Lit Book

The Little Book of
Profiling
Basic Information about Measuring and Interpreting
Road Profiles
September 1998
Michael W. Sayers
Steven M. Karamihas
Contents
Introduction ....................................................................................1
What Is a Profile? ............................................................................. 2
What Is a Profiler? ............................................................................ 3
What Can You Do With Profiles? ...........................................................9
What is a Valid Profiler?......................................................................10
When Is a Profiler Not Valid? ...............................................................12
What Is Signal Processing? ..................................................................12
What Is Sample Interval?.....................................................................13
What Is Filtering? ............................................................................. 16
What Is a Moving Average?..................................................................18
What Are Sinusoids?..........................................................................21
What Is Frequency Response?...............................................................23
What Is a Power Spectral Density?.......................................................... 26
What is Vehicle Ride?.........................................................................30
How Is Vertical Acceleration Related to Profile? ..........................................32
How Does Ride Relate to the Road? ........................................................35
What Is Road Roughness? ...................................................................37
What Are Response-Type Systems? ........................................................39
What Are the Frequency Responses of Roughness Measuring Devices?...............41
What Is a Profile Index?......................................................................43
What Is the IRI? ............................................................................... 45
What Are Panel Ratings? .....................................................................52
What Is Ride Number? .......................................................................55
What Other Roughness Indices Are In Use?...............................................60
What Is the Effect of Length?................................................................67
What Is Verification Testing? ................................................................70
What Is Calibration? ..........................................................................72
What Is Correlation? ..........................................................................73
What Are Errors?.............................................................................. 79
What Causes Profiling Error?................................................................81
What Is The Effect of Speed?................................................................86
What Is the Effect of Texture? ...............................................................90
What About Cracks? ..........................................................................92
How Accurate Should a Profile Be? ........................................................94
What Is a Class 1 Profiler?...................................................................96
Bibliography ...................................................................................98
Introduction
High-speed road profiling is a technology that began in the 1960s when Elson
Spangler and William Kelly developed the inertial profilometer at the General Motors
Research Laboratory. Some users still call high-speed profilers by their early name:
GMR Profilometers.
In the past decade, profiling instruments have become the everyday tools for
measuring road roughness. The majority of States now own road profilers. A
substantial body of knowledge exists for the field of profiler design and technology.
There are also many proven methods for analyzing and interpreting data similar to the
measures obtained from profilers. However, there has not been a single source of
information about what you can do with a profiler. Users have instructions provided
by the manufacturers to operate the equipment, but little else to go on.
Road profiler users from different States met in 1989 and formed the Road
Profiler User Group (RPUG). RPUG has been meeting annually since then to
provide a forum for issues involving the measurement and interpretation of road
profiles. From 1992 to 1995, the authors conducted a research project at The
University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI) called
Interpretation of Road Roughness Profile Data. The research was funded by the
Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) and pooled State funds. At the 1994
RPUG meeting, representatives of the participating States suggested that a short
course is needed to provide the necessary education. Dave Huft, inventor of the
South Dakota profiler, proposed a Little Golden Book of Profiling in the spirit of
the popular childrens books.
The National Highway Institute (NHI) of FHWA provided funding for the
authors to prepare a short course called Measuring and Interpreting Road Profiles.
The first session of the course was held in November 1995 in Ann Arbor, Michigan.
The Little Book was written for the course. The book was revised and extended in
September 1996 for the second session of the course, scheduled to coincide with the
1996 RPUG meeting in Denver. A third session was held in October 1997 in
Overland Park, Kansas, in conjunction with the 1997 RPUG meeting.
In The Little Book, we try to cover three basic questions:
1. How do profilers work?
2. What can you do with their measurements?
3. What can you do to reduce errors?
The material is targeted at users. Our intent is make the material no more technical
than is needed to describe what the measures mean that you can get from a profiler.
Revision: September 18, 1998
Page 1
What Is a Profile?
A profile is a two-dimensional slice of the road surface, taken along an

imaginary line.
Profiles taken along a lateral line show the superelevation and crown of the road
design, plus rutting and other distress. Longitudinal profiles show the design grade,
roughness, and texture. In this book, we will focus on longitudinal profiles.
Longitudinal
Profiles
Lateral
Profile
A profile of a road, pavement, or ground can be measured along any continuous

imaginary line on the surface. If a measurement is repeated, the same profile can only
be expected if the same imaginary line is followed. (To obtain repeatable measures, it
helps to make the line less imaginary by using paint or tape to mark it physically.)
You can take many profiles for a road, each along different a line.
It is possible to measure the profile for a curved line. Normally, the expectation
for a road is that the line is a constant distance from the centerline or some other
reference that follows the road geometry. Frequently, profile is measured along two
lines per lane, one in each wheeltrack. For greater detail any number of lines can be
measured.
The width of the line is not standard.

The width is usually defined by the type of instrument used. For example,
measures made with a laser system may cover a slice of the road just a few
millimeters thick, while measures made with an ultrasonic system may cover a thicker
slice of several centimeters. The effect of profile width is not yet understood.
However, it is harder to exactly repeat a profile measure if the line for the profile is
very thin.
Page 2
For any line on the road, there is a true profile.

