give
opposing
sides
or
differing
accounts;
they
both
simply
describe
certain
features
of
endangerment.
D
is
clearly
the
best
answer
--
while
Text
One
is
about
a
general
phenomenon
(endangerment
and
extinction),
Text
Two
addresses
another,
smaller
phenomenon
that
is
only
possible
in
context
of
the
phenomenon
described
in
Text
One.
Clearly,
D
is
the
best
answer.
As
you
can
see,
synthesis
will
mostly
center
on
asking
you
to
compare
and
contrast
the
various
tones
and
approaches
that
two
texts
take.
Remember,
the
SAT
pairs
texts
for
a
reason,
and
it
wont
always
be
as
simple
as
one
is
pro,
one
is
con.
For
example,
the
texts
above
are
clearly
related
yet
not
at
all
the
same;
as
soon
as
youve
assessed
the
similarities
(thematic
or
otherwise)
between
two
texts,
it
will
become
much
easier
to
assess
how
they
diverge
and
how
they
complement
one
another.
This
will
make
it
easier
to
understand
how
to
answer
Synthesis
questions.
214
215
specifically.
But
read
carefully
--
while
A
looks
like
it
may
be
true
(after
all,
the
lights
are
restricted
to
one
part
of
the
country)
if
you
read
closely
youll
see
that
the
clustering
of
lights
is
in
fact
an
indication
that
resources,
not
poverty,
are
restricted
to
just
one
area.
The
emptiness
and
lack
of
light
in
the
surrounding
areas
denote
poverty.
Clearly,
considering
how
little
light
there
actually
is,
the
poverty
isnt
restricted
--
the
resources
are.
A
is
wrong.
B
is
true
--
economic
sanctions
against
North
Korea
HAVE
increased
in
recent
years
--
but
is
completely
unrelated
to
the
data
you
see
in
front
of
you.
(While
the
article
does
say
that
electricity
use
increases
in
cities
but
dims
in
the
countryside
after
new
sanctions
are
imposed,
wed
have
to
see
a
much
more
detailed
breakdown
of
the
light
situation
after
a
few
sanctions
in
order
for
this
claim
to
be
relevant
to
the
data.)
C
is
also
true,
and
also
supported
by
the
article,
but
has
little
to
do
with
the
data.
Maps
and
charts
reveal
facts
and
statistics;
they
do
not
make
judgments.
D
is
the
best
answer
because
remember
that
the
map
compares
two
different
but
neighboring
countries
--
North
and
South
Korea.
Without
the
comparison
to
South
Korea,
this
map
of
North
Koreas
light
situation
(or
lack
thereof)
would
be
completely
meaningless,
as
wed
have
nothing
against
which
to
measure
it,
no
real
rubric
for
understanding
this
map.
As
this
question
proves,
you
must
read
carefully
and
make
sure
you
understand
and
are
answering
the
question,
or
else
your
choice
will
be
inaccurate.
This
article,
too,
contains
data
that
will
help
you
to
better
understand
what
the
article
itself
is
trying
to
say?
Based
on
the
chart,
what
inference
can
you
make
about
the
number
of
MFAs
that
will
be
earned
in
2012-2013?
A.
The
number
will
most
likely
continue
to
go
up
B.
The
number
will
most
likely
stay
the
same
C.
The
number
will
most
likely
decrease
D.
There
is
no
prediction
that
can
reasonably
be
made
about
this
chart
216
If
you
look
at
the
chart
--
and
read
the
article
--
its
pretty
clear
that
the
number
of
people
earning
MFAs
has
gone
up
significantly
in
the
past
few
years,
and
that
this
trend
shows
no
sign
of
stopping
despite
the
high
costs
and
low
pay
of
being
an
artist.
Based
on
the
trends
depicted
in
the
graph
--
as
well
as
the
fact
that
artists
consider
their
profession
to
be
an
honor,
and
tend
to
have
wealthier
parents
than
the
rest
of
the
population
--
it
is
pretty
easy
to
predict
that
A
is
the
only
correct
answer.
This
article
contains
a
more
challenging
graph.
Read
the
article,
and
look
at
the
graphs,
then
answer
the
questions.
Some
will
ask
you
merely
to
point
to
data,
whereas
others
will
ask
you
to
analyze
it:
Based
on
the
first
graph,
what
percentage
of
five-year-olds
believe
in
Santa?
A.
Nearly
70%
B.
Nearly
83%
C.
Nearly
62%
D.
Nearly
65%
This
is
the
kind
of
question
designed
to
see
if
you
are
paying
attention.
A
refers
to
the
percentage
of
three
year
olds
who
believe
in
Santa,
B
is
the
correct
answer,
C
refers
to
number
of
three-year-olds
who
believe
in
the
Tooth
Fairy,
and
D
refers
to
the
number
of
five-year-olds
who
believe
in
the
Tooth
Fairy.
When
answering
questions
like
this,
all
you
need
to
do
is
pay
attention
to
what
the
graph
actually
says.
Based
on
both
the
article
and
the
first
graph,
what
conclusion
can
you
draw
about
the
number
of
eight-year-olds
who
believe
in
Santa?
A.
Twice
as
many
eight-year-olds
than
nine-year-olds
believe
in
Santa
B.
Eight-year-olds
on
the
whole
no
longer
believe
in
Santa
C.
Eight-year-olds
who
no
longer
believe
in
Santa
most
likely
also
no
longer
217
believe
in
the
Tooth
Fairy
D.
Eight-year-olds
are
the
most
skeptical
age
group
The
question
asks
about
both
the
article
and
the
first
graph,
so
make
sure
that
youre
using
information
from
the
article
to
answer
this
question.
The
article
does
mention
that
a
1978
study
found
that
only
a
quarter
of
eight-year-olds
believe
in
Santa
--
though
the
graph
would
seem
to
contradict
this
finding
because
more
than
25%
of
nine-year-olds
believe
in
Santa,
and
it
doesnt
make
sense
for
the
belief
in
Santa
to
go
up
and
then
down
again
once
children
reach
a
certain
age.
(Though
its
true
that
belief
in
Santa
goes
up
between
the
ages
of
three
and
five,
this
can
be
explained
by
the
fact
that
three-year-olds
just
might
not
be
mature
enough
to
grasp
the
concept
of
Santa
fully).
Based
on
the
trend
in
the
chart
(a
decreasing
belief
in
Santa
correlated
with
age)
and
the
anecdotes
in
the
article,
it
doesnt
stand
to
reason
that
twice
as
many
eight
year
olds
believe
in
Santa;
not
even
twice
as
many
seven-
year-olds
believe
in
Santa
than
nine-year-olds,
and
based
on
the
graph
we
can
safely
assume
that
a
belief
in
Santa
will
only
decrease,
not
increase,
with
age.
There
is
also
no
evidence
for
B,
considering
that
nearly
a
third
of
nine-year-olds
believe
in
Santa,
according
to
the
chart,
so
it
makes
little
sense
for
no
eight
year
olds
to
believe
in
Santa.
C
is
supported
by
the
text
as
well
as
the
chart;
belief
in
Santa
and
the
Tooth
Fairy
appear
to
be
related,
as
each
time
a
belief
in
Santa
grows
or
shrinks,
belief
in
the
Tooth
Fairy
does
the
same.
We
can
assume
that
eight-year-olds
skeptical
of
Santa
will
also
be
skeptical
of
the
Tooth
Fairy,
but
we
cannot
assume
that
eight-
year-olds
are
the
most
skeptical
age
group,
especially
given
the
data
and
the
evidence
about
Wooleys
daughter
(though
the
article
does
not
say
how
old
she
was).
Based
on
the
second
graph,
adults
of
which
religious
group
are
most
likely
to
still
believe
in
Santa?
A.
No
adults
believe
in
Santa
B.
Catholic
adults
are
most
likely
to
believe
in
Santa
C.
Adults
of
another
religion
are
most
likely
to
believe
in
Santa
D.
Mainline
Protestant
adults
are
most
likely
to
believe
in
Santa
Take
your
S
AT
prep
to
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next
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217
218
Again,
this
question
is
just
trying
to
see
whether
or
not
you
are
paying
attention.
All
you
need
to
do
is
pay
attention
to
the
key
--
the
graph
is
color
coded.
The
green
bar
will
tell
you
what
percentage
of
which
group
of
adults
still
believes
in
Santa;
looking
at
the
green
bar,
it
is
clear
that
adults
of
Other
Religion
are
most
likely
to
still
believe
in
Santa.
All
this
question
is
asking
you
to
do
is
to
look
at
information
that
is
already
in
the
text.
What
is
the
relationship
between
the
two
graphs?
A.
Both
graphs
depict
the
same
trend:
that
belief
in
Santa
peaks
between
the
ages
of
5-8
B.
Both
graphs
depict
the
same
trend:
that
children
under
five
are
more
likely
to
believe
in
Santa
C.
Both
graphs
depict
the
same
trend:
that
belief
in
Santa
is
correlated
with
belief
in
the
Tooth
Fairy
D.
Both
graphs
depict
the
same
trend:
that
belief
in
Santa
is
correlated
with
religion
Remember,
this
question
is
asking
you
about
the
relationship
of
the
two
graphs
to
one
another
--
not
about
one
graph
in
isolation.
Consider
the
options
carefully;
the
first
graph
does
indeed
show
that
five-year-olds
are
the
most
likely
of
any
age
group
to
believe
in
Santa,
while
the
second
graph
is
a
little
bit
more
generous
and
says
that
five
to
eight
year
olds
are
the
most
likely
to
believe
in
Santa.
In
essence
both
graphs
say
the
same
thing,
though
the
parameters
given
by
the
second
graph
are
slightly
larger
than
the
parameters
given
in
the
first.
Neither
graph
depicts
the
trend
described
in
option
B,
and
only
one
graph
depicts
the
trend
found
in
C.
Only
the
last
graph
depicts
the
trend
found
in
D.
Clearly,
there
is
only
one
right
answer,
and
it
is
A.
What
is
one
surprising
question
that
the
data
in
the
second
graph
presents
but
does
not
explain?
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your
S
AT
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218
219
A.
Why
five-to-eight-year-old
children
of
other
religions
are
least
likely
to
believe
in
Santa
while
nine-to-twelve
year
old
children
and
adults
of
other
religions
are
most
likely
to
believe
in
Santa
B.
Why
5-8
year-old
children
of
no
religion
are
most
likely
to
believe
in
Santa
C.
Why
adults
believe
in
Santa
D.
Why
more
kids
dont
believe
in
Santa
This
is
a
bit
of
a
tricky
question,
because
the
only
role
of
this
data
is
to
present
information.
Youll
have
to
look
at
the
data
critically
and
in
isolation
--
meaning
that
you
cant
use
too
much
outsider
information,
like
the
idea
that
Christmas
is
technically
a
Christian
holiday,
to
drive
your
question.
Instead,
look
only
at
the
data.
The
first
option,
A,
is
based
on
data
and
only
on
data
--
it
has
nothing
to
do
with
other
religions.
It
simply
depicts
the
most
interesting
and
unexpected
trend.
Where
the
rest
of
the
religions
are
all
more
or
less
the
same
(belief
peaks
between
5-8
and
steadily
declines),
the
Other
Religion
bar
shows
belief
peaking
at
9-12,
declining
at
older
than
twelve,
and
then
peaking
again
during
adulthood.
Why
would
this
happen?
The
data
does
not
behave
like
the
data
for
the
other
religions,
which
is
why
A
is
the
best
answer.
B
is
also
an
interesting
question,
but
it
isnt
surprising
--
after
all,
the
findings
there
are
consistent
with
the
findings
for
all
five-to-eight-year-olds;
and
the
percent
of
5-8-year-olds
of
No
Religion
who
believe
in
Santa
is
not
significantly
higher
than
the
percentage
of
most
5-8-year-olds
who
believe
in
Santa.
C
has
nothing
to
do
with
the
data;
personal
beliefs
are
not
the
concern
of
data
and
charts.
Our
only
interest
here
is
why
the
data
is
fluctuating
--
hence
why
D
is
also
incorrect.
As
demonstrated
by
the
questions
above,
data
analysis
and
the
use
of
quantitative
information
can
enrich
your
reading
experience
tremendously.
Pay
attention
to
detail
and
remember
to
think
objectively
about
data,
and
you
will
see
much
success
on
this
portion
of
the
SAT.
Take
your
S
AT
prep
to
the
next
level.
Visit
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219
220
Part
IV:
Expression
of
Ideas
(Writing)
221
Development
Text
Development
Text
development
refers
to
the
rhetorical
structure
and
purpose
of
a
text.
That
is,
it
is
a
way
to
describe
the
components
of
a
text
that
make
that
text
successful
in
communicating
ideas.
Analyzing
text
development
entails
looking
at
four
components:
Support the details, facts, and statistics used to back up the proposition
Review
the
following
text
and
chart
before
continuing
the
explanation
that
follows
Sample
Text
-
Linking
Poverty
and
Obesity
By
now
it
has
become
common
knowledge
that
America
is
suffering
from
an
obesity
epidemic.
The
United
States
is
home
to
the
greatest
number
of
overweight
or
obese
people
in
the
world.
In
fact,
66%
of
all
Americans
are
overweight.
The
statistical
frequency
of
obesity
in
the
U.S.
is
a
complicated
number.
Although
America
is
one
of
the
wealthiest
nations
in
the
world,
obesity
is
most
often
associated
with
its
poorest
citizens.
Researchers
have
identified
a
direct
correlation
between
BMI,
or
body
mass
index,
a
measurement
of
obesity,
and
income.
However,
the
connection
between
obesity
and
poverty
is
not
a
result
of
uneducated
choices.
Rather,
those
living
in
poverty
are
more
likely
to
become
obese
because
of
the
unique
challenges
in
accessing
nutritious
foods
one
faces
when
living
in
a
high
poverty
area.
In
low-income
neighborhoods,
residents
are
less
likely
to
find
large
grocery
stores,
farmers
markets,
or
other
places
where
they
can
purchase
healthy
foods
including
fruits,
vegetables,
whole
grains,
or
low-fat
dairy
products.
As
their
food
shopping
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AT
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221
222
choices
are
often
limited
to
convenience
stores
or
corner
stores,
the
poor
often
find
that
their
food
choices
are
consequently
limited
to
convenience
foods,
such
as
frozen
meals,
canned
foods,
and
other
choices
that
are
high
in
fat
and
salt,
and
often
contain
highly
refined
grains
and
added
sugar.
When
high
quality
nutritious
foods
are
available
to
those
living
in
poverty,
these
food
items
are
often
much
more
expensive
than
less
nutritious,
but
more
filling
foods,
such
as
boxed
pasta
mixes.
With
limited
funds
to
spend
on
food,
poor
shoppers
seek
to
maximize
the
calories
per
dollar
ratio.
For
example,
while
a
healthy
lunch
choice,
such
as
a
chicken
Caesar
salad,
provides
about
60
calories
for
each
dollar
spent,
a
frozen
beef
burrito
provides
112
calories
for
the
same
dollar,
making
it
the
more
economical
choice.
Unfortunately,
these
inexpensive,
high
calorie
foods
are
not
nutrient
rich.
Combined
with
the
uniquely
ample
portion
sizes,
most
Americans
have
become
accustomed
to,
these
cheap,
filling
foods
lead
to
overconsumption
and
weight
gain.
In
addition,
those
living
in
low-income
neighborhoods
often
have
easy
access
to
fast
food
restaurants.
In
fact,
in
many
neighborhoods,
fast
food
restaurants
outnumber
stores
selling
nutritious
foods
nearly
four
to
one.
Fast
food
restaurants
offer
high
calorie
meals
for
relatively
low
prices.
A
fast
food
taco,
for
example,
provides
100
calories
per
dollar.
Unfortunately,
the
fast
food
taco
also
offers
high
fat
and
sugar
content,
and
very
little
nutritious
value.
Consuming
fast
food
on
a
regular
basis
can
lead
to
rapid
weight
gain
and
obesity.
Some
people
believe
fast
food
restaurants
should
be
held
responsible
for
obesity
rates
nationwide.
However,
these
businesses
often
counter
than
they
provide
affordable
food
options
to
Americans
at
all
income
levels
and
that
healthy
choices
are
available
on
their
menus.
Finally,
while
a
simplistic
analysis
of
obesity
rates
among
the
poor
could
lead
to
the
conclusion
that
lack
of
education,
depression,
or
other
factors
such
as
substance
abuse
could
cause
the
higher
rates
of
obesity
among
that
population,
a
close
analysis
demonstrates
that
the
opportunity
to
make
different
food
choices
may
not
exist.
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Often
the
poor
live
in
what
have
been
called
food
deserts,
areas
where
affordable,
nutritious
food
is
difficult
or
impossible
to
obtain.
Proposition
The
proposition
is
the
main
claim
a
text
sets
out
to
prove.
One
can
usually
find
the
proposition
near
the
end
of
the
first
paragraph.
In
an
argumentative
essay,
the
proposition
is
also
called
the
thesis
statement.
In
the
article
above,
which
sentence
is
most
likely
the
proposition?
1. Rather,
those
living
in
poverty
are
more
likely
to
become
obese
because
of
the
unique
challenges
in
accessing
nutritious
foods
one
faces
when
living
in
a
high
poverty
area.
2. Although
America
is
one
of
the
wealthiest
nations
in
the
world,
obesity
is
most
often
associated
with
its
poorest
citizens.
3. Researchers
have
identified
a
direct
correlation
between
BMI,
or
body
mass
index,
a
measurement
of
obesity,
and
income.
The
answer
is
A.
While
all
three
sentences
make
a
connection
between
poverty
and
obesity,
only
A
includes
the
argument
the
author
is
about
to
make,
that
the
connection
between
obesity
and
poverty
is
caused
by
a
lack
of
access
to
nutritious
foods.
224
In
the
sample
text,
the
proposition
is
introduced
specifically
in
the
introduction,
and
confirmed
in
the
conclusion.
