(Math)

Circle

Ellipse (h)

Parabola (h)

Hyperbola (h)

Ellipse (v)

Parabola (v)

Hyperbola (v)

Definition:
A conic section is the intersection of
a plane and a cone.

By changing the angle and location of intersection, we can produce a circle, ellipse, parabola or hyperbola; or in the special case when the plane
touches the vertex: a point, line or 2 intersecting lines.

Point

Line

The General Equation for a Conic Section:

Ax2 + Bxy + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0
The type of section can be found from the sign of: B2 - 4AC

Double Line

If B2 - 4AC is...

then the curve is a...

<0

ellipse, circle, point or no curve.

=0

parabola, 2 parallel lines, 1 line or no curve.

>0

hyperbola or 2 intersecting lines.

The Conic Sections. For any of the below with a center (j, k) instead of (0, 0), replace each x term with (x-j) and each y term with (y-k).
Circle
2

Ellipse
x /a +y /b =1

4px = y

x2 + y2 = r2

y2 / a2 + x2 / b2 = 1

4py = x2

Variables:

r = circle radius

a = major radius (= 1/2

length major axis)
b = minor radius (= 1/2
length minor axis)
c = distance center to
focus

Eccentricity:

x +y =r

Parabola

Equation (horiz. vertex):

Equations of Asymptotes:
Equation (vert. vertex):

Hyperbola
x2 / a2 - y2 / b2 = 1
y = (b/a)x

Equations of Asymptotes:

y2 / a2 - x2 / b2 = 1
x = (b/a)y

a = 1/2 length major axis

p = distance from vertex to
b = 1/2 length minor axis
focus (or directrix)
c = distance center to focus
c/a

c/a

p=p

a2 + b2 = c2

Relation to Focus:

p=0

a -b =c

Definition: is the locus of all points

which meet the condition...

distance to the
origin is constant

sum of distances to each distance to focus =

focus is constant
distance to directrix

Related Topics:

Geometry section
on Circles

difference between distances

to each foci is constant

Conics can be defined as follows. Given a line d and a point F not on d, conics is the locus of points P such that: distance[P,F]/distance[P,d] == e,
where e is a given constant. F is called the focus of the conic, d the directrix, and e the eccentricity. If 0 < e < 1, the conics is a ellipse. If e == 1, it
is a parabola, if e > 1, it is a hyperbola and has two branches.

Conic sections with eccentricities {.2, .4, .6, .8, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3}. Their focus is at the origin. The directrix is the white line x==1. Conics Family
Formulas
Let the essentricity be e. Let the point F be the Origin. Let the directrix be a vertical line x=1. The polar formula is then:

r == e/(1 +e*Cos[]) conics_polar.gcf

In Cartesian coordinate, let {x,y} be the point P. We have distance[P,F]/distance[P,d]==e. Using coordinates this becomes Sqrt[(x-0)^2+(y0)^2]/Sqrt[(x-1)^2+(y-y)^2]==e. Move the square root to one side and square both sides (the radicand is positive since it's sum of sqares), then
simplify we have the Cartesian equation:
(-e^2) + 2*e^2*x + (1 - e^2)*x^2 + y^2 == 0
By shifting to the right (replace x by x-(-e^2/(-1+e^2)) ), we can transform this equation to the standard form given for ellipses and hyperbola
x^2/a^2 + y^2/b^2 == 1. conics_eq_derive.nb.zip
Any second degree polynomial: a*x^2+2*h*x*y+b*y^2+2*g*x+2*f*y+c==0, where at least one of a,b,h is not 0, is a conics section.
conics_eq.gcf
The distance k from the focus to directrix only effect the curve's scaling. The essentricity e changes the curve's shape.
Plane Curves

Hyperbola
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Family of hyperbolas with eccentricities {4., 2.81, 2.17, 1.76, 1.49, 1.28, 1.13, 1.01}, in order of light to dark shade. The left family share
vertexes, the right are confocal.
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Description
Hyperbola describe a family of curves with single parameter. Together with ellipse and parabola, they make up the conic sections.
Hyperbola is commonly defined as the locus of points P such that the difference of the distances from P to two fixed points F1, F2 (called foci)
are constant. That is, Abs[ distance[P,F1] - distance[P,F2] ] == 2 a, where a is a constant. Hyperbola as Difference of Distances.
The eccentricity is a number that describe the flatness of the hyperbola. Let the distance between foci be 2 c, then eccentricity e is defined by
e := c/a. 1 < e. The larger the eccentricity, the more it resembles two parallel lines. As e approaches 1, the vertexes become more pointed.
The line passing through foci is the axis of the hyperbola. A line passing through center and perpendicular to the axis is the transverse axis. The
vertexes are the intersections of the hyperbola and its axis.
A rectangular hyperbola is a hyperbola with eccentricity Sqrt[2]1.4142. Its asymptotes are mutually perpendicular. A simple Cartesian equation
for rectangular hyperbola is x*y == 1.
Rectangular hyperbola have the property that when streched along one or both of its asymptotes, the curve remains the same. That is, the curve {t,
1/t n}, {t n, 1/t}, and {t, 1/t} Sqrt[n] are the same curve with various degrees of magnification.