The concept of a profile is easy to visualize. It is easy to see that for a line drawn
on a physical surface, a true profile exists. However, the requirements for
measuring the profile depend on what we want to do with the data. For example,
consider two completely different uses of profile. First, suppose a new bridge is
going to be built. The designer might want the profile of the road on either side of the
bridge site. The profile would be adequately described with elevation points taken at
3-m intervals, for several hundred meters, with the individual measures having a
resolution of a few millimeters. Now, for a second application, consider a computer
analysis to characterize texture based on measured profile. The analysis requires
profile points spaced 1.0 mm (0.04 in) apart, over a distance of 1 meter, with a
resolution of 0.1 mm (0.004 in). Both sets of numbers are part of the true profile
for a line on the road.
What Is a Profiler?
Instruments and test methods are used to produce a sequence of numbers related
to the true profile for an imaginary line on the road.
A profiler is an instrument used to produce a series of numbers related

in a well-defined way to a true profile.
We will soon see that the numbers obtained from some profilers are not
necessarily equal to true elevation. A profiler does not always measure true profile,
exactly. It measures the components of true profile that are needed for a specific
purpose. However, the relationship between the true profile and the numbers
produced by a profiler must meet a specification that will be given shortly.
A profiler works by combining three ingredients.

They are:
1. a reference elevation,
2. a height relative to the reference, and
3. longitudinal distance.
These three ingredients are combined in different ways, based on the design of the
profiler. Lets look briefly at three types of devices.
Rod and Level

The rod and level are familiar surveying tools. The level provides the elevation
reference, the readings from the rod provide the height relative to the reference, and a
tape measure locates the individual elevation measures.
Page 3
The rod and level method is called static because the instruments are
not moving when the elevation measures are taken.
1. Reference elevation = instrument height
2. Height relative
to reference = rod
longitudinal
reference point
3. Longitudinal distance
measured with tape or laser
Although rod and level equipment is familiar to most engineers, the requirements
for obtaining a profile measure that is valid for computing roughness are much
different than for laying out a road. You must take elevation measures at close
intervals of a foot or less. The individual height measures must be accurate to 0.5 mm
(0.02 in) or less. These requirements are much more stringent than is normal for
surveying. However, the absolute height of the instrument is not of interest when
measuring profile for roughness, even though it is normally a matter of great concern
when using rod and level for other applications.
ASTM Standard E1364 provides guidelines for measuring profiles with

a static method.
Dipstick
The Dipstick is a device developed, patented, and sold by the Face Company. It
is faster than rod and level for measuring profiles suited for roughness analysis, and
includes a battery-powered on-board computer to automatically record data and
perform the arithmetic needed to produce a profile.
Page 4
3. Longitudinal interval
is fixed (usually 305 mm)
1. Previous point defines reference elevation
and reference longitudinal position
2. Height relative
to reference
The device is walked along the line being profiled. It contains a precision
inclinometer that measures the difference in height between the two supports,
normally spaced 305 mm apart. To profile a line along the ground, you lean the
device so all of its weight is on the leading foot, raising the rear foot slightly off the
ground. Then you pivot the device 180 about the leading foot, locating the other foot
(formerly behind) in front, along the line being profiled. The computer monitors the
sensor continuously. When it senses the instrument has stabilized, it automatically
records the change in elevation and beeps, signaling that the next step can be taken.
With this design, the reference elevation is the value calculated for the previous
point. The height relative to reference is deduced by the angle of the device relative to
gravity, together with the spacing between its supports. The longitudinal distance is
determined by multiplying the number of measures made with the known spacing.
Instructions for using a Dipstick are provided by the manufacturer.

Profiles obtained with a Dipstick typically correspond closely to those obtained
with rod and level, if you set the value of the first elevation (the initial reference) to
match the elevation used in the rod and level profile.
Page 5
Inertial Profiler (GM Design)

In the 1960s, a breakthrough in design made high-speed profiling possible for
monitoring large road networks. This was when General Motors Research
Laboratories developed the inertial profiler. Measurements from the inertial profiler
combine the same three ingredients as the static rod and level and the Dipstick.
The inertial reference is provided by an accelerometer.

An accelerometer is a sensor that measures acceleration. Data processing
algorithms convert the vertical acceleration measure to an inertial reference that
defines the instant height of the accelerometer in the host vehicle. The height of the
ground relative to the reference is therefore the distance between the accelerometer (in
the vehicle) and the ground directly under the accelerometer. This height is measured
with a non-contacting sensor such as a laser transducer. The longitudinal distance of
the instruments is usually picked up from the vehicle speedometer.
Computer
1. Inertial
Reference: A
3. Speed/Distance
pick-up
Accelerometer: A
2. Height relative to reference
(laser, infrared, or ultrasonic sensor)
An inertial profiler must be moving to function.