Note
that
both
sentences
of
the
conclusion
make
reference
to
the
availability
of
nutritious
foods:
Often
the
poor
live
in
what
have
been
called
food
deserts,
areas
where
affordable,
nutritious
food
is
difficult
or
impossible
to
obtain.
When
analyzing
a
text
to
determine
the
proposition,
it
is
crucial
that
the
reader
consider
the
entire
text.
Finding
the
proposition
is
not
as
simple
as
choosing
the
last
sentence
in
the
introduction.
Sample
Question:
How
does
the
author
introduce
the
proposition?
A.
By
lamenting
America's
obesity
epidemic
B.
By
railing
against
the
many
factors
that
have
led
to
the
obesity
epidemic
C.
By
leveling
blame
on
the
poor
D.
By
dispassionately
outlining
facts
Your
clues
for
answering
these
questions
can
be
found
in
the
verbs
that
make
up
the
answers.
There
is
simply
no
textual
evidence
to
support
Option
A,
which
claims
that
the
author
"laments"
the
obesity
academic.
This
strong
language
suggests
that
the
author
has
a
strong,
regretful
opinion
of
the
epidemic
--
but
there
is
no
evidence
of
this
kind
of
passion
in
the
article.
The
same
is
true
of
B
and
C
--
there
is
no
"railing
against"
or
"blame."
In
fact,
if
you
look
at
how
the
author
introduces
the
proposition,
all
you
will
see
are
facts
outlined
without
real
comment.
In
order
to
answer
this
question,
you
must
be
familiar
with
both
the
terms
--
i.e.,
to
know
what
a
proposition
actually
is
--
as
well
as
the
vocabulary
used
in
the
answer
options.
You
must
also
understand
the
difference
between
an
objective
tone
(which
is
used
here,
in
this
expository
text)
and
a
subjective
one
(which
makes
use
of
many
adjectives,
descriptions,
and
clearly
illustrates
the
author's
opinion.)
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Support
The
support
consists
of
specific
facts,
examples,
and
details
used
to
provide
evidence
for
the
claim.
Support
can
be
in
the
form
of
statistic
data,
but
may
also
include
elaboration
or
explanation
that
strengthens
the
proposition.
In
the
sample
text,
which
information
is
not
support
for
the
proposition?
1. 68%
of
all
Americans
are
overweight
2. chicken
Caesar
salad
provides
about
60
calories
for
each
dollar
spent
3. in
many
neighborhoods,
fast
food
restaurants
outnumber
stores
selling
nutritious
foods
nearly
four
to
one.
The
answer
is
A.
The
percentage
of
Americans
who
are
overweight
is
certainly
a
statistic,
which
might
lead
one
to
conclude
that
it
supports
the
proposition.
However,
here
that
is
not
the
case.
The
use
of
this
statistic
provides
introductory
context,
and
lets
the
reader
know
why
this
topic
is
important,
but
the
percentage
of
all
Americans
suffering
from
obesity
does
not
support
the
propositions
connection
between
obesity
and
poverty.
Choice
B,
however,
provides
information
that
explains
why
high
calorie
foods
may
be
chosen
more
frequently
than
healthier,
lower
calorie
foods.
Choice
C
elaborates
on
the
imbalance
of
food
options
available
in
high-poverty
neighborhoods,
supporting
the
authors
proposition
that
obesity
is
a
result
of
a
lack
of
access
to
nutritious
foods.
When
analyzing
a
text
to
determine
what
information
supports
the
proposition,
it
is
important
that
the
reader
does
not
assume
all
statistics
or
numbers
are
relevant
support.
Understanding
the
text
holistically
is
necessary
in
order
to
identify
relevant
support.
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226
Sample
question:
What
is
the
best
support
from
the
article
for
the
claim
that
the
poor
have
unique
challenges
when
it
comes
to
making
healthy
choices?
A.
The
poor
have
many
issues
with
substance
abuse
in
their
communities
that
make
it
hard
to
eat
well.
B.
Fast
food
restaurants
do
not
offer
healthy
food
options
at
all.
C.
Lower-income
neighborhoods
are
"food
deserts"
that
do
not
offer
affordable
high-quality
foods.
D.
High-calorie
foods
are
often
not
nutrient-rich.
This
question
asks
you
to
consider
information
that
supports
a
claim.
Often,
answer
choices
for
questions
like
this
will
include
information
that
was
actually
featured
in
the
article,
but
be
careful
to
pay
attention
and
make
sure
that
this
information
actually
supports
the
claim.
For
example,
while
Option
A
isn't
incorrect
--
the
poor
can
have
issues
with
substance
abuse,
which
are
mentioned
in
the
article
--
you
should
not
use
outside
knowledge,
only
what
is
explicitly
stated
in
the
text,
to
demonstrate
your
understanding
of
the
way
the
text
is
structured.
In
fact,
the
text
explicitly
states
that
this
explanation
is
"simplistic"
--
so
clearly
it's
not
the
best
support
for
this
claim.
B
is
incorrect
as
well,
as
the
text
states
that
"fast-food
restaurants
provide
affordable
food
options
to
Americans
at
all
income
levels
and
that
healthy
choices
are
available
on
their
menu."
C
is
the
best
answer,
as
the
writer
mentions
in
the
last
paragraph
of
the
text
that
this
is
a
challenge
that
the
poor
face.
D
is
also
true,
but
has
nothing
to
do
with
the
claim
statement
in
question.
Focus
When
evaluating
the
focus
of
a
text
the
reader
should
consider
how
and
if
each
paragraph
clearly
relates
to
the
proposition.
In
the
sample
text,
the
proposition
makes
a
connection
between
poverty
and
obesity.
Therefore,
all
of
the
information
in
the
body
paragraphs
should
provide
support
for
that
claim.
Which
of
the
following
details
is
not
relevant
to
the
proposition?
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1. Some
people
believe
fast
food
restaurants
should
be
held
responsible
for
obesity
rates
nationwide.
2. Combined
with
the
uniquely
ample
portion
sizes
most
Americans
have
become
accustomed
to,
these
cheap,
filling
foods
lead
to
overconsumption
and
weight
gain.
3. poor
shoppers
seek
to
maximize
the
calories
per
dollar
ratio
The
answer
is
A.
Remember,
the
purpose
of
this
essay
is
to
support
the
proposition.
The
two
sentences
at
the
end
of
the
fourth
paragraph
that
refer
to
the
debate
about
whether
or
not
fast
food
restaurants
are
responsible
for
obesity
are
not
related
to
this
proposition.
The
writer
argues
that
lack
of
access
to
affordable,
high
quality
foods
leads
to
obesity.
There
is
no
claim
that
there
is
a
connection
directly
to
fast
food
restaurants.
And,
the
author
also
mentions
convenience
and
corner
stores
as
other
sources
of
low
quality,
low
price
food.
When
analyzing
the
focus
of
a
text
it
is
important
to
keep
the
specific
proposition
in
mind.
Information
that
seems
to
be
related
may
only
refer
to
the
same
topic,
but
not
the
same
controlling
idea,
as
in
this
example.
Again,
it
is
impossible
to
analyze
focus
without
understanding
the
entire
text.
Where
is
the
most
logical
place
to
insert
the
following
statement?
"In
fact,
many
have
claimed
that
it
is
this
factor
that
differentiates
American
consumers
from
consumers
in
other
countries;
no
one
knows
how
these
over-large
servings
developed,
but
experts
argue
that
without
proper
portion
control
there
can
be
no
answer
to
this
epidemic."
A.
Right
before
this
statement:
"A
fast
food
taco,
for
example,
provides
100
calories
per
dollar.
Unfortunately,
the
fast
food
taco
also
offers
high
fat
and
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228
sugar
content,
and
very
little
nutritious
value."
B.
Right
after
this
sentence:
"However,
the
connection
between
obesity
and
poverty
is
not
a
result
of
uneducated
choices."
C.
Right
after
this
sentence:
"Combined
with
the
uniquely
ample
portion
sizes,
most
Americans
have
become
accustomed
to,
these
cheap,
filling
foods
lead
to
overconsumption
and
weight
gain."
D.
Right
after
this
sentence:
"Finally,
while
a
simplistic
analysis
of
obesity
rates
among
the
poor
could
lead
to
the
conclusion
that
lack
of
education,
depression,
or
other
factors
such
as
substance
abuse
could
cause
the
higher
rates
of
obesity
among
that
population,
a
close
analysis
demonstrates
that
the
opportunity
to
make
different
food
choices
may
not
exist."
This
question
tests
your
understanding
of
how
to
best
organize
a
piece
of
writing
so
that
it
retains
its
focus.
Pay
attention
to
the
sentence
itself
"it
is
this
factor
that
differentiates
American
consumers..."
So
you
know
that
this
sentence
must
have
to
go
after
another
sentence
that
introduces
some
new
factor.
Look
at
A.
The
sentence
before
"A
fast
food
taco,
for
example"
reads
"Fast
food
restaurants
offer
high
calorie
meals
for
relatively
low
prices."
Perhaps
this
phenomenon
could
be
a
differentiating
factor
--
but
look
at
the
rest
of
the
sentence,
which
is
clearly
about
overlarge
servings.
The
preceding
sentence
makes
no
mention
of
overlarge
servings,
so
this
cannot
be
the
right
place
for
a
sentence
about
portion
control.
If
you
look
at
the
rest
of
the
choices,
the
only
one
that
mentions
portion
control
is
C
-
-
so
C
must
be
the
best
answer,
as
it
is
the
only
one
that
introduces
the
"unique
differentiating
factor"
of
portion
control,
and
is
thus
the
best
place
for
a
sentence
about
portion
size.
Quantitative
Information
Often
a
graph
or
chart
will
accompany
a
text
and
provide
additional
information
related
to
the
text.
When
analyzing
quantitative
information,
it
is
necessary
to
consider
the
information
in
that
graphic
as
it
relates
to
the
proposition
in
the
text.
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Many
conclusions
can
likely
be
drawn
from
a
graphic
representation,
but
only
those
related
to
the
proposition
are
relevant.
What
related
conclusion
can
the
reader
reasonably
draw
based
on
the
information
in
the
graph
Obesity
Rate
by
Income?
1. Those
earning
more
than
$50,000
a
year
are
more
likely
to
have
access
to
farmers
markets
than
those
earning
$30,000
a
year.
2. Those
earning
$35,000
a
year
are
less
likely
to
be
obese
than
those
earning
$20,000
a
year.
3. To
avoid
becoming
obese
Americans
should
try
to
earn
at
least
$50,000
a
year.
Answer:
A
According
to
the
text
one
reason
those
living
in
poverty
are
more
likely
to
be
obese
is
that
they
dont
have
access
to
large
supermarkets
or
farmers
markets
where
they
can
purchase
nutritious
foods.
Based
on
the
claim
in
support
of
the
texts
proposition,
the
reader
can
conclude
that
it
is
likely
that
wealthier
Americans
have
greater
access
to
these
sources
of
food.
Choice
B
is
accurate,
and
it
is
obvious
that
more
income
is
correlated
to
lower
obesity
rates.
However,
there
is
no
direct
connection
between
this
observation
and
the
proposition
of
the
text.
That
is,
this
statement
doesnt
make
the
connection
to
the
availability
of
nutritious
foods.
Choice
C
is
not
the
correct
choice
because
the
proposition
of
the
text
is
not
to
advocate
for
higher
wages
or
to
suggest
that
those
living
in
poverty
simply
try
to
earn
more
money
in
order
to
improve
their
health.
This
observation
is
not
related
to
the
text.
230
Conclusion
Before
responding
to
questions
about
the
development
of
a
text
it
is
crucial
that
the
reader
consider
the
entire
text
holistically
and
be
particularly
focused
on
the
proposition
or
main
claim
the
text
makes.
Begin
by
underlining
or
highlighting
the
proposition,
and
consider
other
components,
including
support,
focus,
and
quantitative
information
as
they
apply
to
that
proposition.
231
Organization
Text
Organization
The
organization
of
a
text
refers
to
all
of
the
elements
that
make
it
logical
and
cohesive.
All
levels
of
a
text,
from
sentences
to
paragraphs,
should
be
organized
and
ordered
logically
and
cohesively.
To
analyze
the
organization
of
a
text,
it
is
necessary
to
consider
four
different
elements:
Conclusions
how
a
text
ends,
and
the
synthesis
of
ideas
to
leave
the
reader
with
an
understanding
of
the
purpose
and
content
Sequence
The
sequence
of
a
text
is
the
order
in
which
details
are
presented
in
support
of
the
main
idea.
Often,
the
thesis
or
proposition
will
establish
the
order
of
information.
There
are
several
ways
to
organize
details
in
a
text:
232
Example
Chronologically
Description
The
sand
beneath
my
feet
is
damp,
cool
and
soft.
A
gentle
breeze
wafts
in
from
the
water,
bringing
with
it
the
smell
of
seaweed
and
cotton
candy
from
a
carnival
just
a
half
a
mile
away.
As
I
walk
closer
to
the
carnival
the
sounds
of
people
screaming
in
joyful
fear
from
the
top
of
the
roller
coaster
reaches
my
ears.
I
can
still
taste
the
salt
on
my
lips
from
my
swim
in
the
water
earlier
today.
Process
Analysis
Before
mixing
the
ingredients,
preheat
the
oven
to
350
degrees.
Slowly
mix
the
butter,
flower,
and
cream
together,
being
careful
to
remove
all
lumps
from
the
batter.
Then,
slowly
add
cocoa,
vanilla,
and
chopped
nuts.
Division
and
classification
Compare and
Both cats and dogs are considered valued pets and even
contrast
233
choice.
For
example,
cats
are
often
considered
more
difficult
to
train
than
dogs,
while
dogs
tend
to
require
more
maintenance,
including
frequent
exercising
and
grooming.
Causal
Use
the
text
below
to
answer
the
questions
about
these
concepts.
1.
The
Hindi-language
film
industry,
based
out
of
Mumbai,
India,
is
one
of
the
most
prolific
producers
of
feature
films
in
the
world,
producing
up
to
1000
films
per
year.
Nicknamed
Bollywood,
a
combination
of
the
name
of
the
American
film-hub,
Hollywood,
and
the
colonial
name
of
Mumbai,
Bombay,
the
network
of
studios
produces
hundreds
of
films
per
year,
many
of
which
reach
worldwide
audiences.
Unlike
Hollywood,
which
is
a
geographical
location,
Bollywood
is
a
concept
that
includes
production
companies
located
throughout
India
and
in
other
parts
of
the
world
where
Hindi-language
films
are
produced.
2.
Bollywood
films
have
enjoyed
a
long
and
profitable
history,
beginning
with
the
first
film,
a
silent
picture
produced
in
1913,
around
the
time
when
the
American
movie
industry
was
relocating
from
New
York
to
California,
and
producing
the
first
Hollywood
films.
The
first
Bollywood
film
with
sound
appeared
in
1931,
just
four
years
after
Hollywoods
breakthrough
talking
picture
The
Jazz
Singer
By
the
1940s
Bollywood
films
were
garnering
worldwide
attention,
and
in
1946
Neecha
Nagar,
a
Bollywood
film,
won
the
best
picture
award,
called
the
Palme
dOr,
or
Golden
Palm,
at
the
Cannes
Film
Festival
in
France.
3.
While
the
development
of
Bollywood
films
may
have
paralleled
the
growth
of
234
the
American
film
industry
in
California,
Hindi-language
films
are
unique
in
several
ways,
and
hardly
an
imitation
of
American
film
genres.
For
example,
Bollywood
films
tend
to
be
considerably
longer
than
American
films,
stretching
up
to
three
hours,
as
compared
to
two
hours
or
less
for
American
films.
In
addition,
almost
every
Bollywood
film,
regardless
of
genre,
includes
at
least
one
elaborate
singing
and
dancing
segment,
which
is
often
cast
as
dream
within
the
plot.
These
musical
numbers
are
also
a
response
to
strict
censorship
codes
that
were
once
imposed
on
films
produced
in
India.
Because
characters
could
not
kiss,
hold
each
other,
or
engage
in
more
intimate
contact,
the
music
and
dancing
came
to
represent
romance
within
a
love
story.
Eventually,
the
musical
numbers,
and
in
fact,
the
films
themselves
developed
unique
aesthetic
signatures,
including
the
bumping
of
shoulders
between
characters
who
were
romantically
involved,
exaggerated
expressions
of
love
or
passion,
and
elaborate
dances
that
led
to
the
romantic
characters
being
almost,
but
not
quite,
cheek
to
cheek.
4.
The
Bollywood
film
industry
has
experienced
three
distinct
eras
in
its
history.
Like
the
American
film
industry,
Bollywood
found
its
roots
in
a
studio-based
model,
or
the
studio
era.
During
this
time,
from
the
dawn
of
Bollywood
films
to
about
1950,
studios
and
the
executives
who
ran
them
maintained
almost
all
control
of
film
production,
and
garnered
the
most
profits
from
those
films.
Actors,
directors,
musicians,
and
all
of
the
other
creative
people
engaged
in
film
production
were
merely
employees
of
the
studios,
often
paid
flat
salaries,
and
required
to
work
on
the
films
to
which
they
were
assigned
for
the
duration
of
their
employment
contract.
5.
During
World
War
II,
it
became
difficult
for
Bollywood
studios
to
procure
raw
film
stock.
In
fact,
the
only
film
stock
available
was
on
the
black
market,
and
filmmaking
became
a
moderately
criminal
activity.
Producers
engaged
in
a
wide
range
of
crimes
saw
film
production
as
a
means
to
launder
money,
or
turn
235
illegally
obtained
profits
into
legal
funds
that
could
be
banked
or
used
for
purchases
in
general
market.
In
the
midst
of
this
cycle,
actors
began
to
command
and
receive
very
high
salaries
for
their
work,
as
the
black
market
studios
saw
actor
salaries
as
a
means
of
converting
illegal
profit
to
legal
business
expenses.
6.
Following
World
War
II,
and
the
demise
of
the
black
market
studios,
a
few
film
directors
emerged
as
the
most
sought-after.
These
directors
partnered
with
the
most
successful
and
popular
music
directors
and
a
few
styles
of
filmmaking
and
musical
production
dominated
the
industry
from
the
1950s
until
the
1990s.