Formulas
For a hyperbola with vertexes fixed at {1,0} and eccentricity e, we have (foci is {e, 0}):

Parametric: {-Sec[t], Sqrt[e^2-1]*Tan[t]}

Cartesian: x^2 - y^2/(e^2-1) == 1 hyperbola_eq.gcf

For a hyperbola with vertex at {a,0}, directrix at x==a/e, asymptotes at y==b/a*x, we have:

Parametric: {a*Sinh[t], b*Sinh[t]}

Cartesian: x^2/a^2 - y^2/b^2 == 1 hyperbola_eq2.gcf

The parametric form with Sinh is derived by replacing y in x^2/a^2-y^2/b^2==1 with b*Sinh[t], then solve for x. This is analogous to the ellipse
case where we replace a variable in x^2/a^2+y^2/b^2==1 by Cos[t] and solve the other to find {a*Cos[t],b*Sin[t]}.
Properties
Point-wise construction
This method is derived from the paramteric formula for hyperbola {a Sec[t], b Tan[t]}, where a and b are the radiuses of the concentric circles. If
a == b, then the curve traced is rectangular hyperbola.

Hyperboda Point-wise Construction; a:=1, b:=2; a:=b:=1; a:=2, b:=1

1.

Let O be the origin. Let A and B be points on the positive x-axis.

2.

Let there be a circle centered on O and passing A.

3.

Let there be a circle centered on O and passing B.

4.

Let there be a line a1, that passes A and parallel to y-axis.

5.

Let there be a line b1, that passes B and parallel to y-axis.

6.

Let there be a point D on one of the circle.

7.

Let there be a line OD.

8.

Let A1 := Intersection[Line[O,D],a1]

9.

Let B1 := Intersection[Line[O,D],b1]

10. Let there be a circle centered on O passing A1. Let the intersection of this circle and positive x-axis be E.
Let there be a line g, passing E and parallel to y-axis.
11. Let there be a line passing B1 and parallel to x-axis.
12. The locus of intersection g and B1, as D moves on the circle, is a hyperbola.
Optical Property
Light rays coming from one focus of a hyperbola will refract to the other focus.

The catacaustic and diacaustic of a hyperbola with eccentricity 2.5.

Pedal
The pedal of a hyperbola with respect to a focus is a circle. The pedal of a rectangular hyperbola with respect to its center is a lemniscate of
Bernoulli.

Hyperbola Pedal
Inversion
The inversion of a rectangular hyperbola with respect to its center is again a lemniscate of Bernoulli. If the inversion point is at a vertex, the
inversion curve is a right strophoid.

Left: hyperbola and lemniscate of Bernoulli (both in red dots). Right: Hyperbola (purple) and a right strophoid (red dots).
The inversion of any hyperbola with respect to a focus is a limacon of Pascal.

Hyperbola and Limacon of Pascal (both in red dots).

Quadric Surfaces
Equations of polynomials of degree 2 with 2 variables has cross sections that are hyperbola, ellipse, parabola in various ways.

Hyperbolic Paraboloid

Hyperboloid of Two Sheet

Hyperboloid of One Sheet

Ellipse

Family of ellipses with eccentricities {0.25, 0.36, 0.46, 0.57, 0.67, 0.78, 0.88, 0.99} in order of light to dark shade. The left family share vertexes,
the right are confocal.
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Description
Ellipse is a family of curves of one parameter. Together with hyperbola and parabola, they make up the conic sections. Ellipse is also a special
case of hypotrochoid.
Ellipse is commonly defined as the locus of points P such that the sum of the distances from P to two fixed points F1, F2 (called foci) are
constant. That is, distance[P,F1] + distance[P,F2] == 2 a, where a is a positive constant.