This type of instrument not only works at highway speed, it requires a certain
speed even to function. For example, even the best inertial profilers do not work well
at speeds less than 15 km/hr.
The connection between the instrument and the ground is harder to see when
speeding by at 100 km/hr than when inspecting the imaginary line being profiled on
foot and taking readings with a static device. Locating the accelerometer and sensor
over the proper imaginary line is difficult and requires an experienced driver.
The profile from an inertial profiler does not look like one measured
statically.
The inertial reference from a profiler qualifies as useful, but it is not as easy to
visualize as the reference used in the static rod and level or Dipstick. The agreement
between the profile obtained with an inertial system and one obtained statically is
Page 6
good in some respects, but not in others. For example, the next figure shows profiles
obtained from the static Dipstick and two inertial profilers.
Left Elevation (m)
1.5
1
Dipstick
.5
ICC Laser
0
-.5
K.J. Law
0
50
100
150
Distance (m)
Three profiles measured with different devices.
The profiles from the inertial devices were taken at normal highway speeds, so
chances are that the line for the profile was not exactly the same for the three
measures. But still, this does not explain the completely different appearances among
the profiles. The Dipstick shows a positive grade of about 1 meter vertical per 100
meters longitudinal. The ICC laser profiler shows a grade of up to 0.5 meters vertical
per 100 meters longitudinal. The K.J. Law instrument shows a fairly level profile.
The grade and long undulations covering hundreds of meters are not necessarily
measured accurately by any of these devices. Plots of elevation versus distance from
these three devices do not agree, even though the measures are based on the same true
profile. Further, different plots may be obtained for repeated measures of the same
true profile, if the measures are made with inertial profilers made by different
manufacturers. It is even possible to get different plots from the same instrument, just
by choosing different settings before each test.
Accurate profile statistics can be obtained from inertial profilers.

Because the inertial profilers do not produce the same plot of profile as a static
method such as the Dipstick, you may at first think they are not useful, or that they
are not sensing the true profile. Yet, even if the plot of the profile measured by an
inertial profiler does not look like the true profile, it may provide high accuracy for
summary numbers that are calculated from the profile. For example, the next figure
shows plots of a roughness index (IRI) as computed from measurements made by
different instruments. If the two instruments obtained exactly the same results, the
points would lie on the line of equality shown in the plots. Although the results are
not perfect, the plots show that the different profilers are obtaining essentially the
same IRI values. (The IRI will be described later.)
Page 7
Dipstick
250
ICC (Laser)
250
R2 = 0.94
R2 = 0.95
200
200
150
150
100
100
50
50
0
0
50
100 150
K.J. Law
200
250
50
100 150
K.J. Law
200
250
Roughness statistics obtained by different profilers.

We will see many examples of how both static and inertial profilers obtain
comparable measures of profile properties.
Measures from inertial profiles can be more reliable than measures

obtained statically.
The inertial systems are more automated than the static methods, and, by
eliminating many potential sources of human error, can actually be more accurate in
many conditions.
The original design has been updated with new sensors and computers.
Early inertial profilers sensed the height of the vehicle relative to the ground using
an instrumented follower wheel. The design worked, but the follower wheels were
fragile, and required testing at speeds low enough to avoid bouncing. All profilers
that are sold today use non-contacting sensors instead of follower wheels.
Early systems performed the profile calculations electronically and required that
the vehicle operate at constant forward speed. Modern inertial profilers correct for
minor variations in speed and perform the calculations numerically with on-board
computers.
Instructions for using an inertial profiler are provided by the

manufacturer.
Although most commercially sold inertial profilers operate on similar principals,
the specific details of operating them and maintaining correct calibration are not
standard. Software for analyzing profiles and reducing them to summary statistics has
not been standard in the past, but this is changing. For example, the RoadRuf
software is a free Windows-based profile analysis package. RoadRuf is available on
the Internet, along with Fortran source code for computing some standard profilebased statistics.
Page 8
What Can You Do With Profiles?
There are at least four broad categories of profiler applications.

1. To monitor the condition of a road network for pavement management
systems (PMS),
2. to evaluate the quality of newly constructed or repaired sections,
3. to diagnose the condition of specific sites and determine appropriate
remedies, and
4. to study the condition of specific sites for research.
The technical requirements for these categories cover quite a range. A road
network may require the measuring of thousands of kilometers per year. In some
States, more than 10,000 kilometers per year may be profiled. At the other extreme, a
research program might involve frequent measurements of sites that are just several
hundred feet long, with the intent of identifying subtle forms of deterioration at their
onset.
Measuring a profile is half the job. The other half is running the
profile through a computer program to get a roughness index.
The most common way to interpret profile information is to reduce road profiles
down to summary roughness indices. To obtain information of any type from a
measured profile, there are two basic requirements:
1. the profiler must be capable of sensing the relevant information present in
the true profile, and
2. computer software must exist to process the measured values to extract the
desired information (such as a summary index).
It is possible for the set of numbers obtained for a single profile to be processed
several times, using different analyses to extract various kinds of information.
However, it can be a challenge to calculate statistics that are useful.
The technology to measure profiles has existed since the 1960s. We are still
trying to figure out what to do with the data. Much of the following material in the
Little Book will cover the analyses that can be applied to raw profile measurements.
A profile measure should be relevant.

The analysis applied to the profile data should be targeted at an application. The
fact that a number can be obtained repeatedly and accurately does not make it useful.
A relevant measure is one that has been linked by research to properties of the road
that are thought by engineers to be important.
For example, two analyses that will be described later are the International
Roughness Index (IRI) and Ride Number (RN). Both are linked to roughness. IRI
has a demonstrated strong compatibility with equipment used to develop pavement
Page 9
management systems. Ride Number is linked by statistical correlation to public

opinion of rideability.
What is a Valid Profiler?