As
the
celebrity
of
specific
directors
styles
continued
to
increase,
so
too
did
their
salaries.
Like
the
exorbitant
salaries
paid
actors
during
the
war
years,
these
expenditures
were
not
sustainable.
With
the
onset
of
digital
music
sources
and
music
pirating,
the
profits
studios
once
saw
from
selling
the
soundtracks
to
films
all
but
evaporated,
and
it
became
increasingly
difficult
to
meet
the
salary
demands
of
the
music
directors.
In
the
1990s
several
studios
were
bankrupted
and
forced
to
close.
This
period
in
Bollywood
history
is
referred
to
as
the
Directors
Era.
7.
Some
critics
refer
to
the
period
from
about
1998
to
the
present
as
a
time
of
transition,
or
the
Transition
Era.
There
are
still
some
film
and
music
directors
who
command
higher
salaries
than
others,
based
on
their
past
success
and
unique
approaches
to
film.
However,
they
now
accept
package
salaries,
from
which
they
are
required
to
pay
many
other
employees,
including
musicians,
camera
operators,
etc.
These
directors
are,
in
fact,
contractors
within
the
industry.
The
new
payment
scheme
encourages
cost
savings
so
that,
for
example,
instead
of
hiring
a
full
orchestra
for
days
at
a
time,
the
music
director
might
record
all
of
the
music
in
a
short
period
of
time
and
use
digital
music
for
some
sequences.
236
8.
Some
actors,
similarly,
are
paid
more
than
others,
and
there
are
a
few,
mostly
male,
actors
who
command
salaries
much
higher
than
any
other
performer.
These
actors,
however,
receive
payment
through
a
combination
of
acting
salaries,
musical
royalties,
and
payments
for
personal
appearances
and
endorsements.
9.
Despite
these
hurdles
and
recent
changes
in
the
Bollywood
film
industry,
it
is
a
vibrant
and
growing
business.
Today,
Bollywood
films
are
screened
in
ninety
different
countries,
and
in
India
alone,
about
fourteen
million
people
see
a
Bollywood
or
Hindi-language
movie
every
day.
The
essay
above
uses
compare
and
contrast
to
provide
context
for
the
details
about
Bollywood
films.
Aspects
of
Bollywood
films
are
compared
to
aspects
of
American
films
in
order
to
clarify
points
for
an
American
reader.
What
other
organizational
strategy
is
applied
in
the
passage
above?
A.
Chronological
B.
Process
C.
Causal
Answer:
A
The
essay
above
is
organized
chronologically,
which
is
a
strategy
well
suited
to
explain
the
history
of
a
phenomenon.
The
essay
starts
with
the
beginning
of
Bollywood
films,
in
1913,
and
ends
with
a
description
of
current
trends.
Introductions
A
successful
introduction
must
accomplish
two
goals:
237
There
are
several
ways
to
introduce
a
text,
each
of
which
is
particularly
applicable
to
specific
types
of
essays.
This
list
is
not
exhaustive,
but
does
provide
some
of
the
most
common
strategies:
238
Examples
of
Introductions
Type
of
Introduction
Example
Description/anecdote
Relevant background
information
Startling statistic or
remark
Define an important
term
Review
the
text
above.
Which
is
most
likely
the
introduction
strategy
this
author
applied?
A.
Provide
relevant
background
information
B.
Define
an
important
term
C.
Use
a
startling
statistic
239
Answer:
A
In
this
essay
the
author
provided
relevant
background
information
about
the
Hindi-
language
film
industry
and
the
origin
of
the
term
Bollywood.
This
information
provides
relevant
context
for
the
reader
who
is
not
familiar
with
these
types
of
films.
If
the
writer
was
to
revise
this
introduction
and
focus
on
defining
an
important
term,
which
would
be
the
most
relevant
term
that
would
benefit
from
a
clearly
articulated
definition?
A.
Bollywood
B.
Hindi
C.
Film
concept
Answer:
A
Bollywood
may
be
an
unfamiliar
term
to
most
readers,
and
it
is
a
sort
of
nickname
applied
to
Hindi-language
films.
Since
it
is
not
a
commonly
understood
term,
a
thorough
definition
would
benefit
the
reader
by
providing
information
necessary
to
understand
the
rest
of
the
essay.
Transitions
Transitions
are
words
or
phrases
used
to
connect
ideas
between
sentences
or
between
paragraphs.
Effective
transitions
build
coherence
in
an
essay
and
ensure
the
reader
is
able
to
follow
a
logical
line
of
reasoning
from
the
beginning
to
the
end
of
a
text.
Transitional
words
and
phrases
fall
into
many
categories.
Review
the
categories
and
examples
below.
To
show
agreement
or
In addition
Likewise
Similarly
240
similarity:
To
show
contrast
or
Although
contradiction:
On the other
Nevertheless
hand
To provide examples or
In other
Notably
In fact
emphasize a point:
words
To show cause/effect:
As a result
Because
Therefore
Sequence/time:
In the first
Prior to
Next
place
To
summarize
or
conclude:
In conclusion Summing up
On
the
whole
Review
the
text
above.
Which
type
of
transition
would
most
successfully
improve
the
logical
development
from
paragraph
(4)
to
paragraph
(5)?
A.
Cause/effect
B.
Sequence/time
C.
Summarize/conclude
Answer:
B
Paragraph
(4)
discusses
the
challenges
faced
by
the
film
industry
during
WWII.
Paragraph
(5)
begins
to
describe
a
new
era
in
Bollywood
film,
following
WWII.
This
is
clearly
a
change
in
time
and
a
sequence
or
time
transition,
such
as
following,
after,
or
later
would
be
appropriate.
Review
the
text
above.
Which
type
of
transition
would
most
successfully
improve
the
logical
development
from
paragraph
(8)
to
(9)?
A.
Cause/effect
Take
your
S
AT
prep
to
the
next
level.
Visit
www.learnerator.com
240
241
B.
Sequence/time
C.
Summarize/conclude
Answer:
C
Paragraph
(9)
is
the
concluding
paragraph
of
the
essay.
To
signal
the
end
of
the
text
and
to
alert
the
reader
that
summary
or
implication
will
follow,
a
summarizing
or
concluding
transition
is
appropriate.
Conclusion:
The
conclusion
of
an
essay
pulls
together
all
of
the
information
presented
and
comes
to
some
final
concept
that
expresses
the
relevance
of
the
text.
There
are
several
strategies
that
can
be
applied
to
the
conclusion,
including:
Brief
summary
of
the
essays
main
points
the
conclusion
pulls
the
most
important
information
from
the
essay
and
synthesizes
it
into
an
objective
summary.
Call for action challenges the reader to do something about the topic.
Explain
the
significance
or
implications
of
the
findings
in
the
text
how
does
this
information
change
the
body
of
knowledge
on
the
topic,
and
change
how
the
topic
will
be
considered
in
the
future?
Which
of
the
strategies
listed
is
most
likely
the
one
used
by
the
author
of
the
text
above?
A.
Brief
summary
of
main
points
B.
Provocative
question
C.
Explain
significance
or
implications
242
Answer:
A
The
conclusion
of
this
essay
explains
the
significance
and
implications,
by
explaining
that
the
Bollywood
film
industry
will
likely
continue
to
prosper,
despite
challenges
faced
over
its
long
history.
The
inclusion
of
the
statistic
about
the
number
of
people
who
view
a
Bollywood
movie
daily
suggests
a
large
audience
for
these
films,
further
solidifying
the
point.
Which
other
strategy
could
be
successfully
applied
to
this
essay?
A.
Brief
summary
of
main
points
B.
Provocative
question
C.
Call
to
action
Answer:
A
A
brief
summary
of
the
essays
main
points
would
offer
another
effective
conclusion
to
this
essay.
Since
the
essay
is
expository,
or
informative,
rather
than
argumentative
or
persuasive,
a
call
to
action,
such
as
See
a
Bollywood
movie
soon,
would
not
effectively
synthesize
the
authors
main
points.
The
essay
does
not
offer
a
contentious
issue
or
debate,
so
a
provocative
question
would
not
be
an
effective
way
to
end
the
essay.
243
Ideas are only communicated effectively if a text uses language effectively. There
are many considerations that impact how effective a text is in achieving the
writers rhetorical purpose. Among these are:
Precision
Precise language uses the most accurate, descriptive term. Nouns are specific,
rather than general, and modifying words call on imagery to draw connections a
reader can relate to in order to develop a mental image of a situation that closely
matches the intent of the writer. Some characteristics of precise writing include:
Use of the active voice in which the noun or subject performs the action of
the verb.
o Active: Marta moved the couch to the center of the room.
o Passive: The couch was moved to the center of the room.
244
Precise:
The
band
featured
a
talented
singer
with
a
soulful
voice
who
reminded
me
of
Aretha
Franklin.
Read the text below and continue on to the content that follows:
Californias
San
Joaquin
Valley
is
home
to
more
than
ten
percent
of
Californias
agricultural
production,
which
means
one
of
every
ten
farms
in
the
state
is
in
the
Valley.1
The
United
States
relies
on
this
narrow
strip
of
farmland,
located
in
central
California,
for
food
and
cotton2.
In
recent
years,
however,
an
extended
drought,
which
has
gone
on
for
a
long
time3,
has
threatened
crop
production.
To
combat
this
drought,
farmers
have
turned
to
deep
wells,
which
pump
ground
water
from
far
below
the
earths
surface.
What
seems
like
a
reasonable
solution
to
a
bad4
agricultural
problem
may
have
significant
unforeseen
consequences.
Recent
research
suggests
that
the
removal
of
ground
water
in
the
Valley
has
elevated
mountains,
caused
several
small
shifts
of
the
earths
crust,
resulting
in
vibrations5,
and
has
the
potential
to
trigger
more
frequent
earthquakes.
The
earthquakes
could
also
become
more
intense.6
Review the excerpt (2) in the passage above. What would be the best way to make this
sentence more precise?
245
sentence more precise, the best strategy is to list specific foods that are grown in
the region.
Review the excerpt (4) in the passage above. What would be the best way to make this
sentence more precise?
Concision
Concise writing is direct and to the point. It avoids restating ideas, and is clear
and specific. There are several strategies to evaluate the concision of a text,
including:
Using
short,
related
sentences,
rather
than
combining
ideas
into
fewer,
concise
sentences.
Read excerpt (5) in the passage above. What problem interferes with the concision of this
sentence?
246
B. Passive sentence
C. Negative sentence
D. Improper word use
Answer: A
This sentence includes unnecessary words and phrases. Since the sentence
already uses the word earthquake, the author attempted to vary the sentences
by using the definition of an earthquake in this section. The result, however, is a
sentence that is overly wordy and potentially confusing. The sentence should be
revised.
Which is the most effective revision of excerpt 5 in the passage above?
Review excerpt (6) in the passage above. What problem interferes with the concision of the
text?
A. Passive sentence
B. Negative sentence
C. Lack of concision in sentences
247
D. Lack of precision in word choice
Answer: C
The last sentence in the text provides additional information about the
predictions for future earthquakes. The result is a passage that is overly wordy,
and the suggestion that new, more detailed information will be presented. The
passage should be revised.
248
Ideas are only communicated effectively if a text uses language effectively. There
are many considerations that impact how effective a text is in achieving the
writers rhetorical purpose. Among these are:
Style
most often refers to the diction of the writing, which can be formal,
informal, or very informal. The style is the created through the authors
word choice and organization. An authors style is also influenced by his
or her intended audience. For example, someone writing for an audience
of children will maintain a different style than an author writing for
graduate students.
Tone
- the writers attitude toward the subject, which must be appropriate
to the purpose.
Style
Style refers to how something is written to achieve a specific purpose. The style
of the writing affects the readers impression of what he or she is reading,
including assessments of the credibility and persuasiveness of an argument. The
style of a text must remain consistent in order to achieve its purpose. Review the
passage below and assess the writer's style, paying careful attention to the words
and sentence structure that s/he uses.
249
Venice, Italy is a city composed of 117 small islands, connected by bridges and
canals. There is no wheeled traffic in the streets of Venice. In other words, there
are no cars, no bicycles, no scooters, and no horse carts in the entire city. There
is, however, a public transportation system, consisting of vaporetti, or water
buses, which provides service to the citys main canals, the lagoon surrounding
the city, and the train station. Visitors travel to Venice either by waterbus, from
nearby Marco Polo Airport, or by train from many cities in Europe. The train
station, Venezia Santa Lucia, is located on the banks of the Grand Canal,
Venices main thoroughfare.
Think about how this passage is written. Is it informative? Does it give
directions? Is it poetic, with a lyrical style? Does it directly address the reader or
give the writer's opinion? Once you assess the passage and consider these
factors, take a stab at the following question:
Which sentence most effectively matches the style of this passage and could be added to the
end of the paragraph?
250
This sentence matches the style of the passage for several reasons. First, the
sentence is informative -- rather than narrative or persuasive -- matching the high
level of detail and elaboration in the rest of the passage. Second, it maintains
focus on visitors to Venice, rather than residents, and, third, it does not express
an opinion or address the reader directly (you). While this is a passage intended
for visitors, it is more informative than directive.
Taking these ideas into consideration, review the passage below:
Motivated by concern for the environment, as well as a desire to avoid large financial
commitments, fans of tiny houses, or microhomes, have rejected the typical 2600 square
foot American house in favor of homes measuring just 100 to 400 square feet. Tiny
homes offer many benefits. Residents pay less to heat and cool their homes, and property
taxes are much lower than those on typical houses. Tiny homes consume less resources
in construction and use less energy overall. There are, however, some drawbacks to
micro-living. Residents often find it difficult to entertain, because there is very little
space for guests, or even for additional seating. Finally, living in a microhome requires
discipline. Since a small space can quickly become cluttered, residents must discard
anything they dont use regularly.
Which of the following sentences is aligned with the style of this passage and could be added
as the first, or topic sentence of the paragraph?
251
Answer: A
Begin by analyzing the overall style of the passage. Notice the word choices the
author makes, large financial commitment, rather than big expense, and
motivated by concern for the environment, rather than because they care
about the environment. This analysis tells the reader that the writer anticipates
a specific audience adults familiar with home ownership and familiar with
trends in environmental activism. From this analysis, we can assume the diction,
or word choice, will be elevated, and the author will not define terms (as in
Option B) or use informal language (as in D -- "really growing in popularity" is
too colloquial, or conversational, to fit in with this style). Nor will the author
express an opinion (as in C) -- instead, s/he simply lays out the facts.
Tone
The style of a piece is often closely linked to the tone. The tone of a text expresses
the writers attitude toward the subject. The most effective way to analyze tone is
to establish if the text is objective or subjective.
Objective tone
Subjective tone
252
In both objective and subjective texts, the reader can further analyze the tone by
evaluating the connotations, or implications, of the words the author chooses. The
authors attitude toward the subject is revealed in the evaluative or connotative
words he or she uses.
Review the following excerpt from Wuthering Heights:
This time, I remembered I was lying in the oak closet, and I heard distinctly the gusty
wind, and the driving of the snow; I heard, also, the fir bough repeat its teasing sound,
and ascribed it to the right cause: but it annoyed me so much, that I resolved to silence it,
if possible; and, I thought, I rose and endeavoured to unhasp the casement. The hook was
soldered into the staple: a circumstance observed by me when awake, but forgotten. I
must stop it, nevertheless! I muttered, knocking my knuckles through the glass, and
stretching an arm out to seize the importunate branch; instead of which, my fingers
closed on the fingers of a little, ice-cold hand! The intense horror of nightmare came over
me: I tried to draw back my arm, but the hand clung to it, and a most melancholy voice
sobbed, Let me inlet me in! Who are you? I asked, struggling, meanwhile, to
disengage myself. Catherine Linton, it replied, shiveringly (why did I think of Linton? I
had read Earnshaw twenty times for Linton)Im come home: Id lost my way on the
moor! As it spoke, I discerned, obscurely, a childs face looking through the
window. Terror made me cruel; and, finding it useless to attempt shaking the creature
off, I pulled its wrist on to the broken pane, and rubbed it to and fro till the blood ran
down and soaked the bedclothes: still it wailed, Let me in! and maintained its tenacious
gripe, almost maddening me with fear. How can I! I said at length. Let me go, if you
want me to let you in! The fingers relaxed, I snatched mine through the hole, hurriedly
piled the books up in a pyramid against it, and stopped my ears to exclude the lamentable
prayer. I seemed to keep them closed above a quarter of an hour; yet, the instant I listened
253
again, there was the doleful cry moaning on! Begone! I shouted. Ill never let you in,
not if you beg for twenty years. It is twenty years, mourned the voice: twenty
years. Ive been a waif for twenty years! Thereat began a feeble scratching outside, and
the pile of books moved as if thrust forward. I tried to jump up; but could not stir a limb;
and so yelled aloud, in a frenzy of fright. To my confusion, I discovered the yell was not
ideal: hasty footsteps approached my chamber door; somebody pushed it open, with a
vigorous hand, and a light glimmered through the squares at the top of the bed. I sat
shuddering yet, and wiping the perspiration from my forehead: the intruder appeared to
hesitate, and muttered to himself. At last, he said, in a half-whisper, plainly not
expecting an answer, Is any one here? I considered it best to confess my presence; for I
knew Heathcliffs accents, and feared he might search further, if I kept quiet. With this
intention, I turned and opened the panels. I shall not soon forget the effect my action
produced.
Which words best described the authors tone in the passage?
254
thought,
I
rose
and
endeavored
to
unhasp
the
casement.
What tone does the author employ in this sentence to best express the narrators emotional
state?
A. Fear
B. Anxiety
C. Frustration
D. Apprehension
Answer: C
In this sentence the author chose words such as teasing and endeavored to
communicate a frustrated tone, as the narrator complains about an annoying
sound outside his window and struggles to open the window to resolve the
problem. (This question has a very obvious answer if you read the text: "It
annoyed me so much...")
Sometimes a writer will let his/her feelings creep into an otherwise neutral piece.
