RAINWATER HARVESTING AND MANAGEMENT FOR IMPROVING

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY IN ARID AND SEMI-ARID AREAS OF

KENYA
Ngigi, S., J. Kariuke and K. Allan
GHARP/KRA Secretariat, P.O. Box 10742-00100, NAIROBI

Abstract
Kenya Rainwater Association (KRA) has been working to implement rainwater harvesting and management
systems (RHM) and complementary technologies across Kenya since 1994. A founder member of the Greater
Horn of Africa Rainwater Partnership (GHARP), KRA works in arid and semi-arid lands (ASALs) with poor
farmers and local community groups, to help provide access to a sustainable water supply; improve food
security; and help farmers develop their livelihoods. In terms of the agricultural product value chain (APVC),
KRAs work focuses on the early part of the chain production as well as building the capacity of local
communities. The paper discusses KRAs work in terms of rainwater harvesting (RWH) technologies;
environmental conservation methods; the development of viable sustainable livelihoods; and community
capacity building to ensure an enhanced skill-set useful for accessing markets. The paper argues that RHM is an
essential part of the APVC in ASAL areas of Kenya and that it has the power to improve crop yield and quality;
enhance the natural environment; motivate other communities to replicate similar systems; and provide farmers
with a solid basis for successfully accessing markets.
Keywords: rainwater, KRA, APVC, conservation

Introduction
The value chain approach
A value chain can simply be described as a structure or framework for determining how best to develop a
product and ensure it reaches the end-user or consumer. In Kenya, agriculture is the main export and revenue
source for the country and provides around 60 percent of Kenyas export revenue. Therefore, an effective and
robust value chain which ensures a quality, sustainable product and good access to markets can be seen as a key
way of helping rural economies develop, and assisting poor farmers to move out of poverty and begin to
compete in the global marketplace. Problems with the quality and yield in the production stage of the value
chain can be linked to: limited access to water in dry areas; the high cost of agricultural inputs (e.g. seedlings
and fertilisers); and lack of affordable technologies. These gaps can mean that farmers find it difficult to move
beyond subsistence farming and progress along the value chain to take their products to market.
KRAs role
KRA aims to bridge the gaps often experienced by farmers in the production stage by providing technical
expertise and funding to support communities. KRAs primary mission is to work with a range of development
partners in order to improve water supply and in so doing, provide poor farmers with improved food security;
environmental sustainability; and ultimately improved livelihood opportunities. KRA does this practically, by
working on community-led projects, to implement a range of RWH structures and associated technologies. In
addition, they introduce environmental conservation techniques to conserve the water catchment area and
maintain soil quality. They also help communities develop alternative sustainable livelihoods such as beekeeping and vegetable growing and ensure that community members are involved in all stages - from project
inception to completion. Training sessions and capacity building are provided and this helps to ensure long-term
project sustainability and ownership.

Materials and Methods

RWH and associated technologies
RWH structures
KRA implements a range of RWH structures and complementary technologies to assist farmers in developing a
high quality crop product and so improving their food security. Some examples of these are detailed below:
Water pans/earth dams