Tracing a Ellipse. Ellipse Family

The eccentricity of a ellipse, denoted e, is defined as e := c/a, where c is half the distance between foci. Eccentricity is a number that describe the
degree of roundness of the ellipse. For any ellipse, 0 e 1. The smaller the eccentricy, the rounder the ellipse. If e == 0, it is a circle and F1, F2
are coincident. If e == 1, then it's a line segment, with foci at the two end points.
Vertexes of the ellipse are defined as the intersections of the ellipse and a line passing through foci. The distance between the vertexes are called
major axis or focal axis. A line passing the center and perpendicular to the major axis is the minor axis. Half the length of major axis is called
semimajor axis. Half the length of major axis is called semiminor axis.

Let a ellipse's sum of distances be 2*a, and center to a focus be c, and semiminor axis be b, and essentricity be e. These values are related by
the formula: b^2+c^2==a^2, e*a==c, and center to a vertex is a. This is a very useful formula when trying to solve for a unknown.
Formulas
The formula for ellipse can be derived in many ways. By the definition of sum of distances distance[P,F1] + distance[P,F2] == 2*a, setting
focuses to be {c,0} we easily find the Cartesian equation to be:
Sqrt[(x-c)^2+(y-0)^2] + Sqrt[(x- (-c))^2+(y-0)^2] == 2 *a
After getting rid of square roots, we have:
16*a^4 - 16*a^2*c^2 + (-16*a^2 + 16*c^2)*x^2 - 16*a^2*y^2 == 0
which has the form of 2nd degree polynomial. Now minus both sides by a constant we have the form:
x^2/A^2+y^2/B^2==1
for some A and B, where the vertexes of the ellipse happens to be {A,0} and {B,0}. To derive the parametric formula, noticed that the x
component or y component oscillates. So, if we relpace y by B*Sin[t] and solve for x, we easily found a parametric formula corresponding to
x^2/A^2+y^2/B^2==1 to be:
{B* Cos[t], A* Sin[t]}
ellipse_standard.gcf ellipse_sum_dist.gcf ellipse_eq_derive.nb.zip
Similarly, we can derive other forms. The following gives ellipses with eccentricity as parameter, with Vertexes at {1,0}, and focuses at {e, 0}.

Parametric: {Cos[t], Sqrt[1-e^2] Sin[t]}.

Cartesian: x^2 + y^2/(1 - e^2) == 1 ellipse_plot.gcf

Properties
Point Construction
This method is obvious from the paramteric formula for ellipses {a Cos[t], b Sin[t]}, where a and b are the radiuses of the circles. Figure below
showing a ellipse with a:=5, b:=3, and e==8/10.

Point Construction, Point-wise Construction

Ellipse's Property of inscribed and circumscribed circles and center

From the point of view of a given ellipse, this is a property that relates a point on the ellipse, to its circumscribed circle, inscribed circle, and
center. That is: given a ellipse and a point P on the curve. Let there be lines passing P and perpendicular to the ellipse's major and minor axes.
These 2 pendicular lines will intersect the circimscribed and inscribed circles at 2 points, if we consider only intersections that lie in the same
quadrant as P. Now, a line, passing these two points will intersect the ellipse's center.
This theorem leads to the Trammel of Archimedes below.
Trammel of Archimedes
Ellipse is the glissette of a line of constant length with endpoints on other two mutually orthogonal lines. That is, the trace of fixed point on a line
of constant length with its endpoints freely glides on two mutually orthogonal lines. This mechanism is called Trammel of Archimedes. The trace
of the line itself will generate a astroid.

Trammel in Motion ellispe as Trammel

Proof: Assume the ellipse to be in a position where its major axis is aligned with the x axis and minor axis aligned with the y axes. Let A be the
center of ellipse. Let P be a point on the ellipse. Let there be a circumscribed circle r, and a inscribed circle q. Now, let there be a line thru P,
parallel to minor axis. Let the intersection of this line and the circumscribed circle be Q (pick the intersection that lies in the same quadrant as P).
Let there be a line thru P, parallel to the major axis. Let the intersection of the line and the inscribed circle be R. By the point-wise construction
theorem, line ARQ are collinear. Let F be the midpoint of RQ. Let F be the center of a rectangle, and lower left corner at A. Label the upper left
corner D, upper right C, lower right E. Now, consider triangle[Q,P,R]. Note that dist[Q,R] is constant, angle[Q,P,R]==90, F bisects QR.
Therefore, then distance[F,P] is constant. Now, consider the rectangle DCEA. The diagnals of the rectangle is constant, since AF is constant. (AF
is constant because F is the bisector of RQ, and R and Q lies on the circum/in-scribed circles, and ARQ is collinear.) The distance[D,E] is
constant because AC twice of AE, and AE is constant because F is mid of the radiuses of the circumscribed circle and inscribed circle. P lies on
DE by symmetry arguments with center F. (this proof is badly worded and verbose. Exercise: write a better proof)
Tangent Construction