Use context clues, such as words that demonstrate emotion, to ascertain which
parts of a text display some sort of bias.
Review the excerpt below before going on to the questions that follow:
The Dark Romantic authors are a favorite among middle school and high school
readers. The works of Poe, and to a lesser extent Hawthorne and Melville, touch
on the depraved, the grotesque, and the horrific, all topics that seem elicit, yet
appealing to the adolescent mind.1 Many Americans, in fact, report that the most
memorable reading experiences of their secondary academic careers involved
reading the works of one or more of these authors. In contrast, the
Transcendentalist works of Emerson and Thoreau, when they are taught, tend to
leave student-readers feeling confused and disconnected from the text. Although
the Dark Romantics emerged directly as a response to Transcendentalism, the
255
connection between the two genres is seldom explored in secondary classrooms,
thus leaving students with an incomplete understanding of the works they so
enjoy. 2Unlike the Transcendentalists, who celebrated the inherent perfection of
the human condition and the notion that the spirit of each individual, if it could
be reached, would connect all people and nature, the Dark Romantics asserted
that mankind was inherently flawed, fallible, and prone to sin and self
destruction.3 That is, while the heroes of Transcendental literature sought their
more perfect selves, the protagonists of Dark Romantic literature struggled to
avoid their natural states of depravity, and while the Transcendentalists saw the
supreme divinity personified in the natural world, accessible to anyone who could
transcend the
256
While Poes reaction to Transcendentalism was primary based on what
hed read and those he encountered who were engaged in the movement,
Nathaniel Hawthorne found himself drawn away from
Transcendentalism to Dark Romanticism because of his own experience
and family history.
Which sentence in the passage above most demonstrates a biased or subjective point of
view?
A. Sentence (1)
B. Sentence (2)
C. Sentence (4)
D. Sentence (5)
Answer: B
In the following sentence, the author demonstrates a subjective opinion of the
teaching of Transcendentalism and Dark Romanticism in secondary classrooms.
The author notes, Although the Dark Romantics emerged directly as a response
to Transcendentalism, the connection between the two genres is seldom explored
in secondary classrooms, thus leaving students incomplete understanding of the
works they so enjoy. This sentence suggests that teachers ignore the connection
between the two schools of literature and thus neglect making connections
necessary for students to best understand literature they already enjoy.
A. While 90% of secondary teachers report teaching the works of the Dark
Romantics, only 40% report that they consistently teach the works of the
Transcendentalists, whose works inspired the Dark Romantics.
B. Most teachers cover the Dark Romantics in great detail but dont bother
with the Transcendentalists because their work is too challenging for high
257
school students.
C. Teachers should cover both the Dark Romantics and the
Transcendentalists, since it is difficult to understand the works of authors
like Poe if one hasnt read authors like Emerson.
D. Dark Romantic literature is very popular with students, so it is taught
more often than Transcendentalism, which students dont like much at all.
Answer: A
Using statistics is one of the best ways to avoid a subjective or biased tone. Note
that this revision does not suggest that teachers are providing an incomplete
education, or that either genre is neglected. The revision includes only facts that
can be supported and confirmed with evidence.
Review sentence (3) from the passage. Which revision most effectively improves the style of
the writing?
258
Answer: A
Revision A corrects the passive form of the sentence by suggesting that the
individual can connect his spirit, rather than the passive construction, the
spirit, if it could be reached, would connect
Review the sentence below from the passage:
The works of Poe, and to a lesser extent1 Hawthorne and Melville,
touch on the depraved2, the grotesque3, and the horrific, all topics
that seem elicit4, yet appealing to the adolescent mind.
Which section includes an error in diction?
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4
Answer: D
In option D (4), the writer has made a word-choice error. Elicit means to evoke
or drawn a reaction or result. It is likely this author intended to use the word
illicit, which means forbidden.
Review the sentence below from the passage:
His focus on motive1, on what made criminals commit crime,
frequently led his detectives to identify deep-seeded madness2
within a criminal, and to suggest that all humans are capable of
such depravity3, but that some are more successful than others at
suppressing it4.
259
Which section includes an error in diction?
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4
Answer: B
This is an error in the use of a phrasal adjective. The correct phrase is deepseated, meaning that something is seated or firmly in place within a context.
In this case, the madness noted is firmly in place within the criminal mind.
You can determine the style and tone of a piece by paying attention to the words
used -- particularly if they elicit a specific emotion, communicate a bias, or argue
a point. As you read, pay attention to the diction of a piece, and consider its
intended audience. Remember too that all written works have some sort of style,
whether it's formal or informal, objective or subjective, or somewhere in
between. This will help you accurately answer questions that the new SAT may
pose about style, tone, and grammar.
260
Syntax
Syntax
Syntax
questions
require
readers
to
consider
a
text
at
the
sentence
level.
That
is,
the
reader
should
be
able
to
identify
and
apply
necessary
changes
to
sentences
in
order
to
improve
the
clarity,
precision,
or
logic
of
the
writing.
Questions
on
this
topic
might
require
students
to:
Read
the
passage
below,
and
consider
the
relationships
between
the
sentences
as
you
do
so:
Puritan
literature
is
rooted
in
the
belief
that
God
is
always
at
work
in
the
daily
lives
of
humans.
Most
texts
describe
the
discovery
of
evidence
of
Gods
intervention
or
participation
in
human
lives.1Texts
often
include
allusions
to
classical
literature,
as
Puritans
valued
education.2Because
they
eschewed
flowery
prose,
the
allusions
are
straightforward
and
direct.
3Puritan
literature
is
the
seed
of
the
American
identity.4It
stresses
self-reliance
and
overcoming
hardship
to
achieve
a
goal.5These
values
are
often
associated
with
pursuit
of
the
American
Dream.6
Which
transition
added
to
the
beginning
of
sentence
(2)
would
best
indicate
the
relationship
to
the
preceding
sentence?
A.
Although
B.
As
a
result
C.
To
begin
with
261
D.
Moreover
Answer:
B
The
first
two
sentences
of
the
passage
indicate
a
cause/effect
relationship.
The
first
sentence
describes
the
root
of
Puritan
literature.
The
second
sentence
describes
the
focus
of
the
literature
resulting
from
that
root-belief.
Which
is
the
best
revision
of
sentence
(3)?
A.
Because
the
Puritans
eschewed
flowery
prose,
the
allusions
are
straightforward
and
direct.
B.
To
avoid
flowery
prose,
the
allusions
are
straightforward
and
direct.
C.
They
eschewed
flowery
prose;
the
allusions
they
preferred
are
straightforward
and
direct.
D.
In
lieu
of
flowery
prose,
the
allusions
are
straightforward
and
direct.
Answer:
A
To
answer
this
type
of
question
the
reader
should
begin
by
confirming
what
the
sentence
intends
to
say.
In
this
case,
there
are
two
main
points:
the
Puritans
rejected
(eschewed)
flower
prose,
and,
as
a
result
of
that
rejection,
the
allusions
are
straightforward
and
direct.
This
sentence
has
a
dangling
modifier
error,
caused
by
the
lack
of
an
antecedent
for
the
pronoun
they
in
the
first
clause.
That
is,
this
sentence
seems
to
say
that
they
refer
to
the
allusions
in
the
second
clause.
In
fact,
they
refers
to
the
Puritans.
So,
replacing
they
with
Puritans,
corrects
the
sentence
and
makes
it
clear.
Which
sentence
most
effectively
combines
sentence
(5)
and
sentence
(6)?
A.
It
stresses
self-reliance
and
overcoming
hardship
to
achieve
a
goal,
values
often
associated
with
pursuit
of
the
American
Dream.
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S
AT
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261
262
B.
It
stresses
self-reliance,
overcoming
hardship
to
achieve
a
goal,
and
values
often
associated
with
the
American
Dream.
C.
It
stresses
self-reliance
and
overcoming
hardship
to
achieve
a
goal;
values
often
associated
with
pursuit
of
the
American
Dream.
D.
It
stresses
values
associated
with
the
pursuit
of
the
American
Dream
like
self-reliance
and
overcoming
hardship
to
achieve
a
goal.
Answer:
A
To
choose
the
most
effective
sentence
the
reader
must
understand
the
context
of
the
passage.
The
main
point
of
the
last
three
sentences
is
that
Puritan
literature
was
a
seed
from
which
the
American
identity
grew
meaning
it
came
before
the
American
identity,
which
makes
sense,
since
there
was
no
America
when
it
was
written.
Understanding
the
context
enables
the
reader
to
dismiss
choice
D
as
incorrect,
because
it
suggests
that
the
Puritans
were
in
pursuit
of
the
American
Dream,
which
was
not
the
case.
Choice
B
indicates
that
the
values
often
associated
with.
are
different
from
self-reliance
and
overcoming
hardship,
which
is
not
the
case.
Choice
C
is
not
correct
because
one
should
use
a
semicolon
(;)
only
between
two
independent
clauses.
The
second
clause
in
this
sentence
could
not
stand-alone;
it
is
not
an
independent
clause.
Choice
A
is
correct.
Review
the
passage
below:
Most
people
are
familiar
with
catnips
effects
on
cats,
but
many
are
not
aware
that
catnip
has
a
long
history
of
use
as
a
medicinal
and
culinary
herb.1A
member
of
the
mint
family,
catnip
can
also
be
used
in
tea,
and
as
a
savory
accent
to
soups
and
stews.2While
American
cooks
prefer
more
subtle
seasonings,
French
cooking
uses
the
sharp,
minty
taste
of
catnip
in
many
well-known
dishes.3One
popular
French
dish
that
uses
263
catnip
is
bouillabaisse,
a
fish
stew.4
264
Review
the
sentence
below:
Catnip
is
used
in
traditional
medicines
to
treat
insomnia,
stomach
upset,
and
headaches.
Where
would
this
sentence
best
fit
within
the
given
passage?
A.
After
sentence
(1)
B.
Before
sentence
(1)
C.
After
sentence
(2)
D.
Before
sentence
(4)
Answer:
A
Sentence
(1)
is
the
topic
sentence,
and
it
establishes
two
focus
areas:
medicinal
and
culinary
uses
for
catnip.
Since
medicinal
is
mentioned
first,
it
would
logically
be
elaborated
on
first.
Note,
as
well,
that
sentence
(2)
reads,
catnip
can
also
be
used
This
transitional
word
indicates
a
comparison.
Adding
the
given
sentence
before
sentence
(2)
provides
the
point
of
comparison.
Which
is
the
most
effective
revision
of
sentence
(3)?
A.
While
American
cooks
prefer
more
subtle
seasonings,
French
chefs
use
the
sharp,
minty
taste
of
catnip
in
many
well-known
dishes.
B.
While
American
cooks
prefer
more
subtle
seasonings,
the
French
use
the
sharp,
minty
taste
of
catnip
in
many
well-known
dishes.
C.
Although
American
cooks
prefer
more
subtle
seasonings,
French
cooking
uses
the
sharp,
minty
taste
of
catnip
in
many
well-known
dishes.
D.
While
American
cooks
prefer
more
subtle
seasonings,
but
French
cooking
uses
the
sharp,
minty
taste
of
catnip
in
many
well-known
dishes.
Answer:
A
Sentence
(3)
includes
an
error
in
comparison.
The
sentence
begins
with
American
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S
AT
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level.
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264
265
cooks,
so
it
refers
to
the
people
who
do
the
cooking.
In
the
existing
sentence,
cooks
are
compared
to
cooking,
which
is
flawed.
To
correct
the
sentence,
the
comparison
must
be
between
cooks
or
between
types
of
cooking.
Only
A
revises
the
sentence
so
that
cooks
are
compared
to
chefs
(cooks).
Understanding
syntax
is
an
important
part
of
honing
your
verbal
skills.
As
you
read,
consider
the
relationships
that
each
sentence
sets
up.
Are
the
sentences
all
grammatical?
Do
they
introduce
or
reinforce
direct
and
logical
relationships
to
one
another,
or
to
the
content
of
the
text?
Paying
close
attention
and
thinking
critically
about
these
ideas
will
help
you
to
score
high
on
the
SAT.
266
Part
V:
Standard
English
Conventions
(Writing)
267
Sentence Formation
Basic
Parts
of
a
Sentence
A
simple
sentence
consists
of
a
subject
and
a
predicate.
The
subject
of
the
sentence
is
a
person,
place,
thing,
or
idea.
The
predicate
of
the
sentence
contains
a
verb
that
states
something
about
the
subject.
He walks.
John writes.
They
talk.
The
first
words
in
the
examples
above
are
subjects,
and
the
final
words
in
these
examples
are
predicates.
This
is
the
basic
structure
of
all
simple
sentences.
The
Subject
The
subject
of
a
sentence
can
be
a
noun,
a
pronoun,
or
a
noun
phrase.
It
usually
appears
at
or
near
the
beginning
of
a
sentence.
The
subjects
in
the
following
examples
have
been
underlined.
These
sentences
have
nouns
as
their
subjects.
Nouns
can
be
common,
proper,
or
collective.
Always
remember
that
the
noun
that
functions
as
a
subject
will
NEVER
be
part
of
a
prepositional
phrase.
These
sentences
have
pronouns
as
their
subjects.
Always
use
subjective
pronouns
as
subjects,
and
never
use
an
objective
pronoun.
268
Me
and
Joe
are
very
good
friends.
(incorrect
usage
of
an
objective
pronoun)
These
sentences
have
noun
phrases
as
their
subjects.
Although
a
noun
phrase
is
made
up
of
multiple
words,
they
collectively
form
a
single
component
that
functions
as
a
normal
noun
in
the
sentence.
Noun
phrases
may
be
gerund
phrases
or
infinitive
phrases.
Verbs
All
predicates
must
contain
at
least
one
verb.
The
three
primary
types
of
verbs
are
action
verbs,
linking
verbs,
and
auxiliary
verbs.
The
verbs
in
the
following
examples
have
been
underlined.
Action
verbs
are
expressive
of
an
activity
being
performed.
An
action
verb
can
be
either
transitive
or
intransitive.
A
transitive
verb
is
followed
by
a
direct
object.
An
intransitive
verb
is
not
followed
by
a
direct
object.
A
direct
object
cannot
be
found
in
a
prepositional
phrase.
A
fireman
climbs
the
ladder.
(transitive
verb--the
word
ladder
is
the
direct
object)
The
dolphins
swim
in
the
water.
(intransitive
verb--the
word
water
is
not
the
direct
object
because
it
is
the
object
of
a
prepositional
phrase)
269
that
renames
the
subject
or
an
adjective
that
describes
the
subject.
Auxiliary
verbs
are
smaller
verbs
placed
in
front
of
the
main
verb.
Up
to
three
auxiliary
verbs
may
be
used
in
a
sentence
along
the
main
verb.
Auxiliary
verbs
express
tense,
mode,
and
voice.
The
cake
might
have
been
baked
by
Jane.
(expresses
voice
-
passive)
Direct
Objects
The
predicate
of
the
sentence
may
also
contain
a
direct
object,
an
indirect
object,
or
a
subject
compliment.
The
direct
object
receives
the
action
of
the
verb,
and
the
indirect
object
receives
what
is
being
given
or
done.
The
subject
compliment
is
an
adjective
or
a
noun
and
either
describes
or
renames
the
subject.
The
italicized
words
are
examples
of
direct
objects.
Direct
objects
can
be
nouns,
pronouns,
noun
phrases,
or
subordinate
clauses.
Indirect
Objects
The
words
in
italics
are
examples
of
indirect
objects.
Indirect
objects
can
be
either
nouns
or
pronouns.
Indirect
objects
can
also
be
placed
within
prepositional
phrases.
270
Subject
Compliments
The
words
in
italics
are
subject
compliments.
A
subject
compliment
can
be
a
noun
or
a
pronoun
that
renames
the
subject
or
an
adjective
that
describes
the
subject
(use
subject
form
of
pronoun
as
a
subject
compliment--it
sounds
strange,
but
it
is
correct).
A
subject
compliment
is
always
followed
by
a
linking
verb.
A
subject
can
also
be
a
participial
phrase
or
an
infinitive
phrase).
Clauses
A
clause
is
formed
with
a
subject
and
a
predicate
like
a
sentence;
however,
it
is
used
as
a
building
block
for
a
larger
sentence
that
is
more
complex.
A
clause
may
be
either
independent
or
subordinate.
Independent
clauses
are
capable
of
standing
alone
as
complete
sentences.
Every
sentence
must
contain
at
least
one
clause.
An
independent
clause
expresses
a
complete
thought.
Since they were so thirsty, they bought some bottled water to drink.
Bob
was
riding
on
his
green
tractor
because
he
needed
to
plow
his
field.
Subordinate
clauses
begin
with
a
subordinating
conjunction
and
are
not
capable
of
standing
alone
as
complete
sentences.
The
subordinating
conjunctions
in
the
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following
examples
have
been
italicized.
Subordinate
clauses
begin
with
either
a
subordinate
conjunction
or
a
relative
pronoun.
In
addition,
subordinate
clauses
make
the
reader
want
more
information
He was on the team, which had won every game. (relative pronoun)
Four
Types
of
Sentences
There
are
four
types
of
sentences:
simple,
compound,
complex,
and
compound-
complex.
Simple
sentences
are
formed
from
a
single
independent
clause
that
stands
on
its
own.
No
further
information
is
needed
in
order
to
completely
understand
the
idea
that
is
being
asserted
by
the
independent
clause.
Jay walks.
Compound
sentences
are
formed
from
two
independent
clauses
that
are
connected
by
a
coordinating
conjunction.
There
are
only
seven
coordinating
conjunctions,
and
they
are
for,
and,
nor,
but,
or,
yet,
and
so.
They
can
be
remembered
by
using
the
acronym
FANBOYS.
Compound
sentences
MUST
use
a
comma
right
before
the
coordinating
conjunction
unless
the
clauses
are
very
short.
This
is
the
most
common
punctuation
mistake
in
English.
The
coordinating
conjunctions
in
the
following
examples
are
underlined.
He went the grocery store yesterday, and he went to the zoo last week.
Bob ran all the way home, but he forget his key at work.