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These are large water storage structures of around 20,000m3 with a filter and separate watering points for
livestock and domestic use. Both are excavated on the goring mostly using machines, but can also be excavated
manually. A fence is put round the pan/dam to prevent contamination. Auxiliary structures are also constructed,
such as community water points; cattle troughs; and gender-sensitive latrines this also prevents contamination
by encouraging specific uses for the different structures.
Roof catchment systems
Roof catchment systems comprise a storage tank (ranging from 15150m3), a roof, which is in this case the
catchments surface, and guttering system, including a simple foul-flash component to trap the first flush of
dirty water before it enters the storage tank.
Farm ponds
Farm ponds are used for agricultural purposes, including drip irrigation. They are hand-dug to 50m3 in capacity
and are lined and roofed to prevent seepage and evaporation. A simple settling basin (silt trap) is included to
ensure that only clean runoff water enters the pond. Guttering is also added on the roof to collect water. In order
to use pond water efficiently, low-head drip kits are installed. These are low-cost and therefore affordable for
the farmers.
Rock catchments
Rock catchments collect water through a masonry guttering system on a sloping rock-face that directs water into
storage tanks for domestic use and into drinking troughs for livestock. GHARP/KRA is currently implementing
rock catchment projects in Mwingi and Kyuso districts of Kenya. The structural components for rock catchments
include gutters, weirs, pipes, reservoirs, and usually tanks.
Sand and sub-surface dams, and shallow wells
Sand and sub-surface dams are constructed in sandy river beds where the trapped sand acts as a storage
reservoir. Water abstraction is from shallow wells located upstream of the dam wall and the water can be used
for livestock, domestic, and agricultural uses. A shallow well is dug beside the dam on the upstream. Most of
these shallow wells are lined to control collapsing, and are installed with hand pumps.
With the implementation of the RWH structures mentioned above, farmers are able to access water easily for
productive purposes. Even when there is drought, water which has been stored during the rainy season can then
be used during the dry periods for irrigating crops and for livestock drinking water. A sustainable source of
water means sustainable production - a pre-requisite for farmers who want to progress along the APVC.
Complementary technologies
Drip irrigation
Drip irrigation is one of the main complementary technologies which can assist farmers in moving away from
reliance on rain-fed agriculture and ensure food security. KRA advocates for low-head drip irrigation as it is
affordable, flexible, and easy to install, operate, and maintain (Ngigi, 2009).
The drip kits consist of a 20-litre bucket placed at a head of 0.8m, from which water flows to drip laterals
through a filter to the crops. They are usually implemented alongside farm ponds and can be up-scaled in size to
larger dimensions if required. Drip irrigation allows farmers to gradually increase their crop yield over time and
as consumer confidence in their product grows.
Draught animal technologies (DAT)
GHARP/KRA has found that animal-drawn technologies are very suitable for rural communities, particularly
those living in pastoralist areas where there are large numbers of livestock which can be trained to use the
equipment effectively. DAT can be used for important environmental conservation activities such as ploughing,
conservation tillage, rangeland rehabilitation, and de-silting of water pans/earth dams. DAT is also affordable, in
comparison with more expensive machines such as tractors.
Due to recurrent droughts, coupled with over-grazing, many of the rangeland areas in the ASALs have been
degraded and soil quality can be low this means poor yields for farmers, and therefore very few marketable
products. Equipment such as an animal-drawn plough and an animal-drawn tined harrow are very effective in
combating this. The plough has a sub-soiler attachment which helps to cultivate the land and increase soil

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moisture; and the tined harrow is deployed to scratch very dry bare ground, to allow rain to infiltrate and support
grass and seedling growth.
A third technology is the use of an animal-drawn dam scoop. Use of the dam scoop to loosen the soil and scoop
it out, helps to extend the life of large water pans/earth dams by preventing siltation.
GHARP/KRA has integrated DAT in some of their larger project sites, and the effect on the environment and
therefore subsequent crop yield has been very positive.
Tree and vegetable seedlings planting
The importance of trees in rehabilitating degraded land and protecting the watershed cannot be under-estimated.
Trees help to improve the soil quality and protect water sources (such as water pans/earth dams) from
evaporation by providing a wind-break. GHARP/KRA has assisted by providing a source of tree and vegetable
seedlings to local communities this coupled with effective training on drip irrigation and rangeland
management, has had great success.
Development of sustainable livelihoods
Bee-keeping (apiculture)
GHARP/KRA is assisting farmers to improve the production of honey through education on and installing of
improved Langstroth bee hives for demonstration purposes. The hives have advantages over other hives in that
they give good quality honey; more honey per hive; are easy to construct; and the queen bee is not interfered
with and so it is possible to install more hives in a small area as you can place hives on top of each other. Honey
and wax are high-value products which can be sold at market to successfully supplement the farmers income.
Vegetable growing
GHARP/KRA is educating farmers on varying their vegetable crops production in order for the communities to
generate more income and be self sustaining. Advice is given to farmers on the best crops to grow and which
will fetch the highest sums of money in the market. GHARP/KRA work in collaboration with the Ministry of
Agriculture and other agricultural-orientated companies, such as Sygenta, who educate farmers on crop
production and protection
Training and capacity building for community members
Trainings are conducted by GHARP/KRA technical staff on issues such as: operation and maintenance; and
management of finances and the community-based organisation (CBO). The community are also taken for
exchange/exposure visits on different sites where similar technologies have been implemented. This training
element is crucial for making sure community members have the confidence and skills to produce high-quality
products.