Ellipse Tangent Construction

Givens: A circle k with center F1, a point F2 inside the circle, and a point P on the circle. Now, Let t be a line that bisects Line[P,F2]. Let Q be the
intersection between b and Line[P,F1]. As P moves around the circle, the traces of Q is a ellipse with focus F1 and F2 and dist[F1,P] being its
distance sum, and the line t is its tangent at Q.
Proof: We want to prove that dist[F1,Q]+dist[F2,Q]==dist[F1,P]. Since Q lies on the line t, and t bisects line[P,F2], thus dist[Q,P]==dist[Q,F2].
Since Q also lies on segment[P,F1], so dist[F1,Q] + dist[Q,P] == dist[F1,P]. Combine the above equation together shows dist[F1,Q]
+dist[F2,Q]==dist[F1,P]. To show that t is the tangent at Q, note that line perpendicular to t and passing Q bisects the angle[F1,Q,F2]. (detail
omitted here)
Note, that the midpoint of P and F2 traces out a circle. This leads to the following theorem that the pedal of a ellipse with respect to a focus is a
circle.
Pedal
The pedal of a ellipse with respect to a focus is a circle, conversely, the negative pedal of a circle with respect to a point inside the circle is a
ellipse. This fact can be used to draw ellipses by envelope of lines.

1.

Start with a circle and a point F1 inside the circle.

2.

Draw a line j from a point P on the circle to F1.

3.

Draw a line k perpendicular to j and passing P.

4.

Repeat step 2 and 3 for other points P on the cricle.

5.

The envelope of lines m is a ellipse with a focus at F1 and two vertexes touching the circle.

Ellipse as Circle's Negative Pedal

Ellipse as Hypotrochoid
Ellipse can be generated as a hypotrochoid. Let the parameters of the hypotrochoid be {A,B,H}, where A is the radius of the fixed circle, B is the
radius of the rolling circle, and H is the distance from the tracing point to the center of the rolling circle. If A/2 == B and H B, then it's a ellipse
with semimajor axis a==B+H and semiminor axis b==Abs[B-H]. Eccentricity is then e:=c/a == Sqrt[a^2-b^2]/a == Sqrt[(B+H)^2-(B-H)^2]/
(B+H)
Given A, B:=1/2 A, and e, we may want to find H such that the hypotrochoid {A,B,H} generate a ellipse with eccentricity e. This is easily solved
with the above information. The solution is:
h == ( -B (-2+e^2) 2 B Sqrt[(1-e)*(1+e)] ) / e^2
If we let A:=1, B:=1/2, e:=8/10, we get h==1/8 or 2. Two ellipses of eccentricity 8/10 as hypotrochoids with parameters {1,1/2,1/8} and {1,1/2,2}
are shown below.

Ellipse Tracing

Ellipse Tracing

Optical Property
Lightrays from one focus will reflect to the ther focus. If the radiant point is not at a focus, a caustic curve forms.

Ellipse's Caustic
Inversion
Ellipse's inversion with respect to a focus is a dimpled limacon of Pascal.

Ellipse Inversion
Cylinder Slice
The intersection of a right circular cylinder and a plane is a ellipse. One can see this by tilting a cup or a cone shaped paper cup filled with liquid.
Let r be the radius of the base circle of the cylinder, be the angle formed by the cutting plane and the plane of the base circle of the right circular
cylinder. The intersection will be a ellipse with semi-major axis r/Cos[] and semi-minor axis r.

Parabola

Two negative pedals of the parabola {t,1/4 t^2}

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Description

Parabola is a member of conic sections, along with hyperbola and ellipse. Parabola can be thought of as a limiting case of ellipse or hyperbola.
Note that parabola is not a family of curves. The impression that some parabola are more curved is because we are looking at different scale of
the curve. Similarly, part of a large circle appears to be a line may induce us to conclude that there are different shapes of circles.
Like ellipse and hyperbola, there are many ways to define parabola. A common definition defines it as the locus of points P such that the distance
from a line (called the directrix) to P is equal to the distance from P to a fixed point F (called the focus). As a conics section, the eccentricity of
Parabola is 1.