The word profile has appeared in descriptions of road-measuring equipment for
several decades. To some users, any device that produces a wiggly line might be
called a profiler. However, in this book, we take a more restrictive view that a
profiler must produce a wiggly line that has an established relationship to the true
profile.
True profile includes a great deal of information. It tells whether the road is going
up or down a hill. It gives roughness information. It has texture information.
A true profile contains more information than we can use. Usually, the
more information we capture, the more it costs.
It is neither economical nor useful to measure the true profile with enough detail
to extract texture information and also view large-scale landscape features such as
hills and valleys. The amount of data storage needed to capture a mile of profile with
detail down to the texture level will fill computer storage capabilities rapidly, and
make the management of the data base a nightmare. Instead, we measure only a part
of the information in a true profile.
A profiler is valid if it provides the same statistical values that would

be obtained from the true profile.
Although valid profilers do not measure all of the information needed for a true
profile, they do measure the information that is of interest. Of course, no instrument
is perfect, and error exists. Error levels are traded off against the cost of the
instruments and the effort needed to use them.
A profiler is considered valid for obtaining a profile property if the statistics
obtained from its measures are neither high nor low, on the average, compared with
statistics that would be calculated from the true profile.
Statistics from two or more valid profilers are directly comparable,

with no conversion required.
Since a line on the road has only one true profile at some given time, all valid
profilers are, by definition, capable of producing the same profile statistics. For
example, the same IRI measure can be obtained with rod and level, Dipstick, or many
of the currently available inertial profilers.
Profiling is the only technology that has been demonstrated to allow engineers to
directly measure the same road roughness statistics using equipment with different
proprietary designs and made by competing manufacturers.
Page 10
Because statistics computed from the measures of a valid profiler are not biased
relative to the true profile, we do not have to convert statistical data from a valid
profiler to compare them with data obtained from a different valid profiler.
Statistics from valid profilers are stable over time.

The concept of a true profile is one that is simple and depends only on geometry.
The definition will be the same in 100 years as it is today. Thus, statistics that are
defined on the basis of true profile are timeless.
It is absolutely essential that network data taken this year be directly comparable
to last-years data, and next years. The need to obtain data about roughness
condition that is consistent from year to year may be the greatest factor contributing to
the popularity of profilers.
No single device is the best reference for every use.

The validity of a profiler depends on its intended use. Every profiler has a limited
range of applications for which it is valid. For example, the Dipstick is valid for
determining IRI (a roughness statistic that will be explained later), and also for
determining the grade of a road. However, it cannot sense cracks, or see profile
features that are small relative to the distance between its two supporting feet. The
next figure shows a small segment of a profile measured by the Dipstick and by an
inertial system developed by FHWA called the ProRut. The ProRut measures profile
at a very short sample interval of 50 mm (2 in). They both pick up the basic profile
shape, but only the ProRut senses the two deep cracks as 147 m and 156.5 m.
Left Elevation (mm)

5
Dipstick
0
-5
ProRut
-10
-15
data offset vertically for plotting
-20
140
145
150
Distance (m)
155
160
Page 11
When Is a Profiler Not Valid?

What if the statistics calculated from a profiling device are systematically biased
relative to an accepted reference? Say they tend to be 20% high for some tests. You
might be tempted to define a calibration constant and reduce all values from that
instrument by 20%. Dont Do It!
A profiler is not valid if its measures are systematically biased.

If the results are systematically biased, then the device is not valid profiler for
that statistic. It should not be used to obtain that statistic. Simple.
Although the results might differ by 20% in the first tests, there is no way to
estimate the errors on other kinds of roads. Unless the source of the error is known,
you do not even know if the error is consistent over time.
A profiler that is not valid for one statistic might still be valid for another. For
example, many profilers with ultrasonic sensors are valid for measuring the IRI
statistic but not the Ride Number statistic (both IRI and RN will be described later).
A profiler is not valid if the random error for an individual

measurement is too high.
What exactly does it mean to say the error is too high? That depends on the
application. For monitoring a large network, large errors are tolerable if they are
random. For evaluating specific pavements, the same random errors might be
unacceptable.
Near the end of this book, we get back to the topic of validity. We will describe
profiling error sources and discuss their significance.
What Is Signal Processing?

Profiling information is used by civil engineers to evaluate the condition of
pavements and for managers and planners to manage road networks. However, the
technology involved in profiling did not evolve from civil engineering pavement
testing methods. The inertial profiler was invented and developed by mechanical and
electrical engineers. Many of the methods used to process and analyze profiler
measures had already been well-established by electrical and mechanical engineers,
and therefore many terms and techniques are used that are not a standard part of a
civil engineers repertoire.
In order to understand how profiles can be used, profiler users must understand
terms such as signal, signal processing, filter, and frequency response.
The outputs of the early inertial profilers were voltages that fluctuated in a welldefined relationship to variations in the true profile. In the world of electrical
Page 12
engineering and instrumentation, a fluctuating voltage that contains information is

called a signal.
Modern inertial profilers produce sequences of numbers that contain the same
type of information. With modern systems, a sequence of numbers is called a signal.
A signal is a series of numbers.