Discussion
The multiplier effect
GHARP/KRAs projects are generally conceived of as pilot projects the idea being that funding is provided
for a specific time period. The project sites are then chosen, developed, and once complete left to the
community to manage. The idea behind this is that the project areas can act as demonstration sites for the
community at large. Local farmers not involved with the project will see the RHM structures and systems; talk
to other local farmers; and then begin to develop their own structures to help improve their farming and begin to
move away from poverty and subsistence farming. GHARP/KRA has witnessed this effect in action a number of
times and believe it is one of the keys to up-scaling the production side of the APVC.
For example, in Daiga Division in arid Laikipia East district, a resourceful farmer has greatly increased her
tomato yield by investing in a greenhouse. Aularia Macharia had been living on her farm for 20 years with her
husband and children, when they benefited from a GHARP/KRA farm pond in 2009. Previously she had found
production of crops a struggle as the area suffers from severe water scarcity. Over the years, Aularia, just like
many farmers in the area, had experienced recurrent crop failures: We used to have only subsistence farming

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(beans, maize, and potatoes). Often we had no rains and therefore struggled a lot. Here rainfall is very erratic.
It can rain for 12 weeks and then none for two months. The result is crop failure.
Now with the farm pond and a secure source of water, Auralia has been able to improve vegetable production
and regain confidence in farming. With project assistance, together with a bank loan, she has taken the initiative
and invested in a small-scale greenhouse; a drip irrigation system; a water tank; and certified seeds her vision
is to produce high quality tomatoes in order to increase her profits. Her total investment cost was Ksh104,300
(US$ 1,391), which included construction material and labour, seeds, and the drip irrigation system. According
to Auralia, the greenhouse has 560 tomato plants with an expected yield of 20 kg per plant and so an estimated
gross income of Ksh 224,400 (US$ 2,992). This means that one growing season can generate enough revenue to
repay the investment cost and still make a profit. Auralias greenhouse has become an inspiration to her
neighbours, and many community members including the vendors who buy her tomatoes. She plans to build two
more greenhouses from the income generated from her first two harvests and will hopefully continue to inspire
other smallholder farmers to adopt similar low-cost technologies a positive step towards the transformation of
subsistence farming into a commercial enterprise, which ensures food security and income generation.

Conclusion
RHM is very important in order for Kenya to increase its agricultural exports and revenues, and in so doing help
farmers to move out of poverty and away from subsistence farming. RHM needs to be up-scaled across the
country and integrated into every farm in order to ensure sustainable access to water and so sustainable and high
quality crop yields. Without water and appropriate watershed conservation methods in the early production
stages of the APVC, crops will fail and farmers will not be able to reliably produce in order to gain market
confidence. A RHM system must be in place to ensure access to good quality water is guaranteed whatever the
weather. However, it is very important that a pro-poor approach is taken and farmers are given adequate
remuneration along the value chain. There needs to be provision for support and advice for farmers on how to
reach the market, and on how to ensure a fair sale for quality produce.

Acknowledgements
Thank you to GHARP/KRA for their on-going technical work and publications in the area of RHM, which
informed the basis of this article.

References
Agriculture. Export Promotion Council Kenya Website:
http://www.epckenya.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=67&Itemid=78
Mukirae G. (2010). EU-GAA Water and Sanitation Project in Mwingi and Kyuso
Districts. GHARP Mvua Newsletter. 16 24
Ngigi S.N. (2003). Rainwater Harvesting for Improved Food Security. GHARP 83-84pp.
Ngigi, S.N. (2009). Climate Change Adaptation Strategies. The Earth Institute and The MDG Centre, East and
Southern Africa, Nairobi, 8081pp.

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