Tracing a Parabola Tracing a Parabola

The axis of a parabola is a line perpendicular to its directrix and passing its focus. Vertex of the parabola is the intersection of the parabola and its
axis.
Formulas

Parametric: {t, 1/4 t^2}, - < t <

Cartesian: y == 1/4 x^2.

For the given formulas, vertexes is at {0,0}, focus is at {0,1}.

Properties
Point and Tangent Construction
Let F be a given point and d be a give line. Let B := Point[d]. Let t := LineBisector[B,F]. Let b := Perpendicular[B,d]. Let P := Intersect[b,t] Since
length[segment[B,P]]==length[segment[P,F]], P is a point on parabola. Further, t is the tangent at P.

Parabola Point Tangent Construction

Invariant under certain Dilation
Parabola have the property that when scaled (streching/shrinking) along a direction parallel or perpendicular to its axis, the curve remain
unchanged. (For example, line also have this property, but circle do not. A streched line is still a line, but a streched circle is no longer a circle)
When a parabola is streched along the directrix a units and along the axis by b units, the resulting curve is the original parabola scaled in both
direction by a^2/b.

Given a parametrization of a parabola {xf[t], yf[t]} with vertex at Origin and focus along the y-axis, its focus is {0, xf[t]^2/(4 yf[t]) }.
Optical Property
A radiant point at the focus will reflect off the parabola into parallel lines. The figure shows three parabolas, two of which share a common focus.

above: Left, 3 parabolas with its reflection property. Right: A photo of a car's headlight (Honda Civic 2000). Parabola with a Moving Light
Source Parabola Caustics
Tangents of Probala
Any set of tangents on the parabola will always cut a arbitrary tangent into the same proportion. That is, suppose you pick three tangents call
them a, b, c. Now pick a arbitrary tangent x. Tagents a, b, c will cut x into segments with certain proportions. Now pick any other tangent x1, it
will be cut into the same proportions. Thus, the envelope of lines with a positive constant sum of intercepts is a segment of parabola.

Tangents of parabala cutting other tangents into the same proportion.

A segment of parabola formed by envelope of lines. The left figure shows the line positions, the right figure is rotated to visually show that it
coincides with parabola in the standard position. Note: this is not astroid, because the lines that forms astroid as Trammel of Archimedes do not
have the same positions as this.
Evolute and Semicubic Parabola
The evolute of a parabola is the semicubic parabola.

Parabola and its normals. The envelope of the normals is the semicubic parabola.
Pedal
The pedal of a parabola with respect to its focus is a line; pedal with respect to its vertex is the cissoid of Diocles.

Inversion
The inversion of a parabola with respect to its focus is a cardioid; inversion with respect to its vertex is the cissoid of Diocles.

A conic section is a curve formed by the intersection of a cone with a plane. Depending on how the plane is oriented, the curve will be one of the
conic sections circle, ellipse, parabola, or hyperbola:

A circle is the set of all points that area equally distant from a fixed point C, the center of the circle.

An ellipse is the set of all point surrounding two foci, or focus points, such that the sum of the distances from any point to each focus
remains constant. An ellipse can be oriented vertically (shaped higher than wide) or horizontally (shaped wider than high).

A parabola is the set of points that are equqally distant from the focus point and the directrix, a fixed line. A parabola can be oriented
vertically (opening up or down) or horizontally (opening left or right).

A hyperbola is the set of all points around two foci, or focus points, such that the difference of the distances from any point to each
focus remains constant. A hyperbola can be oriented vertically (opening up and down) or horizontally (opening left and right).

The three types of conics are the ellipse, parabola, and hyperbola. The circle can be considered as a fourth type (as it was by
Apollonius) or as a kind of ellipse. The circle and the ellipse arise when the intersection of cone and plane is a closed curve. The circle
is obtained when the cutting plane is parallel to the plane of the generating circle of the cone for a right cone as in the picture at the
top of the page this means that the cutting plane is perpendicular to the symmetry axis of the cone. If the cutting plane is parallel to
exactly one generating line of the cone, then the conic is unbounded and is called a parabola. In the remaining case, the figure is a
hyperbola. In this case, the plane will intersect both halves (nappes) of the cone, producing two separate unbounded curves.

Various parameters are associated with a conic section:

conic section

circle

ellipse

parabola

hyperbola

equation

eccentricity (e)

linear eccentricity (c)

semi-latus rectum ()

focal parameter (p)