Outputs of the transducers in the profiler are converted to numbers and processed
by computer. Several series of numbers exist in an inertial profiler. For starters, there
are the values of the transducer variables and the computed profile. Each of these
sequences is called a signal.
Signal processing is the mathematical analysis and transformation of

signals.
Signals are processed mainly for two reasons:
1. to improve the quality of a measurement by eliminating unwanted noise
from the data, and
2. to extract information of interest from the signal.
The analysis of a road profile falls into the category of signal processing. Also,
the calculation of profile from transducer signals is a form of signal processing.
What Is Sample Interval?

The true profile is continuous. It is a slice of the pavement or ground surface.
Instruments that produce continuous measures are called analog, because the
measure is analogous to the variable of interest. For example, a strip chart made with
an ink pen is an analog representation. Alternatively, a continuous variable is often
represented with a sequence of numbers. This representation is called digital.
Nearly all profiling systems in use today are digital.

Measures taken with static methods such as the Dipstick or rod and level produce
an elevation measure with each static setup. These sequences of numbers are
inherently digitalanalog versions of a rod and level or Dipstick do not exist.
Inertial profilers have computers connected to the transducers. At some interval of
time or distance, the computer samples the readings of the individual accelerometers
and height sensors. The readings are represented as numbers, and fed into the profile
calculation algorithm of the computer to obtain the elevation for the location where the
readings were sampled.
Early inertial profilers were analog. They used electronic processors and magnetic
tape to store profile as a continuously varying voltage. They have been replaced with
Page 13
computer-based versions because digital computers offer more analysis options, are
much less expensive, and require less maintenance.
Sample interval is the longitudinal distance between elevation values.

For the Dipstick, the sample interval is the distance between its two supporting
feet. For a rod and level, the interval is the distance between positions where the rod
is placed on the ground. For high-speed inertial profilers, the interval is the distance
traveled by the vehicle between the times that the computer samples digital readings
from the transducers.
Sample interval determines the number of stored elevations per

kilometer.
1000
If sample interval X has units of meters, then there are X samples per km. A
small sample interval means that more storage is needed to record a profile. It also
means that analysis of the profile will take longer, because there are more numbers to
process. From the viewpoint of efficiency, we do not want to use a sample interval
that is too small because we will have to process more numbers than we have to, and
allocate more computer storage to save them.
Sample interval limits the information contained in a profile.

After a measurement is made, all we know about the road profile are the numbers
that make up our measurement. We have no information about what the true profile is
doing between samples of the elevation. Ideally, the sample interval is small enough
to capture the profile characteristics of interest.
We will see later that many statistics used in the past for representing road
roughness have units of slope, such as meters/kilometer or inches/mile. With a
profiler, you might suppose that a good measure would be true slope. However,
there is a theoretical problem: the true slope of a real pavement is infinite! This is
because if you look closely, at the texture level, you will find places where the profile
is vertical:
dY
=
dX
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
Elevation is vertical,
therefore slope is
dy
dx
Slope = Lim dy
dx>0 dx
Page 14
Now consider how the profile is represented with a set of sampled elevations. Instead
of a continuous elevation Y as a function of distance X, we have values Yi where i is
the number of the elevation in a data set. The slope between any two points is
calculated as
dY Y i+1 Y i
dX
X
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
Y
Maximum measured
slope is limited by
the interval, X
Slope = Y / X
It turns out that the root-mean-square (RMS) value of slope increases the smaller we
make X.
If profiler users were to try to report true RMS slope as a roughness index, it
would be meaningless unless the sample interval were standardized. If one user
reports that a road has an RMS slope of 3 m/km (190 im/mi) and another reports that
a different road has an RMS slope of 4 m/km (253 in/mi), we cannot say which road
is rougher unless we at least know the sample interval. The higher reading could be
due more to the use of a short sample interval than the roughness of the true profile.
The next figure demonstrates the effect. It shows the RMS slope for a single
profile measurement made at a sample interval (X) of about 50 mm (2 in) and the
RMS slope for the same measurement at several simulated sample intervals. The
larger sample intervals were obtained by throwing out points from the original
measurement. The figure shows that over the range of typical sample intervals for
profilers, the RMS slope changes very rapidly. As expected, the RMS slope
diminishes with increasing sample interval.
Page 15
RMS Slope (m/km)

9
IRI = 2.84 m/km
8
7
6
5
4
250
500
750
1000
Sample Interval (mm)
1250
What Is Filtering?
We are all familiar with the use of a filter to clean junk out of liquids such as
water and oil. The filter on your faucet traps particles in the water, allowing the water
to pass through. In electronics, components or circuits that modify a voltage
continuously are called filters. A common application is to filter out unwanted
voltage fluctuations from a power supply, providing a clean power source.
Electronic signals are filtered to remove unwanted noise and to extract information
of interest.
The concept of an electronic filter has been extended to mathematics in general,
particularly when a series of numbers is processed by computer.
A digital filter is a calculation procedure that transforms a series of

numbers (a signal) into a new series of numbers.
In order to make practical use of a profile measurement, it is almost mandatory to
filter the sequence of numbers that makes up the profile. As a profiler user, you do
not have to understand the details of the transform, because the calculations are made
automatically by a computer. However, it is necessary to understand the significance
of filtering, and to think of filtering as a part of profile measurement and
interpretation.
For example, consider the three profile measures shown in the next figure. Details
of the profile roughness are all but invisible in the plots of the unfiltered profiles.
Page 16
Left Elevation (m)