The
big
lion
wandered
out
of
its
cage,
so
the
zookeeper
shot
it
with
a
tranquilizer
dart.
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272
Complex
sentences
are
formed
from
an
independent
clause
and
a
dependent
clause.
When
the
dependent
clause
comes
first,
a
comma
is
used
to
separate
the
two
clauses.
When
the
independent
clause
comes
first,
nothing
is
used
to
separate
the
two
clauses.
Because he likes the taste of ice cream, he eats his desserts very quickly.
He eats his desserts very quickly because he likes the taste of ice cream.
Compound-complex
sentences
are
formed
from
two
independent
clauses
and
a
dependent
clause.
There
are
many
possibilities
and
combinations
that
are
possible
with
these
types
of
sentences.
He
went
to
the
stadium
because
he
wanted
to
see
the
game,
but
he
fell
asleep
in
his
chair.
Since
he
was
a
model
citizen,
he
picked
up
the
smelly
garbage,
and
he
threw
it
away
in
a
nearby
trash
can.
Shifts in Construction
Certain
components
of
a
sentence
need
to
remain
consistent
and
parallel.
However,
there
are
inappropriate
shifts
in
tense,
voice,
mood,
person,
number,
and
discourse
that
make
it
hard
for
the
reader
to
grasp
the
intended
meaning
of
a
sentence.
The
most
common
inappropriate
shifts
in
sentence
construction
will
now
be
examined.
Tense
Verb
tense
expresses
the
time
that
the
action
of
the
verb
takes
place.
If
the
tense
within
the
sentence
is
changed,
then
the
meaning
of
the
sentence
will
often
become
illogical.
However,
unnecessary
shifts
in
tense
are
easy
to
notice
and
repair.
Incorrect
Shift
of
Tense
273
He
caught
the
fish
and
then
throws
in
back
into
the
water.
(past
to
present
tense)
She
will
buy
the
chicken
and
cooked
it
in
her
oven.
(future
to
past
tense)
Correct Repair
He caught the fish and then threw it back into the water. (both past tense)
She bought the chicken and cooked it in her oven. (both past tense)
Voice
A
verb
can
be
used
to
express
either
active
or
passive
voice.
Active
voice
is
when
the
subject
of
the
sentence
performs
the
action
of
the
sentence.
Passive
voice
is
when
the
subject
of
the
sentence
does
not
perform
the
action
of
the
sentence.
When
a
sentence
uses
two
verbs
they
usually
need
to
use
the
same
voice.
Incorrect
Shift
of
Tense
Some
people
want
candy,
but
sometimes
bananas
are
received.
(active
to
passive)
When
the
lady
turned
up
the
radio,
her
favorite
song
was
heard.
(active
to
passive)
Correct Repair
Some people want candy but sometimes receive bananas. (both active)
When the lady turned up the radio, she heard her favorite song. (both active)
Mood
A
verb
may
also
be
used
to
express
mood.
There
are
three
types
of
mood:
indicative,
imperative,
and
subjunctive.
The
errors
in
mood
shift
occur
when
either
indicative
is
shifted
to
imperative
within
a
sentence
or
when
imperative
is
shifted
to
indicative.
Incorrect
Shift
of
Mood
274
Take
your
medicine,
and
you
call
your
doctor.
(imperative
to
indicative)
Correct Repair
Person
There
are
three
perspectives
(or
points
of
view)
in
English.
They
are
first
person,
which
is
the
person
speaking.
The
next
is
second
person,
which
is
the
person
spoken
to.
The
last
one
is
third
person,
which
is
the
person
spoken
about.
Most
unnecessary
shifts
in
person
usually
occur
when
the
third
person
changes
to
the
second
person.
Incorrect
shift
in
person
Individuals
like
being
busy,
so
when
a
job
is
slow,
you
are
sad.
(third
to
second)
Dogs
want
dog
food,
so
while
they
eat,
you
are
satisfied.
(third
to
second)
Correct Repair
You like being busy, so when a job is slow, you are sad. (both second)
Dogs want dog food, so while they eat, they are satisfied. (both third)
Number
An
antecedent
is
a
word
or
a
phrase
that
is
represented
by
a
pronoun.
One
should
use
singular
pronouns
to
refer
to
singular
antecedents
and
use
plural
pronouns
to
refer
to
plural
antecedents.
Errors
that
involve
unnecessary
shift
of
number
are
usually
very
easy
to
detect
and
repair.
Incorrect
shift
in
number
275
If
Janet
goes
out
in
the
sun,
then
they
need
to
wear
sunscreen.
(singular
to
plural)
While
he
rode
in
the
car
together,
the
boys
cleaned
their
shoes.
(singular
to
plural)
Correct Repair
If Janet goes out in the sun, then she needs to wear sunscreen. (both singular)
While
they
rode
in
the
car
together,
the
boys
cleaned
their
shoes.
(both
plural)
Discourse
Indirect
discourse
is
when
dialogue
is
reported
and
not
quoted.
Direct
discourse
uses
quotation
marks
and
actually
quotes
what
is
said.
Most
errors
involving
discourse
occur
when
direct
discourse
is
not
enclosed
in
quotation
marks
and
appears
as
indirect
discourse.
Incorrect
expression
of
discourse
He
stated
he
was
really
happy
and
let's
to
go
to
the
park.
(both
indirect)
Correct Repair
He
stated
he
was
really
happy
and
said,
"Let's
go
to
the
park."
(indirect
and
direct)
276
Pronouns
Pronouns
A
pronoun
is
a
word
that
is
substituted
for
a
noun
or
noun
phrase.
The
word
for
which
it
is
used
as
a
substitute
is
named
or
understood
within
the
context
of
the
prose.
There
are
eight
different
types
of
pronouns:
PERSONAL
PRONOUNS
This
type
of
pronoun
specifies
either
a
person,
animal,
thing,
or
idea.
A
personal
pronoun
will
use
different
forms
depending
on
case,
number,
gender,
and
grammatical
person.
Number
Singular
and
plural
pronouns
are
used
in
order
to
denote
the
number
of
people
or
items
that
are
referenced.
They
have
seen
us
going
to
the
river
with
them.
(Plural
pronouns)
Gender
Singular
pronouns
referring
to
a
person
will
take
on
different
forms
in
order
to
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denote
gender.
The
pronoun
it
is
gender
neutral.
Only
third
person
pronouns
specify
gender.
Case
Personal
pronouns
may
be
either
subjective
or
objective,
depending
on
their
use
in
a
sentence.
The
subjective
form
is
used
as
either
as
a
subject
of
a
sentence
or
as
a
subject
compliment.
The
objective
form
is
used
either
as
a
direct
object
(or
indirect
object)
of
a
sentence
or
as
the
object
of
a
prepositional
phrase.
Bob has left Martha for her. (Objective - object of the preposition for)
Person
Personal
pronouns
have
three
different
forms
to
denote
the
concept
of
the
grammatical
"person":
278
Subjective
Case
Objective Case
INDEFINITE
PRONOUNS
This
type
of
pronoun
refers
to
a
non-specific
item(s),
being(s),
or
location(s).
This
is
the
largest
group
of
pronouns
in
the
English
language.
Indefinite
pronouns
can
be
easily
classified
by
the
types
of
verbs
they
use
(singular
and/or
plural).
There
are
also
possessive
and
compound
forms
of
indefinite
pronouns.
Possessive
forms
end
with
an
apostrophe
and
the
letter
s.
Compound
forms
fuse
two
indefinite
pronouns
together
so
that
they
may
act
like
a
singular
entity.
Possessive
forms
of
indefinite
pronouns
279
Plural
both, others, none, all, some, any, several, few, fewer, many, more, most
RELATIVE
Relative
pronouns
begin
relative
clauses
that
function
as
either
nouns
or
adjectives.
He saw the man who was running away from the robber. (adjective clause)
She saw the bag that fell from the robber's hands. (adjective clause)
In
first
two
examples
above,
the
relative
clauses
that
begin
with
relative
pronouns
serve
as
adjectives
that
describe
the
direct
objects
of
the
sentences.
In
the
final
example,
the
relative
pronoun
whomever
forms
a
noun
clause
that
functions
as
the
direct
object
of
the
sentence.
There
are
nine
relative
pronouns
in
English:
Adjective
clauses:
"who",
"whom",
"which",
"what",
"that"
Noun
clauses:
"whoever",
"whomever",
"whichever",
"whatever"
INTERROGATIVE
280
Interrogative
pronouns
ask
a
question.
There
are
five
interrogative
pronouns,
and
they
are
"which",
"what",
"who",
"whom",
and
"whose".
The
word
who
is
the
subjective
form
and
the
word
whom
is
used
as
the
objective
form.
To
whom
does
that
belong?
(objective
form
used
as
the
object
of
the
prepositional
phrase
that
begins
with
the
word
to)
The
biggest
error
with
interrogative
pronouns
is
the
incorrect
usage
of
the
word
who
as
the
objective
case.
Most
individuals
are
not
sure
how
to
use
the
words
who
and
whom.
Incorrect
usage
Correct usage
REFLEXIVE
These
types
of
pronouns
refer
back
to
the
subject
of
the
sentence.
Every
subjective
personal
pronoun
has
a
reflexive
form.
Thus,
the
reflexive
pronouns
in
English
are
"myself",
"yourself",
"himself",
"herself",
"itself",
"ourselves",
"yourselves",
and
"themselves".
In
addition,
the
pronoun
one
also
has
a
reflexive
form
(oneself).
281
Most
of
the
grammatical
errors
that
occur
with
reflexive
pronouns
happen
when
they
are
used
as
the
subject
instead
of
referring
back
to
the
subject.
Incorrect
Usage
Ourselves
have
caused
it.
(incorrect
usage
of
the
plural
reflexive
form)
Correct Usage
POSSESSIVE
Possessive
pronouns
indicate
ownership.
Every
personal
pronoun
has
an
objective
form.
The
personal
pronouns
he
and
him
both
use
the
pronoun
his
for
their
possessive
form.
Therefore,
the
possessive
pronouns
in
English
are:
"its",
"my",
"mine",
"your",
"her",
"hers",
"his",
"our",
"ours",
"their",
"theirs",
and
"yours".
By
far,
the
biggest
and
most
common
mistake
is
the
misuse
of
the
possessive
pronoun
"its".
Quite
often,
it
is
confused
with
the
contraction
it's,
which
is
a
combination
of
the
word
it
and
is.
Incorrect
usage
Correct usage
The green car lost its wheel. (correct usage of possessive pronoun)
282
DEMONSTRATIVE
There
are
four
demonstrative
pronouns:
"this",
"that",
"these",
and
"those".
They
stand
on
their
own
and
distinguish
the
entity
or
entities
that
the
speaker
is
speaking
about.
One
of
the
most
common
mistakes
when
using
demonstrative
pronouns
is
the
incorrect
use
of
the
pronouns
this
and
these.
The
pronoun
this
is
singular,
and
the
pronoun
these
is
plural.
Here
are
some
examples
of
correct
and
incorrect
usage
of
these
terms.
Incorrect
Usage
This
are
not
the
proper
kinds
of
napkins.
(incorrect
usage
of
the
singular
form)
Correct Usage
These
are
not
the
proper
kinds
of
napkins.
(correct
usage
of
the
singular
form)
Sample
Test
Questions
Select
the
answer
that
correctly
identifies
the
pronoun
(or
pronouns)
in
the
sentence.
1)
The
grumpy
old
man
fell
down
the
stairs
and
hurt
his
knee.
283
A.
grumpy
B.
old
C.
fell
D.
and
E.
his
2)
The
cats
smelled
the
fish
and
ran
out
the
door
A.
cats
B.
and
C.
ran
D.
out
E.
There
is
no
pronoun
in
the
sentence.
3)
This
is
good
advice
because
she
really
likes
to
run.
A.
This,
because
B.
This,
she
C.
because,
she
D.
she,
to
E.
she,
likes
4)
Those
are
all
of
the
items
in
the
blue
basket
that
they
brought
to
the
picnic.
A.
Those,
all,
that
B.
Those,
in,
they
C.
all,
that,
to
D.
Those,
all,
they
E.
all,
in,
they
ANSWERS:
1)
E
2)
E
3)
B
4)
D
284
Possessive Determiners
Also
referred
to
as
possessive
adjectives,
possessive
determiners
assign
possession
to
a
grammatical
element
that
functions
as
a
noun
in
a
sentence.
There
are
two
types
of
possessive
determiners
in
the
English
language:
weak
possessive
pronouns
and
nouns
that
end
with
an
apostrophe
and
the
letter
"s".
Pronouns
As
Possessive
Determiners
The
group
of
seven
weak
possessive
pronouns
form
the
first
group
of
possessive
determiners.
They
are
called
weak
because
they
cannot
stand
alone
like
other
pronouns
and
must
have
some
type
of
noun
to
modify.
The
possessive
pronouns
"mine,
hers,
theirs,
ours",
and
"yours"
are
considered
to
be
strong
possessive
pronouns
and
stand
on
their
own;
they
do
not
modify
anything.
Thus,
they
are
NOT
possessive
determiners.
There
are
seven
weak
possessive
pronouns
that
function
as
possessive
determiners
in
the
English
language:
*The
pronoun
"his"
may
function
as
either
a
strong
or
weak
possessive
pronoun.
There
is
also
another
pronoun
that
functions
as
a
possessive
determiner;
it
is
the
pronoun
"whose",
and
it
is
interrogative
in
nature.
What
Weak
and
Strong
Possessive
Pronouns
Imply
The
weak
possessive
pronouns
always
imply
the
definite
article
"the"
because
they
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285
refer
to
specific
things
and
do
not
imply
a
sense
of
generality.
The
weak
possessive
pronouns
are
found
in
both
the
subject
and
the
predicate
of
the
sentence.
In
contrast,
the
strong
possessive
pronouns
can
be
used
to
imply
either
the
indefinite
article
"a"
or
the
definite
article
"the".
They
are
primarily
found
in
the
predicate
of
the
sentence
and
are
usually
used
as
subject
compliments
but
may
also
be
used
as
subjects;
however,
this
second
type
of
usage
is
not
very
common.
These
two
types
of
possessive
pronouns
may
be
modified
by
the
adverbs
"more,
less,
as,
much,
as
much",
and
"mostly".
Here
are
some
examples
of
strong
and
weak
pronouns:
1. Randy
was
her
friend.
(weak
possessive
pronoun
in
the
predicate)
2. Her
friend
was
Randy.
(weak
possessive
pronoun
in
the
subject)
3. Randy
was
a
friend
of
hers.
(strong
possessive
pronoun
in
the
predicate)
4. Hers
was
a
gift
that
belonged
to
Randy.
(strong
possessive
pronoun
in
the
subject)
In
the
first
two
examples,
the
pronoun
"her"
implies
the
definite
article
"the"
and
makes
Randy
her
specific
friend.
In
the
third
example,
the
pronoun
"hers"
implies
the
indefinite
article
"a"
and
makes
Randy
one
of
many
friends.
While
the
usage
of
a
strong
possessive
pronoun
as
the
subject
in
the
last
sentence
is
grammatically
correct,
it
is
a
type
of
sentence
construction
that
is
not
used
very
often
in
English.
Here
are
some
examples
of
weak
possessive
pronouns
used
as
possessive
determiners:
1. My
car
is
a
very
good
car.
2. Their
car
is
more
her
car
than
it
is
his.
3. Whose
car
is
it?
In
the
first
example,
the
word
"my"
is
used
as
a
possessive
determiner
to
modify
the
word
"car".
In
the
second
example,
the
word
"their"
is
used
as
a
possessive
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determiner
to
modify
the
word
car,
and
the
word
"her"
is
used
to
modify
the
second
usage
of
the
word
"car";
the
adverb
"more"
is
then
used
to
modify
the
pronoun
"her".
The
pronoun
"his"
is
used
as
a
strong
possessive
pronoun
and
stands
alone;
therefore,
it
is
NOT
a
possessive
determiner.
In
the
final
example,
the
word
"whose"
is
used
as
an
interrogative
possessive
determiner
that
modifies
the
word
"car".
Common
Grammatical
Errors
Many
common
errors
in
the
English
language
occur
because
of
the
misuse
of
the
words
"their"
and
"there".
The
word
"their"
is
a
possessive
determiner,
and
the
word
"there"
is
an
adverb;
these
two
words
are
constantly
confused
with
each
other.
These
two
words
are
also
confused
with
the
contraction
"they're",
which
is
a
reduction
of
the
phrase
"they
are".
Here
are
several
examples
of
common
errors
with
these
words:
Incorrect
Usage
The two boys did not want to do there chores. (adverb used as a determiner)
Jack
wants
to
go
and
see
what
there
doing.
(adverb
used
as
a
contraction)
Correct Usage
The two boys did not want to do their chores. (correct use of determiner)
Jack wants to go and see what they're doing. (correct use of contraction)
Nouns
as
Possessive
Determiners
Nouns
can
be
used
as
possessive
determiners
when
they
are
spelled
with
an
apostrophe
and
the
letter
"s".
However;
if
a
noun
already
ends
with
the
letter
"s"
because
it
is
plural,
then
only
an
apostrophe
is
used
to
denote
possession.
Here
are
some
examples:
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The
lions'
food
source
is
almost
gone,
and
soon
they
will
grow
hungry.
These
types
of
possessive
determiners
are
very
similar
to
the
weak
possessive
pronouns
that
are
used
as
possessive
determiners.
They
always
imply
the
definite
article
"the"
because
they
always
refer
to
specific
things.
In
addition,
they
may
also
be
modified
with
adverbs
in
the
same
way
that
the
weak
possessive
pronouns
are.
Common
Errors
Many
mistakes
happen
when
the
apostrophe
is
not
placed
correctly.
Quite
often,
the
word
is
misspelled
and/or
the
meaning
of
the
word
is
unintentionally
changed.
Incorrect
Usage
The
old
mans'
dog
ate
the
kitten's
food
before
they
could
finish
it.
(incorrect
singular
and
plural)
288
Correct
Usage
The
old
man's
dog
ate
the
kittens'
food
before
they
could
finish
it.
(correct
plural
and
singular)
Sample
Test
Questions
Select
the
answer
that
correctly
identifies
the
possessive
determiner
(or
determiners)
in
the
sentence.
1)
That
was
her
idea
of
a
great
artistic
presentation.
A.
that
B.
was
C.
her
D.
of
E.
great
2)
Nobody
thought
it
was
John's
idea.
A.
nobody
B.
thought
C.
was
D.
John's
E.
There
is
no
possessive
determiner
in
the
sentence.
289
3)
His
idea
was
that
she
should
try
Jane's
recipe
and
not
hers.
A.
his,
she
B.
was,
she
C.
she,
hers
D.
that,
hers
E.
his,
Jane's
4)
Its
main
flaw
was
that
her
idea
was
not
as
good
as
his.
A.
its,
his
B.
was,
his
C.
her,
his
D.
its,
her
E.
that,
not
5)
Their
solution
was
a
combination
of
Jane's
recipe
and
John's
idea.
A.
their,
was,
Jane's
B.
was,
Jane's,
John's
C.
their,
Jane's,
John's
D.
their,
was,
and
E.
was,
and,
idea
Solutions
1)
C
-
The
word
"her"
is
a
weak
possessive
pronoun
that
functions
as
a
possessive
determiner
and
modifies
the
word
"idea".
2)
D
-
The
word
"John's"
is
a
possessive
determiner
formed
from
the
proper
noun
"John";
this
possessive
determiner
modifies
the
word
"idea".
3)
E
-
The
word
"his"
is
a
weak
possessive
pronoun
that
functions
as
a
possessive
determiner
and
modifies
the
word
"idea".
The
word
"Jane's"
is
a
possessive
determiner
formed
from
the
proper
noun
"Jane";
this
possessive
determiner
modifies
the
word
"recipe".
The
word
"hers"
at
the
end
of
the
sentence
is
a
strong
290
possessive
pronoun
in
the
predicate
and
stands
alone;
thus,
it
is
NOT
a
possessive
determiner.
4)
D
-
The
word
"its"
is
a
weak
possessive
pronoun
that
functions
as
a
possessive
determiner
and
modifies
the
word
"flaw".
The
word
"her"
is
a
weak
possessive
pronoun
that
functions
as
a
possessive
determiner
and
modifies
the
word
"idea".
The
word
"his"
at
the
end
of
the
sentence
is
a
strong
possessive
pronoun
in
the
predicate
and
stands
alone;
thus,
it
is
NOT
a
possessive
determiner.
5)
C
-
The
word
"their"
is
a
weak
possessive
pronoun
that
functions
as
a
possessive
determiner
that
modifies
the
word
"idea".
The
word
"Jane's"
is
a
possessive
determiner
formed
from
the
proper
noun
"Jane";
this
possessive
determiner
modifies
the
word
"recipe".
The
word
"John's"
is
a
possessive
determiner
formed
from
the
proper
noun
"John";
this
possessive
determiner
modifies
the
word
"idea".
291
Grammatical Agreement
In
English,
there
are
three
major
types
of
agreement
that
are
required
in
order
to
be
grammatically
correct:
Agreement of nouns
Agreement
of
Pronoun
and
Antecedent
The
antecedent
of
a
pronoun
is
the
person,
thing,
location,
or
idea
in
a
sentence
to
which
a
pronoun
refers.
The
antecedent
may
be
either
a
noun
or
another
pronoun.
Therefore,
a
pronoun
must
agree
both
in
number
and
gender
with
its
antecedent
in
order
for
a
sentence
to
be
grammatically
correct.
Agreement
of
number
A
singular
pronoun
is
used
with
a
singular
antecedent,
and
a
plural
pronoun
is
used
with
a
plural
antecedent.
Here
are
several
examples:
1. The
dog
thought
that
its
bone
was
in
the
backyard.
2. The
kittens
ate
all
of
their
food
in
the
kitchen.
3. The
dog
and
the
cat
were
glad
that
they
were
friends.
In
the
sentences
above,
the
number
of
each
pronoun
agrees
with
its
antecedent.
In
the
first
example,
the
possessive
pronoun
its
is
singular
because
its
antecedent
is
the
singular
noun
dog.
In
the
second
example,
the
possessive
pronoun
there
is
plural
because
its
antecedent
is
the
plural
noun
kittens.
In
the
final
example,
The
plural
antecedent
of
the
plural
pronoun
they
is
a
compound
noun
formed
from
the
nouns
dog
and
cat.
In
this
case,
the
compound
noun
takes
a
plural
pronoun.
This
brings
us
to
our
next
topic,
which
is
compound
nouns.
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Compound
nouns
Compound
nouns
are
created
from
two
nouns,
two
pronouns,
or
a
noun
and
a
pronoun;
the
two
elements
of
a
compound
noun
are
connected
by
the
conjunctions
and,
or,
or
nor.
When
the
two
words
are
connected
by
the
conjunction
and,
a
plural
pronoun
is
used.
When
the
two
words
are
connected
by
the
conjunction
or
or
nor,
the
element
of
the
compound
noun
that
is
closest
to
the
pronoun
determines
whether
a
singular
or
a
plural
pronoun
is
used.
1. Either
the
dogs
or
I
will
eat
my
food.
2. Either
the
duck
or
the
pigs
will
eat
their
food.
3. The
turkey
and
the
chicken
will
drink
their
water.
The
compound
nouns
in
the
examples
are
in
agreement
with
the
pronouns
that
are
using
them
as
antecedents.
In
the
first
example,
the
compound
noun
consists
of
a
plural
noun
and
a
singular
pronoun
connected
by
the
conjunction
or;
therefore,
since
the
singular
pronoun
I
is
closer
to
the
pronoun
that
is
using
the
compound
noun
as
an
antecedent,
the
singular
form
is
used.
In
the
second
example,
a
singular
noun
and
a
plural
noun
are
connected
by
the
conjunction
or;
thus,
the
pronoun
using
the
compound
noun
as
an
antecedent
is
plural
since
the
plural
noun
is
closer
to
the
antecedent.
In
the
last
example,
two
singular
nouns
are
connected
by
the
conjunction
and;
therefore,
the
pronoun
using
the
compound
noun
as
an
antecedent
will
be
plural.
Collective
Nouns
Collective
nouns
are
singular
nouns
that
are
used
to
identify
various
kinds
of
groups.
When
a
collective
noun
is
used
as
an
antecedent
by
a
pronoun,
the
singular
form
of
the
pronoun
is
used.
1. The
team
won
its
game.
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2. The
herd
began
its
stampede.
3. A
colony
of
ants
was
about
to
meet
its
doom.
In
all
three
examples,
collective
nouns
are
used
as
antecedents
by
singular
pronouns.
Common
Errors
Most
of
the
errors
with
compound
and
collective
nouns
occur
when
an
incorrect
pronoun
is
chosen
to
be
the
antecedent.
Incorrect
Usage
The cats eat its food. (plural antecedent with singular pronoun)
That
pair
of
animals
eats
their
food.
(singular
collective
noun
with
plural
pronoun)
The
mice
are
eating
its
food.
(plural
noun
with
singular
pronoun)
Correct Usage
The cats eat their food. (plural antecedent with plural pronoun)
That
pair
of
animals
eats
its
food.
(singular
collective
noun
with
singular
pronoun)
The mice are eating their food. (plural noun with plural pronoun)
Agreement
of
Gender
A
feminine
pronoun
is
used
with
a
feminine
antecedent,
and
a
masculine
pronoun
is
used
with
a
masculine
antecedent.
The
same
rules
for
compound
nouns
apply,
depending
on
whether
or
not
the
two
words
are
connected
by
the
conjunction
and
or
by
the
conjunctions
nor
and
or.
1. William
likes
to
think
that
he
is
always
right.
2. Mary
knows
in
her
heart
that
William
is
always
wrong.
3. William
and
Mary
do
not
think
that
they
have
a
good
relationship.
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4. Does
either
Mary
or
William
think
that
he
has
a
good
relationship.
In
the
above
sentences,
the
gender
of
each
pronoun
agrees
with
its
antecedent.
In
the
first
example,
the
pronoun
he
is
masculine
because
its
antecedent
is
William,
and
he
is
a
male.
In
the
second
example,
the
possessive
pronoun
her
is
feminine
because
its
antecedent
is
Mary,
and
she
is
a
female.
In
the
third
example,
the
plural
pronoun
they
is
gender
neutral.
In
the
last
example,
the
compound
noun
because
it
has
a
compound
noun
connected
by
the
conjunction
or,
so
the
pronoun
using
the
compound
noun
as
its
antecedent
uses
the
proper
name
William
(the
element
of
the
compound
noun
closer
to
the
pronoun)
to
determine
its
number
and
gender.
Indefinite
Pronouns
Indefinite
pronouns
refer
to
things
in
a
non-specific
manner.
Indefinite
pronouns
may
be
singular
or
plural
(some
indefinite
pronouns
may
be
used
either
way)
when
used
as
antecedents
within
a
sentence.
The
following
indefinite
pronouns
use
singular
antecedents:
These
pronouns
use
plural
antecedents:
These
pronouns
may
use
either
singular
or
plural
antecedents:
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Here
are
a
few
examples
of
indefinite
pronouns
being
used
as
antecedents:
1. All
of
the
monkeys
were
let
out
of
their
cage.
2. Everything
finds
its
place.
3. Both
of
them
know
their
purpose.
In
the
first
example,
the
indefinite
pronoun
all
is
used
in
its
plural
form
as
the
antecedent
of
the
indefinite
pronoun.
In
the
second
example,
the
indefinite
pronoun
everything
is
used
as
the
singular
antecedent
of
the
pronoun
its.
In
the
final
example,
the
plural
indefinite
pronoun
both
is
used
as
the
antecedent
of
the
pronoun
their.
Controversial
usage
of
plural
third
person
to
insure
gender
neutrality
In
the
late
20th
century,
various
writers
began
to
change
the
practice
of
using
the
masculine
singular
third
person
pronoun
as
the
antecedent
for
singular
indefinite
pronouns
and
substituted
the
neutral
plural
third
person
instead.
By
doing
this,
there
would
be
no
gender
discrimination.
In
other
words,
the
pronoun
his
was
paired
with
the
singular
indefinite
pronouns,
and
certain
individuals
began
to
substitute
it
with
the
pronoun
their.
Others
would
use
the
words
his
or
her.
Everybody knew their place. (modern style - uses plural pronoun instead)
Everybody
knew
his
or
her
place.
(modern
style
-
uses
masculine
and
feminine)
All
three
of
these
forms
are
considered
correct
by
different
entities.
However,
the
first
example
is
being
shunned
by
more
and
more
people
as
time
progresses.
296
Subject
and
Verb
Agreement
In
English,
the
subject
and
verb
must
agree
in
number.
Thus,
a
singular
subject
requires
a
singular
verb
and
a
plural
subject
requires
a
plural
verb.
1. Jack
throws
the
knife
at
the
wall.
2. Jack's
friends
throw
him
out
of
the
pub.
3. Everyone
is
throwing
a
fit.
In
the
first
example,
a
singular
subject
(Jack)
uses
a
singular
verb.
In
the
second
example,
a
plural
subject
(friends)
is
using
a
plural
verb.
In
the
final
example,
a
singular
subject
(the
singular
indefinite
pronoun
everyone)
is
using
a
singular
verb.
In
addition,
the
rules
for
compound
subjects
used
as
antecedents
for
pronouns
are
identical
to
those
used
for
subject
and
verb
agreement.
Therefore
when
the
two
elements
of
a
compound
subject
are
connected
by
the
conjunction
and,
they
require
a
plural
verb.
Likewise,
when
the
two
elements
of
a
compound
subject
are
connected
by
the
conjunction
or
(or
the
conjunction
nor),
the
element
that
is
closer
to
the
verb
determines
the
number
to
be
used.
1. The
pony
and
the
dog
no
longer
run
through
the
fields
2. The
pony
nor
the
dogs
run
through
the
fields.
3. The
ponies
nor
the
dog
runs
through
the
fields.
In
the
first
example,
the
compound
subject
is
connected
with
the
conjunction
and
uses
a
plural
verb.
In
the
second
example,
the
elements
of
the
compound
sentence
are
connected
with
the
conjunction
nor;
therefore,
the
word
closer
to
the
verb
is
used
to
determine
number.
The
same
is
true
for
the
third
example.
297
Common
Errors
The
most
popular
errors
that
occur
are
when
there
is
a
noun
or
pronoun
of
a
different
number
that
is
placed
between
the
subject
and
the
verb.
This
sort
of
occurrence
is
most
common
with
prepositional
phrases
beginning
with
the
preposition
of.
The
verb
is
erroneously
matched
with
the
other
word
that
is
closer.
Incorrect
Usage
One of the fryers are broken. (singular subject with plural verb)
The
candy
that
she
put
in
the
jars
are
gone.
(singular
subject
with
a
plural
verb)
Correct Usage
John's
friends
standing
by
the
policeman
are
yelling.
(subject
and
verb
are
plural)
The candy that she put in the jars is gone. (subject and verb are plural)
Agreement
of
Nouns
When
a
sentence
uses
a
form
of
the
verb
be
as
a
linking
verb,
the
subject
and
the
subject
compliment
must
agree
in
number
and
gender.
1. James
is
a
big
man.
2. John
was
a
very
small
individual.
3. These
men
were
regular
sized
people.
4. This
lady
is
a
highly
intelligent
professor.
In
the
first
example,
a
singular
masculine
subject
is
paired
with
a
singular
masculine
subject
compliment.
In
the
second
example,
a
singular
masculine
subject
is
paired
with
a
singular
neutral
subject
compliment.
In
the
third
example,
a
plural
masculine
298
subject
is
paired
with
a
plural
neutral
subject
compliment.
In
the
last
example,
a
singular
feminine
subject
is
paired
with
a
singular
neutral
subject
compliment.
Common
Errors
Most
errors
occur
when
the
subject
compliment
is
a
noun
that
is
used
or
spelled
incorrectly.
This
sort
of
error
can
easily
be
spotted
and
corrected
without
much
difficulty.
Incorrect
Usage
1. Greg
is
a
lady.
(feminine
subject
compliment
with
masculine
subject)
2. Frank
is
a
cowards.
(plural
subject
compliment
with
singular
subject)
3. Samoans
are
big
peoples.
(incorrect
spelling
of
plural
noun)
Correct
Usage
1. Greg
is
a
man.
(gender
agreement
between
nouns)
2. Frank
is
a
coward.
(number
agreement
between
nouns)
3. Samoans
are
big
people.
(correct
spelling
of
noun)
Sample
Test
Questions
In
the
following
questions,
select
the
answer
that
contains
an
INCORRECT
usage
of
agreement:
1)
A.
They
love
their
team.
B.
He
loves
his
team.
C.
We
loves
his
team.
D.
I
love
our
team.
2)
A.
Greg
drinks
from
his
cup.
B.
Greg
and
I
drink
from
our
cups.
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C.
I
drink
from
my
cup.
D.
You
drinks
from
your
cup.
3)
A.
The
men
and
the
boy
are
playing
golf.
B.
The
boys
or
the
men
are
playing
golf.
C.
The
men
or
the
boy
is
playing
golf.
D.
The
boy
or
the
men
is
playing
golf.
4)
A.
One
of
the
ducks
is
walking.
B.
One
of
the
ducks
are
walking.
C.
The
ducks
are
walking.
D.
The
duck
is
walking.
Answers
1. C)
This
sentence
is
incorrect
because
it
has
a
plural
pronoun
as
its
subject
and
uses
a
singular
verb.
2. D)
This
sentence
is
incorrect
because
it
has
a
second
person
pronoun
and
uses
the
incorrect
verb
tense.
3. D)
This
sentence
is
incorrect
because
it
has
a
compound
subject
with
a
singular
noun
and
a
plural
noun
connected
by
the
conjunction
or.
Since
the
plural
noun
men
is
closer
to
the
verb,
a
plural
verb
must
be
used
instead.
4. B)
This
sentence
is
incorrect
because
it
has
the
singular
indefinite
pronoun
one
for
its
subject.
This
singular
subject
requires
a
singular
verb.
The
confusion
in
this
example
is
the
result
of
the
prepositional
phrase
that
contains
the
plural
noun
ducks.
Since
this
plural
noun
directly
precedes
the
verb
are,
it
tricks
the
writer
into
thinking
that
a
plural
verb
should
be
used.
300
She did not want to affect his decision. (most common usage)
2)
Advice
-
Advise
Advice
-
a
recommendation
(noun)
3)
Complement
-
Compliment
Complement
-
something
that
completes
(noun);
to
complete
something
else
(verb)
The
table
and
the
chair
complement
each
other
well.
(verb)
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4)
Council
-
Counsel
Council
-
governing
body
(noun)
All counsel must obey the rules of the court system. (noun--lawyers)
5)
Discreet
-
Discrete
Discreet
-
prudent
(adjective);
modest
(adjective);
unobtrusive
(adjective)
He was very discreet and only said what was required. (adjective--prudent)
6)
Eminent
-
Imminent
-
Immanent
Eminent
-
prominent
(adjective)
302
7)
Farther
-
Further
Farther
-
at
a
greater
distance
(adjective)
8)
Its
-
It's
Its
-
possessive
form
of
the
word
it
(pronoun)
9)
Principal
-
Principle
Principal
-
foremost
(adjective);
administrator
of
a
school
(noun)
10)
Than
-
Then
Than
-
in
comparison
to
(conjunction,
preposition)
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11)
Their
-
There
-
They're
Their
-
possessive
form
of
the
pronoun
they
(pronoun)
There
-
in
that
place
(adverb);
introduces
a
sentence
(pronoun);
that
place
(noun);
relied
on
for
support
(adjective)
They're bad.
They're good.
12)
To
-
Too
To
-
toward;
begins
an
infinite
phrase
(preposition)
304
13)
Whose
-
Who's
Whose
-
interrogative
possessive
determiner
denoting
ownership
(pronoun)
14)
Your
-
You're
Your
-
second
person
possessive
(pronoun)
You're dumb.