1.5
1
Dipstick
.5
ICC Laser
0
-.5
K.J. Law
0
50
100
150
Distance (m)
Three raw profile measures
It is necessary to filter profile data to view different types of profile

features.
The next figure shows the same three profiles after they have been filtered to
remove the road grade and very long undulations.
Left Elevation (m)

0.02
0.01
0
-0.01
-0.02
50
100
150
Distance (m)
The same profiles after filtering.
Notice the bump at 80 m. It is barely visible in the first figure, because the scaling
is set to cover several feet of elevation change. When the grade and long undulations
are removed mathematically using filtering, the bump is much easier to see. With a
20-mm magnitude, this is actually a severe disturbance in the road that will get the
attention of anyone driving over it.
Page 17
Filtering is particularly important when viewing data from high-speed inertial

profilers. This is because the most visible features of the unfiltered measurementthe
underlying grade and overall curvatureare the least accurate parts of the data.
Filtering profiles is a fundamental part of the measurement process.

You should be aware that every inertial profiler has at least one filter built into it.
Filtering is used to convert the data originating from the accelerometer and the height
sensor into the same units. Additional filtering is added to prevent electronic noise
from causing a large drift in the calculated profile.
Some common analyses involve multiple filtersthe output from one filter
becomes the input to the next. Conceptually, this is just like putting several electrical
filters (circuits) together, or putting several water filters (wire meshes) on your
faucet.
There is not a single filter that is used for all profile applications.
A filter is just a name for a mathematical transform that modifies a sequence of
numbers. There is an unlimited number of filters that can be imagined and
programmed. Several standard filters exist, and some of them are routinely applied to
road profiles. They will be described in the pages that follow.
What Is a Moving Average?

A moving average is a simple filter commonly used in profile analysis,
particularly in creating graphical views of profiles. For example, the plots shown in
the previous section were processed with a moving average filter.
A moving average filter replaces each profile point with the average of
several adjacent points.
For a profile p that has been sampled at interval X, a moving average smoothing
filter is defined by the summation:
i+
p fL (i) =
1
N
B
2X
Bp( j)
j =i
2X
where pfL is the smoothed profile (also called a low-pass filtered profile, for
reasons that will be explained later), B is the base length of the moving average, and
N is the number of samples included in the summation.
The effect of a moving average filter is demonstrated in the figure below. The
effect is to smooth the profile by averaging out the point-by-point fluctuations.
Page 18
Original profile
Current position
Smoothed profile
AAA
AAA
AAA
AAA
AAA
Average height
of shaded area
B
The moving average filter.
A moving average can also be used to remove the smoothed profile.

In most cases, we are not interested in looking at a highly smoothed profile. That
just tells whether the road is going up, down, or staying level. With an inertial
profiler, the long-duration slope information is not even accurate. Instead, we are
interested in the deviations from the smoothed profile. After all, its the deviations
that degrade vehicle ride and annoy the traveling public.
A simple modification of the moving average filter is to subtract the smoothed
profile from the original:
i+
p fH (i) = p(i)
1
N
B
2X
Bp( j)
j =i
2X
In this case, the filtered profile has the subscript H for high-pass filter, for reasons
that will be explained later.
Both the smoothing (low-pass) and the opposite (high-pass, anti-smoothing)
forms of the filter are useful. Both versions can be used on the same profile, although
it only makes sense to do this if the base length B is longer for the anti-smoothing
version than the base length for the smoothing version.
There is no single best base length for profile interpretation; the best
setting depends on the use to be made of the data.
For example, the following three plots show the profile of a faulted PCC
pavement section filtered three different ways, each showing a different kind of
information.
Page 19
Left Elevation (mm)

5
Anti-smoothed, base length of 1 m

-5
100
110
120
130
140
150
120
130
Distance (m)
140
150
Left Elevation (mm)

5
0
Smoothed, base length of 1 m
-5
100
110
Left Elevation (mm)

5
Smoothed, base length of 5 m
-5
100
110
120
130
Distance (m)
140
150
The first plot was filtered with the anti-smoothing version of a 1-m moving
average. (The smoothed profile is subtracted from the original.) This plot shows only
the very short-duration bumps in the profile. The faults, spaced about 4.5 meters
apart, are very obvious.
The second plot shows the profile after processing with a 1-m smoothing filter
and 5-m anti-smoothing filter. All of the deviations shown in the first plot are
Page 20
completely eliminated in the second. Although the abruptness of the faults and the
surface harshness have been eliminated, the tilt of the slabs is clearly visible.
The third plot shows the profile after processing with a 5-m smoothing filter and
25-m anti-smoothing filter. In this case, all of the deviations shown in the first two
plots are eliminated through the 5-m smoothing. The slope and very long undulations
are removed with the 25-m anti-smoothing filter. This remaining deviations illustrate
longer-duration trends in the road, without the faulting or slab shapes.
A moving average filter is computationally efficient.

The moving average filter is an intuitive way to smooth a profile that is easy to
understand and program. It is also efficient computationally, because after the first
average point is calculated, subsequent values can be obtained with the relation:
p fL (i) = p fL (i 1) +
1
B
B
p(i +
) p(i
1)
2X
2X
N
Even if the average covers hundreds of points, it is only necessary to account for the
effect of two profile values: one entering the averaging interval, and one leaving the
interval.
Free computer software is available for making profile plots with a

moving average.
The smoothing and anti-smoothing versions of the moving average are integrated
into a free Windows package called RoadRuf that is available from the Internet. The
RoadRuf software can be found at:
http://www.umtri.umich.edu/erd/roughness/rr.html
What Are Sinusoids?