You're falling.
15)
Capital
-
Capitol
Capital
-
assets
(noun);
related
to
assets
(adjective);
upper
case
(adjective);
major
city
(noun)
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16)
Die
-
Dye
Die
-
to
lose
life
(verb);
a
cube
that
functions
as
a
random
number
generator
(noun)
17)
Gorilla
-
Guerilla
Gorilla
-
animal
in
ape
family
(noun)
18)
Knew
-
New
Knew
-
to
have
been
familiar
with
(verb)
19)
Maybe
-
May
be
Maybe
-
perhaps
(adverb)
306
May
be
-
might
be
(verb)
20)
Personal
-
Personnel
Personal
-
intimate
(adjective);
owned
by
a
person
(adjective)
21)
Plain
-
Plane
Plain
-
simple
(adjective)
22)
Presence
-
Presents
Presence
-
attendance
(noun);
being
at
hand
(noun)
307
23)
Stationary
-
Stationery
Stationary
-
standing
still
(adjective)
She ran out of stationery, so she didn't write all of her letters.
24)
Through
-
Threw
Through
-
finished
(adjective);
into
and
out
of
(adverb)
25)
Waist
-
Waste
Waist
-
midsection
of
the
body
(noun)
Sample
Questions
In
the
questions
below,
identify
the
sentence
that
is
correct:
1)
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A)
He
threw
the
stationery
into
the
trash.
B)
He
threw
the
stationary
into
the
trash.
C)
He
through
the
stationary
into
the
trash.
D)
He
through
the
stationery
into
the
trash.
2)
A)
The
gorilla
was
flying
in
the
knew
plane
that
was
taking
it
to
the
zoo.
B)
The
guerilla
was
flying
in
the
new
plain
that
was
taking
it
to
the
zoo.
C)
The
guerilla
was
flying
in
the
knew
plane
that
was
taking
it
to
the
zoo.
D)
The
gorilla
was
flying
in
the
new
plane
that
was
taking
it
to
the
zoo.
3)
A)
There
problem
is
that
their
not
multiplying
they're
numbers
correctly.
B)
They're
problem
is
that
their
not
multiplying
there
numbers
correctly.
C)
There
problem
is
that
they're
not
multiplying
their
numbers
correctly.
D)
Their
problem
is
that
they're
not
multiplying
their
numbers
correctly.
E)
Their
problem
is
that
they're
not
multiplying
there
numbers
correctly.
4)
A)
Its
not
plain
too
see
the
affect
of
your
presents.
B)
Its
not
plane
to
see
the
effect
of
you're
presence.
C)
Its
not
plain
to
see
the
affect
of
your
presence.
D)
It's
not
plane
too
see
the
effect
of
your
presents.
E)
It's
not
plain
to
see
the
effect
of
your
presence.
F)
It's
not
plain
to
see
the
affect
of
your
presence.
Solutions
1. A)
The
word
threw
must
be
a
verb,
and
the
word
stationary
must
be
a
noun.
2. D)
The
animal
flying
to
the
zoo
is
a
gorilla
and
not
a
guerilla
soldier.
Also,
the
word
new
must
be
an
adjective,
and
the
word
plane
must
be
a
noun.
3. D)
The
word
at
the
beginning
of
the
sentence
must
be
a
pronoun,
and
the
word
before
the
word
not
must
be
a
contraction
of
the
clause
they
are.
In
addition,
the
word
before
the
word
numbers
must
also
be
a
pronoun.
309
4. E)
The
word
at
the
beginning
of
the
sentence
must
be
a
contraction
of
the
clause
it
is,
and
the
third
word
of
the
sentence
must
be
an
adjective.
Also,
the
word
before
the
word
of
must
be
a
noun
that
means
"a
result."
In
addition,
the
last
word
of
the
sentence
must
be
a
noun
that
means
"being
at
hand."
310
Logical Comparisons
Logical
comparisons
that
occur
between
two
or
more
items
must
have
these
three
characteristics
in
order
to
be
correct:
completeness
consistency
clarity
Completeness
When
making
any
type
of
logical
comparison,
there
must
be
two
things
that
are
compared.
The
most
popular
error
with
this
aspect
of
logical
comparison
occurs
when
a
claim
of
comparison
is
made
and
only
one
element
of
the
comparison
is
mentioned
in
the
sentence.
Incorrect
Usage
1. The
diet
product
contains
33%
less
fat.
2. The
rock
is
ten
pounds
lighter.
Correct
Usage
1. The
diet
product
contains
33%
less
fat
than
the
regular
product.
2. The
rock
is
ten
pounds
lighter
than
the
brick.
In
the
above
examples,
only
one
item
is
mentioned
in
a
statement
that
is
attempting
to
make
a
logical
comparison.
Therefore,
another
item
must
be
included
so
that
a
true
logical
comparison
is
correctly
made.
Incorrect
Usage
1. Mary
walked
so
slow.
2. John
swam
so
fast.
311
Correct
Usage
1. Mary
walked
so
slow
that
she
was
late
for
work.
2. John
swam
so
fast
that
he
won
the
race.
In
the
above
examples,
the
word
so
needs
to
be
qualified
in
order
to
have
logical
comparison.
Both
sentences
can
be
corrected
by
comparing
speeds
of
movement
with
specific
events.
Consistency
Similarity
The
items
being
compared
need
to
have
some
type
of
similarity
that
allows
for
a
logical
comparison
to
be
made
so
that
consistency
is
maintained.
Incorrect
Usage
1. The
chips
at
the
corner
store
are
cheaper
than
the
supermarket.
Correct
Usages
1. The
chips
at
the
corner
store
are
cheaper
than
the
supermarket's
chips.
2. The
chips
at
the
corner
store
are
cheaper
than
the
chips
at
the
supermarket.
3. The
chips
at
the
corner
store
are
cheaper
than
those
at
the
supermarket.
In
the
incorrect
example
above,
chips
are
being
compared
to
a
supermarket.
Therefore,
the
sentence
may
be
corrected
if
the
chips
are
compared
to
other
chips.
The
three
correct
usages
present
different
ways
that
this
correction
can
be
made.
Specificity
The
sentence
must
be
specific
with
the
exact
elements
that
are
being
compared.
Quite
often,
the
first
element
mentioned
is
also
included
in
the
second
element.
312
Therefore,
the
writer
needs
to
be
specific
about
the
various
elements
that
are
being
compared
in
order
for
the
logical
comparison
to
be
consistent.
Incorrect
Usage
1. The
boy
runs
faster
than
anyone.
Correct
Usage
1. The
boy
runs
faster
than
anyone
else.
2. The
boy
runs
faster
than
any
one
of
the
others.
3. The
boy
runs
faster
than
any
one
of
the
other
boys.
In
the
above
example,
the
boy
is
being
compared
to
himself
because
he
is
part
of
the
universal
pronoun
anyone.
This
illogical
comparison
occurs
because
the
terms
in
the
sentence
are
not
providing
an
adequate
amount
of
specificity.
Thus,
all
correct
usages
need
to
be
more
specific
in
order
to
remedy
this
situation.
This
type
of
repair
is
usually
made
by
including
the
words
else
or
other(s).
Clarity
There
are
also
many
errors
with
logical
comparison
that
occur
because
of
clarity
issues.
These
types
of
problems
are
the
result
of
sentences
that
lack
precision.
Oftentimes,
an
ambiguous
meaning
is
not
meant
but
is
expressed
because
the
correct
words
are
not
employed.
Incorrect
Usage
1. She
gave
her
best
friend
more
candy
than
her
mother.
Correct
Usages
1. She
gave
her
best
friend
more
candy
than
her
own
mother
did.
2. She
gave
her
best
friend
more
candy
than
she
gave
her
own
mother.
3. She
gave
her
best
friend
more
candy
than
her
friend's
mother
did.
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313
The
incorrect
usage
in
the
example
above
demonstrates
how
the
lack
of
precision
causes
ambiguity
and
affects
the
clarity
of
the
sentence.
Thus,
the
logical
comparison
is
uncertain
because
is
unclear
which
things
are
being
compared.
The
correct
usages
use
specific
terminology
in
order
to
precisely
clarify
the
meaning
of
the
sentence.
Sample
Test
Questions
In
the
questions
below,
please
select
the
answer
that
contains
an
INCORRECT
usage
of
logical
comparison.
1)
A)
The
diet
candy
contains
half
the
amount
of
calories
than
the
regular
candy
contains.
B)
The
apple
pie
is
better
than
all
of
the
others.
C)
He
ran
faster
than
anyone.
D)
She
baked
her
cookies
more
quickly
than
everyone
else.
2)
A)
She
cried
so
hard
that
her
tears
dripped
onto
her
shirt.
B)
They
ran
so
fast
that
they
fell.
C)
The
very
large
boy
in
the
blue
shirt
ran
so
fast.
D)
The
tiny
dog
walked
so
fast
that
it
quickly
lost
sight
of
its
owner.
3)
A)
The
grapes
at
the
farmers'
market
were
more
expensive
than
the
store.
B)
The
grapes
at
the
farmers'
market
were
more
expensive
than
the
store's
grapes.
C)
The
grapes
at
the
farmers'
market
were
more
expensive
than
the
grapes
at
the
store.
D)
The
grapes
at
the
farmers'
market
were
expensive.
4)
A)
Linda
typed
faster
than
her
mother.
B)
Linda's
mother
typed
faster
than
anyone.
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314
C)
Linda's
mother
typed
faster
than
anyone
else
her
age.
D)
They
both
typed
faster
than
all
of
the
others
in
the
room.
E)
All
of
the
sentences
are
correct.
Solutions
1. C)
The
subject
of
the
sentence
ran
faster
than
anyone.
However,
the
subject
is
included
in
the
pronoun
anyone.
Since
the
subject
cannot
run
faster
than
himself,
it
is
logically
incorrect.
2. C)
The
subject
of
this
sentence
ran
so
fast
that
something
happened.
However,
the
sentence
does
not
explain
what
this
something
is;
therefore,
it
is
logically
incorrect.
3. A)
The
grapes
are
being
compared
to
the
store.
This
unintended
comparison
is
illogical;
thus,
the
sentence
contains
an
incorrect
usage
of
comparison.
4. B)
Linda's
mother
is
included
in
the
word
anyone;
therefore,
an
incorrect
usage
of
logical
comparison
has
occurred.
315
Conventional Expressions
There
are
many
conventional
expressions
that
are
inconsistent
with
standard
written
English.
While
we
are
not
going
to
cover
them
all
here,
several
of
these
incorrect
expressions
are
given
are
given
below
along
with
their
proper
corrections.
1)
For
all
intensive
purposes
For
all
intents
and
purposes
This
phrase
is
commonly
misused
when
a
writer
wishes
to
express
an
idea
meaning
that
in
every
practical
sense,
something
has
occurred.
The
misuse
of
this
phrase
means
that
the
purposes
with
which
something
has
occurred
were
extremely
intense.
Incorrect
Usage
For
all
intensive
purposes,
the
marriage
was
over.
Correct
Usage
For
all
intents
and
purposes,
the
marriage
was
over.
In
the
incorrect
example
above,
the
writer
is
expressing
that
the
purposes
with
which
the
marriage
had
ended
were
very
intense.
In
the
correct
example,
the
writer
is
expressing
the
intended
notion
that
for
all
practical
purposes,
the
marriage
was
over.
2)
I
could
care
less
I
couldnt
care
less
This
phrase
is
misused
when
a
writer
tries
to
express
the
idea
of
apathy,
but
instead
expresses
the
idea
of
caring
for
something
and
then
being
capable
of
reducing
the
amount
of
this
concern.
Incorrect
Usage
I
could
care
less
if
she
loves
him.
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Correct
Usage
I
couldnt
care
less
if
she
loves
him.
In
the
incorrect
example
above,
the
writer
actually
does
care
that
she
loves
him;
however,
the
writer
is
able
to
reduce
the
amount
of
this
care
to
a
lesser
degree.
In
the
correct
example,
the
writer
has
absolutely
no
concern
about
whether
or
not
she
loves
him.
3)
Its
a
doggy-dog
world
Its
a
dog-eat-dog
world.
This
phrase
is
misused
when
the
writer
wishes
to
express
the
fact
that
the
world
is
enormously
competitive
but
instead
expresses
the
unusual
notion
that
the
world
is
like
that
of
a
tiny
little
dog.
Incorrect
Usage
My
father
always
told
me
that
its
a
doggy-dog
world
out
there.
Correct
Usage
My
father
always
told
me
that
its
a
dog-eat-dog
world
out
there.
In
the
incorrect
usage
above,
the
father
of
the
writer
has
informed
his
child
that
the
world
is
similar
to
a
cute,
little
puppy.
In
the
correct
example,
the
father
of
the
writer
has
informed
his
child
that
the
world
is
a
very
competitive
place
because
friends
and
colleagues
will
often
betray
or
destroy
each
other
in
order
to
get
ahead
4)
Nip
it
in
the
butt
Nip
it
in
the
bud
This
phrase
is
misused
when
a
writer
wishes
to
express
that
it
is
time
to
put
something
to
an
end
but
instead
states
that
it
is
time
to
literally
bite
the
hindquarters
of
something.
Incorrect
Usage
She
saw
the
way
that
she
came
on
to
him
and
decided
it
was
time
to
nip
it
in
the
butt
before
he
fell
prey
to
her
amorous
advances.
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Correct
Usage
She
saw
the
way
that
she
came
on
to
him
and
decided
it
was
time
to
nip
it
in
the
bud
before
he
fell
prey
to
her
amorous
advances.
In
the
incorrect
example,
she
decided
to
bite
another
ladys
flirtation
in
its
figurative
hindquarters
before
he
fell
for
this
ladys
advances.
In
the
correct
example,
she
decided
to
put
an
end
to
another
ladys
flirting
before
he
fell
for
this
ladys
advances.
5)
Statue
of
Limitations
Statute
of
Limitations
This
phrase
is
misused
when
a
writer
wishes
to
express
that
there
is
a
deadline
for
filing
a
law
suit
but
instead
states
that
there
is
a
stone
carving
that
is
somehow
shaped
like
limitations
(whatever
that
shape
may
be).
The
writer
could
also
be
referring
to
a
statue
created
by
an
artist
named
Limitations.
Incorrect
Usage
The
statue
of
limitations
has
expired.
Correct
Usage
The
statute
of
limitations
has
expired.
In
the
incorrect
example,
the
writer
is
expressing
an
illogical
notion
that
somehow
a
stone
carving
has
expired.
In
the
correct
example,
the
writer
is
stating
that
a
criminal
charge
can
no
longer
be
legally
prosecuted
because
the
deadline
to
file
a
lawsuit
has
passed.
318
6)
One
in
the
same
One
and
the
same
This
phrase
is
most
often
misused
when
the
writer
wishes
to
express
the
concept
that
two
things
are
alike
but
instead
expresses
the
illogical
notion
that
something
is
contained
within
an
object
referred
to
as
the
same.
Incorrect
Usage
They
are
one
in
the
same.
Correct
Usage
They
are
one
and
the
same.
In
the
incorrect
example
above,
multiple
entities
are
united
in
some
form
or
fashion
while
they
are
inside
of
an
object
known
as
the
same.
In
the
correct
example,
two
people,
two
animals,
or
two
things
are
actually
the
same.
7)
Got
off
scott
free
Got
off
scot
free
This
phrase
is
most
often
misused
when
the
writer
wishes
to
express
the
concept
that
someone
has
escaped
punishment
for
a
wrong
doing
or
misdeed
but
instead
claims
that
someone
charged
nothing
to
get
off
of
an
individual
named
Scott.
Incorrect
Usage
He
got
off
scott
free.
Correct
Usage
He
got
off
scot
free.
In
the
incorrect
example
above,
the
writer
states
that
a
man
removed
himself
from
an
individual
named
Scott
for
no
charge.
In
the
correct
example,
the
writer
states
that
a
man
has
escaped
punishment
for
a
crime.
8)
Windshield
Wind
chill
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319
A
windshield
is
a
large
piece
of
glass
placed
near
the
front
of
an
automobile.
The
wind
chill
is
the
perceived
decrease
in
the
temperature
felt
by
the
human
body.
Incorrect
Usage
The
windshield
factor
was
30
degrees.
Correct
Usage
The
wind
chill
factor
was
30
degrees.
In
the
incorrect
example
above,
an
illogical
concept
is
expressed.
In
the
correct
example
above,
an
expression
of
the
perceived
outdoor
temperature
is
asserted.
9)
Irregardless
Regardless
The
word
"irregardless"
is
not
accepted
by
most
teachers
of
English;
however,
it
is
used
a
lot
in
common
speech
of
an
informal
nature.
It
is
a
type
of
double
negative
that
is
intended
to
mean
without
regard;
however,
the
term
"regardless"
means
without
regard,
so
the
prefix
ir-
is
unnecessary.
Incorrect
Usage
One
should
use
words
correctly,
irregardless
of
how
other
people
may
use
them.
Correct
Usage
One
should
use
words
correctly,
regardless
of
how
other
people
may
use
them.
In
the
incorrect
example
above,
the
word
irregardlessis
used
and
could
be
viewed
as
a
type
of
double
negative.
In
the
correct
example
above,
the
word
regardless
is
used
and
the
sentence
is
grammatically
and
logically
perfect.
10)
Literally
-
Figuratively
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The
word
literally
is
often
used
when
the
word
figuratively
is
meant.
Oftentimes,
the
error
caused
by
this
type
of
usage
can
be
repaired
by
simply
removing
the
word
literally.
Incorrect
Usage
She
literally
drowned
herself
in
a
river
of
tears.
Correct
Usage
She
drowned
herself
in
a
river
of
tears.
In
the
incorrect
example
above,
the
writer
is
stating
that
an
individual
actually
drowned
in
a
real
river
that
was
created
by
tears.
This
would
also
imply
that
this
person
died--literally.
However,
in
the
correct
usage,
the
river
of
tears
can
be
perceived
as
being
metaphorical;
therefore,
the
actual
meaning
of
the
sentence
is
a
creative
expression
of
a
person
crying
so
hard
that
an
above
average
amount
of
tears
were
shed
in
the
process.