Sine and cosine waves are both called sinusoids.
In order to understand profile analyses, it is essential to be familiar with
sinusoids.
Throughout the rest of this book, we will be considering wavelengths and
frequencies when we looking at topics such as how filters work, how vehicle ride is
related to roughness, how various roughness measures are defined, and how
measurement errors are caused.
A sinusoid is defined by a wavelength, amplitude, and phase.

The equation of the sinusoid (Y) as a function of X is:
2
Y = A sin( (X Xo) )
Page 21
Wavelength =
Y
Phase = Xo
Amplitude
=A
X
Wave number is the number of cycles per unit length.

An alternative to defining the length of a cycle is to define how many cycles occur
in a unit of length. In many signal processing applications, sinusoids are defined as
functions of time, rather than distance, and the convention is to define the sinusoid
with the frequency of cycles per second, called Hertz (Hz). When sinusoids are
defined as functions of length, the frequency of cycles per length is called wave
number, and is written as ( = 1/). Wave number usually has units of cycle/m or
cycle/ft.
It takes at least two samples per cycle to see a sinusoid.

In order to see a sinusoid in a digital signal (e.g., a sampled road profile), it is
necessary to set the sample interval to be no larger than 1/2 the wavelength of the
sinusoid, as shown below. This is called the Nyquist sampling theorem. For
example, if we think information in the true profile is of interest for wavelengths of
two feet and longer, then the sample interval must be one foot or shorter.
Page 22
What Is Frequency Response?

It is almost essential for profiler users to be familiar with the concept of a
frequency response, because profile analyses are nearly always described with a
frequency response plot.
Filters, instruments, vehicles, and other systems can be thought of as conceptual
black boxes with an input and an output. Frequency response is a highly useful
way to describe the input/output behavior of any of these systems.
A linear system is one in which the output is proportional to the input.

If you have the response of a linear device to a bump in the road, then if the bump
is scaled up by some factor, the output of the device has exactly the same form, but it
is also scaled up by the same amount. For a profile analysis, the test is applied to sets
of numbers that are inputs and outputs of the analysis. If the input numbers are
changed by a scale factor, the output numbers are changed by the same scale factor if
the analysis is linear.
All of the filters described in this little book are linear. (Some of the methods used
to accumulate the outputs after they are filtered involve nonlinear mathematical
functions such as squaring or taking absolute values. However, the filtering process,
which is done first, is linear.)
A sinusoidal input to a linear system causes a sinusoidal output with

the same wavelength.
In general, the amplitude and phase are different for the input and output.
However, the wavelength is the same for a linear system. For example, consider the
moving-average filter. The next figure shows a sinusoid with a 6-m/cycle wavelength
as affected by a three moving-average smoothing filters with several base lengths.
Elevation (cm)
1.5 Original (unfiltered)
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
A
AA
AA 3-mAAsmoothing AA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
1 A
A
A
A
A
A
A
AA
A
A
A
A
A
A
.5
A
A
A
A
A 5-m smoothing
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
AA
0 A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
AA
AA
AA
AA
-.5 A
A
A
7.5-m
smoothing
A
A
A
A
A
AA
AA
A
A
A
A
A
-1
A
A
A
AA
AA
AA
AA
A
A
A
-1.5 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A5
A10
A15
A
A
A
0A
20
25
30
Distance (m)
Notice that the three filtered outputs are also sinusoidal.

Page 23
A frequency response plot shows the ratio of output to input for a

sinusoid.
Knowing that the output of a linear system is a sinusoid with the same
wavelength, the output can be completely defined by the amplitude and phase. An
amplitude frequency response plot shows the ratio of the output amplitude to the input
amplitude. The amplitude ratio is called the gain. A phase frequency response plot
shows the phase of the output sinusoid relative to the input. However, in this book,
we will limit our attention to plots of gain.
The next figure shows a plot of the gain of a moving average filter as a function
of wave number. Compare the results for the previous figure with the gains shown in
the figure below (see the line labeled Low Pass). For the 3-m base length, the ratio
of base length/wavelength is 0.5. The frequency response plot shows a gain of 0.64,
which matches the amplitude shown earlier. For the 7.5-m base length, the ratio is
1.25 and the gain is 0.18, which also matches.
Gain of Moving Average Filter (-)

1.5
A
A
A
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
A
A
A
A
High Pass (Anti-Smoothing)
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
1
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
.5
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
0AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
Low Pass (Smoothing)
A
A
A
A
A
-.5AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
A
A
A
A
0
.5
1
1.5
Normalized Wave Number: Base Length/Wavelength
A moving-average smoothing filter is called a low-pass filter.