Sample
Test
Questions
In
the
following
questions;
please
select
the
answer
that
CORRECTLY
expresses
the
idea
that
is
intended
by
the
conventional
expressions
used.
321
1)
A)
The
man
was
literally
thrown
to
the
wolves.
B)
The
windshield
factor
was
20
below
zero.
C)
They
stood
together,
irregardless
of
the
outcome.
D)
Scott
got
off
scot
free.
2)
A)
For
all
intents
and
purposes,
I
could
care
less.
B)
For
all
intensive
purposes,
I
could
care
less.
C)
For
all
in
tents
and
porpoises,
I
couldnt
care
less.
D)
For
all
intents
and
purposes,
I
couldnt
care
less.
3)
A)
You
need
to
nip
it
in
the
bud,
because
its
a
doggy-dog
world.
B)
You
need
to
nip
it
in
the
bud,
because
its
a
dog-eat-dog
world.
C)
You
need
to
nip
it
in
the
butt,
because
its
a
dog-eat-cat
world.
D)
You
need
to
nip
it
in
the
butt,
because
its
a
doggy-dog
world.
4)
A)
The
statue
of
limitations
had
just
expired,
so
he
got
off
scott
free.
B)
The
statue
of
limitations
had
just
expired,
so
he
got
off
scot
free.
C)
The
statute
of
limitations
had
just
expired,
so
he
got
off
scott
free.
D)
The
statute
of
limitations
had
just
expired,
so
he
got
off
scot
free.
E)
All
of
the
sentences
are
incorrect.
ANSWERS
1. D)
An
individual
named
Scott
did
not
get
punished
for
a
crime
the
he
committed.
2. D)
For
all
practical
purposes,
the
writer
is
completely
apathetic
about
the
situation
at
hand.
322
3. B)
You
need
to
stop
the
undesirable
behavior,
because
the
world
is
an
extremely
competitive
place.
4. D)
The
deadline
for
filing
a
lawsuit
has
passed,
so
the
individual
will
not
be
punished
for
a
crime
that
he
has
committed.
323
Conventions of Punctuation
There are many types of uses for the various forms of punctuation in the English
language. There are also many times when these punctuation marks are misused.
The more popular types of these misuses will now be discussed.
There are many instances when the context requires that a sentence uses a
specific form of punctuation, or else the intended meaning may be altered.
Incorrect Usages
1. Did
he
go
to
the
store.
2. "I
went
to
the
store!"
he
whispered
quietly
so
that
no
one
would
hear.
3. Will
she
go
to
the
store
after
she
gets
back
from
work.
324
Correct Usages
1. Did
he
go
to
the
store?
2. "I
went
to
the
store,"
he
whispered
quietly
so
that
no
one
would
hear.
3. Will
she
go
to
the
store
after
she
gets
back
from
work?
In the first example above, the sentence is worded in a way that only allows it to
be an interrogative sentence; therefore, it MUST end with a question mark. In the
second example above, the context makes it clear that the exclamation point is
inappropriate for the quoted material within the sentence. In the final example,
the sentence is constructed in a manner that requires a question mark at the end.
Colons are used immediately after independent clauses in order to present a list,
an individual thing, or a quote.
He wanted three things from the store: grapes, nuts, and avocadoes.
John said it the best: "I don't care if you care about me caring."
By far, the most common colon error is committed when the colon does not
follow an independent clause.
Incorrect Usage
1. The
dessert
was
made
from:
bananas,
cherries,
and
oranges.
2. The
one
thing
we
can
do
is:
wait
for
the
firemen
to
arrive.
3. Henry
spoke
these
words
and
said
that:
"I
am
waiting
for
you
to
wait
for
me.
325
Correct Usage
1. The
dessert
was
made
from
three
different
fruits:
bananas,
cherries,
and
oranges.
2. There
is
one
thing
we
can
do:
wait
for
the
firemen
to
arrive.
3. Henry
spoke
these
words:
"I
am
waiting
for
you
to
wait
for
me."
In all of the above examples, the errors are corrected by reconstructing the
sentence so that the colon follows an independent clause that can stand alone as
a complete sentence.
Semicolons
There are two uses for semicolons: to connect two independent clauses and to
separate lists of three or more items if there are commas used in the components
of the list. This second type of usage will be discussed in an upcoming portion of
this article.
Semicolons can connect two independent clauses and can be used to correct
comma splices. The two clauses that are connected should be related.
He fled the country because he lost the election; he feared for his life.
The most common semicolon error occurs when at least one of the items that it
connects is not a complete independent clause.
Incorrect Usage
1. John
knew
that
he
was
funny;
people
laughing
at
his
jokes.
2. The
way
to
the
store;
five
blocks
to
the
south.
Correct Usage
1. John
knew
that
he
was
funny;
people
were
always
laughing
at
his
jokes.
2. The
way
to
the
store
was
obvious;
it
was
five
blocks
to
the
south.
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326
In the first example above, the final clause of the sentence is only a phrase; it is
corrected by converting it into an independent clause. In the second example
above, both elements of the sentence are phrases and need to be converted into
independent clauses.
Em dashes
Em dashes are used to distinguish parenthetical expressions from the rest of the
sentence. Commas and parenthesis are also used to perform this function.
The boy was not scared his father was only minutes away.
Kate joined in on the fun she had just finished her chores.
They
loved
all
of
the
oranges'
flavors;
there
were
two
dozen
of
them
in
the
bag.
It is also important to note that there is no strict rule for adding an apostrophe
and the letter s or just an apostrophe to singular nouns that end with the letter s.
Thus, all of the sentences below could be considered correct depending on which
authority is consulted.
327
The most common error with apostrophes occurs when a collective noun is
treated as though it were plural. Also, many errors occur when a plural noun is
pluralized as though it is singular.
Incorrect Usage
1. The
ferocity
of
the
herds'
members
was
incredible.
2. The
apple's
colors
ranged
from
light
green
to
dark
red.
Correct Usage
1. The
ferocity
of
the
herd's
members
was
incredible.
2. The
apples'
colors
ranged
from
light
green
to
dark
red.
In the first example, the word herd is a collective noun that needs to be treated
like a singular noun when it is converted into possessive form; thus, an
apostrophe followed by the letter s is needed in order for the sentence to be
correct. In the last example, the word apples is a plural noun and only needs an
apostrophe at the end in order to be correct.
Items in a series
The various components of lists of two or more items need to be separated with
commas. If the Oxford (serial) comma is used, then the final item of a list of three
or more items also needs to be separated with a comma just before the
conjunction near the end of the list. The majority of most English writers now
utilize the Oxford comma.
328
She loved to play with puppies, kitties, and bunnies. (with the Oxford comma)
She
loved
to
play
with
puppies,
kitties
and
bunnies.
(without
the
Oxford
comma)
The sample essay on the official ACT website uses the Oxford comma in the
second and final paragraphs. http://www.actstudent.org/writing/sample/six.html
Semicolons are used to separate the items in a list when the various items in the
list contain commas.
He loved to eat sweet, ripe oranges; small, delicate peas; and big, juicy steaks.
They
had
lived
in
San
Diego,
California;
Portland,
Oregon;
and
Houston,
Texas.
A common error occurs when the Oxford comma is used with a list of two that
employs a conjunction or when a comma is omitted in a list of two items that
does not use a conjunction. In addition, a semicolon is often incorrectly used to
separate the items of a list when a comma is required.
Incorrect Usage
1. The
man
liked
to
eat
bananas,
and
peaches.
2. She
loved
sweet
chewy
raisins.
3. The
girl
liked
to
draw
pictures
of
monkeys,
horses;
whales,
dogs,
and
cats.
Correct Usage
1. The
man
liked
to
eat
bananas
and
peaches.
2. She
loved
sweet,
chewy
raisins.
OR
She
loved
sweet
and
chewy
raisins.
3. The
girl
liked
to
draw
pictures
of
monkeys,
horses,
whales,
dogs,
and
cats.
In the first example, the comma is unnecessary. In the second example, the list of
two can be separated with either a conjunction or a comma. In the last example,
the semicolon needs to be replaced with a comma.
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Nonrestrictive and parenthetical elements
Nonrestrictive and parenthetical elements are set off from the rest of the sentence
by using parentheses, em dashes, or commas. Parenthesis are the strongest
method of setting of such elements that have little if any relation to the rest of the
sentence. Em dashes are not quite as strong as parenthesis and are usually used
for material that is at least somewhat relevant to the context of the sentence.
Commas are the weakest and set off material that is very relevant to the sentence.
The
mouse
played
(although
it
had
been
distracted
numerous
times)
with
the
cheese.
The mouse played it was quite fond of playing with its food with the cheese.
In the above examples, all of the parenthetical elements have been correctly set
off from the sentences by using the three types of punctuation used for this type
of situation.
Incorrect Usage
Correct Usage
His cousin Bob was a very large man. (If subject has more than one cousin)
His cousin, Bob, was a very large man. (If subject has only one cousin)
In the first example, the prepositional phrase in the garage is a restrictive element of
the sentence and should not be set off with any type of punctuation. In the
second example, comma usage is determined by how many cousins the subject
330
has. If the subject more than one cousin, then the word Bob is a restrictive element
and should not be separated with commas. If the subject has only one cousin,
then the word Bob is an nonrestrictive element and needs to be set off with
commas.
Restrictive or essential elements
The store that was near the pizza restaurant was burned down.
In the first example above, the phrase that was near the pizza store tells the reader
which particular store was burned down. In the second example above, the
phrase who was in the store lets the reader know which woman saw the arsonist. Both
of these phrases are essential so that the reader has all of the detail needed to
understand the concepts expressed by these sentences.
Incorrect Examples
1. The
security
guard,
who
worked
the
night
shift
at
the
mall,
was
fat.
2. The
mall,
which
was
near
the
city
zoo,
was
being
renovated
since
the
other
malls
in
town
were
doing
much
better.
Correct Examples
1. The
security
guard
who
worked
the
night
shift
at
the
mall
was
fat.
2. The
mall
that
was
near
the
city
zoo
was
being
renovated
since
the
other
malls
in
town
were
doing
much
better.
331
In the first example above, the phrase who worked the night shift at the mall is an essential
element that lets the reader know which security guard is the subject of the
sentence; therefore, it should not be separated from the rest of the sentences with
commas. In the second example above, the phrase which was near the city zoo is a
restrictive element that lets the reader know which mall is being talked about in
the sentence; thus, it should not be separated from the rest of the sentence with
commas.
Unnecessary punctuation
There are many ways that punctuation can be used incorrectly in a sentence;
however, there are a few situations that are very common. These more popular
errors will now be discussed.
Unnecessary apostrophes
Oftentimes, a writer will add an apostrophe when creating the plural form of a
word.
Incorrect Examples
1. The
girl's
played
in
the
backyard.
2. There
were
many
different
kinds
of
football's
at
the
store.
Correct Examples
1. The
girls
played
in
the
backyard.
2. There
were
many
different
kinds
of
footballs
at
the
store.
In the first example above, the word girls has an unnecessary apostrophe. In order
to fix this sentence, the apostrophe needs to be removed. In the second example,
the word footballs contains an unnecessary apostrophe that needs to be removed.
332
Unnecessary quotation marks
A writer will often use quotation marks on material that is not a direct quote.
These unnecessary quotes are placed so that these words will receive more
emphasis.
Incorrect Examples
1. He
said
that
he
saw
a
"light
at
the
end
of
the
tunnel."
2. He
said
that
the
"party"
which
he
attended
last
night
was
very
lame.
Correct Examples
1. He
said
that
he
saw
a
light
at
the
end
of
the
tunnel.
2. He
said
that
the
party
which
he
attended
last
night
was
very
lame.
In the above examples, there are no direct quotations; however, quotations marks
are used to add emphasis. Merely remove these unnecessary quotation marks,
and both sentences will be grammatically correct.
Incorrect comma usage
She
went
to
the
downtown
museum,
so
she
could
photograph
some
of
the
art.
333
In addition, writers often omit commas after the end of a dependent clause that
begins a complex sentence. These commas are very necessary in order for a
sentence to maintain clarity.
Writers will often place unnecessary commas in sentences. This situation usually
occurs when a writer places a comma before a second verb in a sentence that has
only one subject; however, this sort of error also occurs when a writer places a
comma before a subordinating conjunction that precedes a subordinating clause
at the end of a complex sentence.
She went to the store and then took a walk in the park.
In the first example above, there is only one subject, so there is no need for a
comma before the conjunction and. In the second example, the conjunction before is
a subordinating conjunction and does not require a comma directly before it.
Incorrect Usages
1. He
went
to
the
downtown
zoo
and
then
he
went
to
the
pet
store.
2. He
went
to
the
downtown
zoo,
and
then
went
to
the
pet
store.
3. After
she
went
to
the
downtown
zoo
she
went
to
the
pet
store.
4. She
went
to
the
downtown
zoo,
after
she
went
to
the
pet
store.
Correct Usages
1. He
went
to
the
downtown
zoo,
and
then
he
went
to
the
pet
store.
2. He
went
to
the
downtown
zoo
and
then
went
to
the
pet
store.
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334
3. After
she
went
to
the
downtown
zoo,
she
went
to
the
pet
store.
4. She
went
to
the
downtown
zoo
after
she
went
to
the
pet
store.
In the first example, two independent clauses are connected by the coordinating
conjunction and; therefore, a comma is required before the word and. In the second
example, there is only one subject, so there is no need for a comma before the
word and.
In the third example, a subordinating clause begins a complex sentence;
therefore, a comma is needed after the clause. In the last example, a
subordinating clause ends a complex sentence; therefore, no comma is needed.
In order to know when to correctly use commas in compound and complex
sentences, the writer MUST have the seven coordinating conjunctions
memorized. The seven coordinating conjunctions are for, and, nor, but, or, yet,
and so. These seven words can be easily memorized by using the acronym
FANBOYS.
All other conjunctions that are commonly used to connect sentences are
subordinating conjunctions.
Important exception
Rebecca drove to the lake so that she could see her uncle.
Only one exclamation point is needed at any single point in a sentence. To use
more than one at a single location is grammatically incorrect.
Incorrect Usage
1. They
went
to
the
store,
and
then
they
went
to
the
movies!!!!
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2. "Hey!!!"
she
yelled.
"Get
over
here
right
now!!"
Correct Usage
1. They
went
to
the
store,
and
then
they
went
to
the
movies!
2. "Hey!"
she
yelled.
"Get
over
here
right
now!"
In the examples above, multiple exclamation points are used at single locations.
In order to correct these sentences, omit the extra exclamation points.
Incorrect quotation mark placement
There is much confusion over these three closely related punctuation marks, and
they are commonly confused an a wide variety of ways. Therefore, the specific
336
usages for each type of mark will be presented so that a comprehensive
understanding may be gained.
The hyphen is used to connect two adjectives in a way that allows for a
combined meaning of the two words. It is also used to connect two or three
words that have been combined to produce a single idea.
The hyphen is also used to connect numbers and fractions as words. It is also
used after the prefixes ex-, self-, and all-.
The en dash is used to connect two items that are related to each other by
distance.
He read pages 34 56
The em dash is used to set off nonrestrictive elements in a sentence. This welldefined usage as well as its relationship to parentheses and commas was
explained on pages 4 5 of this article.
Incorrect Usages
1. He
thought
that
he
was
finished
with
pages
56-58
of
the
script.
2. Doug
bred
rabbits
in
the
fall-and
guinea
pigs
in
the
spring-on
his
farm.
3. His
ex
wife
was
very
upset
with
him.
4. They
found
thirty
four
errors
in
the
text.
Correct Usages
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1. He
thought
that
he
was
finished
with
pages
56
58
of
the
script.
2. Doug
bred
rabbits
in
the
fall
and
guinea
pigs
in
the
spring
on
his
farm.
3. His
ex-wife
was
very
upset
with
him.
4. They
found
thirty-four
errors
in
the
text.
In the first example, a hyphen is used to connect two items that are related by
distance; thus, the sentence requires an en dash in order to be correct. In the
second example, hyphens are used to set off a parenthetical expression from the
rest of the sentence; thus, en dashes may be used in order to make this sentence
correct. In the third example, an em dash is used in a common expression that
requires a hyphen. In the final example, an en dash is used for a written
expression of numbers; therefore, a hyphen needs to be used.
Sample Test Questions
338
A) It was John's fault.
B) It was Johns fault.
C) It is John's fault.
D) It is his fault.
4) Identify which sentence contains an INCORRECT usage of punctuation.
A) They wanted beets, yams, and radishes.
B) They wanted beets; yams and radishes.
C) They wanted beets, yams, radishes, and cucumbers.
D) They wanted three things: beets, yams, and radishes.
5) Identify which sentence contains an INCORRECT usage of punctuation.
A) The cat over by the window was the cutest cat in the house.
B) The cat, over by the window, was the only cat in the house.
C) The cat was the cutest cat in the house.
D) The cat over by the window was the only cat in the house.
E) The cat was the only cat in the house.
6) Identify which sentence contains an INCORRECT usage of punctuation.
A) The girl's played in the field.
B) The girls played in the field.
C) The girls played and played in the field.
D) The girls played.
E) The girls played baseball in the field.
ANSWERS
339
1. C)
This
sentence
needs
some
type
of
punctuation
at
its
end.
2. D)
The
first
section
of
this
sentence
is
not
an
independent
clause;
therefore,
it
cannot
be
separated
by
another
independent
clause
with
a
semicolon.
3. B)
The
word
Johns
is
the
possessive
form
of
a
proper
noun
and
requires
an
apostrophe
before
the
letter
s.
4. B)
A
semicolon
is
used
incorrectly
in
a
list
of
three
items.
5. D)
Since
the
cat
is
the
only
cat
in
the
house,
the
phrase
over
by
the
window
is
nonrestrictive
and
should
be
separated
from
the
rest
of
the
sentence
with
commas.
6. A)
The
word
girl's
is
not
possessive
and
does
not
need
an
apostrophe.
340
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