Like any other filter, some things pass through unchanged, some things are
reduced, and some might be removed completely. We saw before that the amplitude
of the 6-m sinusoid is reduced slightly by a 3-m moving average. For a 5-m moving
average, it is reduced substantially. For a 6-m moving average, it would be removed
completely. For a 7.5-m moving average, the sinusoid is not removed. The amplitude
is reduced in magnitude, and has an opposite sign. (It is sometimes said to be out of
phase.)
Page 24
Overall, the filter attenuates sinusoids with wavelengths approaching the base
length, and leaves sinusoids with longer wavelengths nearly intact. In terms of wave
numbers, it attenuates high wave numbers and passes low wave numbers. For this
reason, it is called a low-pass filter.
The anti-smoothing version of the moving average is a high-pass

filter.
Recall that the anti-smoothing version of a moving average involves subtracting a
smoothed profile from the original. That means the frequency response gain for the
anti-smoothing version can be derived by taking one (1.0) minus the gain of the
smoothing version. The previous figure shows both response functions. At any given
wave number ratio, the two gains sum to unity.
Filters can also amplify signals. Note that the high-pass (anti-smoothing) version
of the moving average amplifies sinusoids when the ratio of base length/wavelength
is between 1 and 2. The next figure shows how the high-pass version of the moving
average affects a 6-m sinusoid. If you read off the amplitudes from the three filtered
plots, you should find that they match the gains shown in the previous plot of
frequency response.
A
A
A
AA
AA 5-m anti-smoothing
AA
AA
7.5-m anti-smoothing
A
A
A
A
A
AA
AA
AA
AA
1 A
A
A
A
A
A
A
AA
AA
AA
AA
.5 A
A
A
A
A
A
AA
AA
AA
AA
A
A
0 A
A
A
A
AA
AA
AA
AA
A
A
A
-.5
A
A
A
AA
AA anti-smoothing
AA
AA
3-m
A
A
A
-1 A
A
A
AA
AA
AA
AA
A
A
A
A
A5
A10
A15
A
A
A
-1.5 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
0
20
25
30
Elevation (cm)
1.5 Original (unfiltered)
Distance (m)
High-pass and low-pass frequency response plots are easily re-scaled.

Suppose you want to see the effect of a 30-m moving average high-pass filter.
The previous plot shows the effect of a 3-m base length on a 6-m sinusoid. If the X
axis were re-scaled by a factor of 10, to go from 0 to 300 m, then the base length
would be 30 m and the response shown would be correct for a 60-m sinusoid.
Gains of filters often depend on the ratio between wavelength and a filter
parameter. Therefore, they are often plotted using normalized frequency or wave
number, as was done in the moving average frequency response plot.
Page 25
A Bode plot is a frequency response plot made on log-log axes.

If the log of the filter gain is plotted against the log of wave number or frequency,
the graph is called a Bode plot. Electrical engineers use Bode plots to characterize
systems as an aid for designing control systems
What Is a Power Spectral Density?

A typical road profile has no direct resemblance to a pure sinusoid. As we will see
shortly, a typical road profile encompasses a spectrum of sinusoidal wavelengths.
The power spectral density (PSD) function is a statistical representation of the
importance of various wave numbers.
Profiles can be decomposed into a series of sinusoids.

An arbitrary shaped wiggly line can be constructed mathematically from a series
of sinusoids with different wavelengths, amplitudes, and phases. For example,
consider a step change. The next figure shows how several sets of sinusoids are
added together to approximate the step.
If a single sinusoid is used, whose wavelength is the same as the distance covered
in the plot, the amplitude and phase are set to provide only the crude approximation
indicated for N=1. It turns out that for the step change shown, the amplitudes for all
sinusoids whose wavelengths are an even divisor of the length (1/2, 1/4, 1/6, etc.),
the amplitude should be zeroadding a sinusoid does not cause the approximation to
match the step any better. However, for wavelengths that are odd divisors (1, 1/3,
1/5, etc.), each additional sinusoid improves the approximation. The plot shows that
a close approximation is obtained for a large number of sinusoids (e.g., N=99).
The general method of building a step change with sinusoids works also for an
arbitrary profile. If a profile is defined with 2N equally spaced elevation points, then
it can be duplicated mathematically with N sinusoids. Because there are so many
sinusoids being added, their individual amplitudes are not large. A mathematical
transform exists which computes the amplitudes of the sinusoids that could be added
together to construct the profile. It is called a Fourier transform. The Fourier
transform can be scaled such that it shows how the variance of the profile is spread
out over a set of sinusoids. When scaled in this manner, the transform is called a
power spectral density (PSD) function.
A PSD function shows how variance is distributed over wave number.

The PSD function was originally developed for characterizing voltages. The same
mathematical calculations can be applied to road profiles. Two differences between a
road profile PSD and one measured for a voltage are (1) the variance has units of
elevation squared, rather than volts squared, and (2) the distribution is over wave
number (cycle/meter or cycle/ft) rather than frequency (cycle/sec).
Page 26
2
1st Term
0
-2
3rd Term
0
-1
1
5th Term
0
-1
Sum of n Terms
2
n=1
...
=
n=3
n = 19
n = 99
-2
Power spectral density has nothing to do with power!

The power in the name comes from its early application in electronics, where it
was applied to voltages. The variance of a voltage is proportional to power in a
resister, so the PSD illustrated the distribution of electrical power over frequency. A
road PSD has absolutely no relation to power.
Consider two road profiles with similar summary roughness properties, but
obviously different profile shapes. (The IRI statistic used to define overall roughness
levels will be described later.) The profiles are shown in the next figure. Site 4 has
large, long undulations typical of bituminous roads. In contrast, Site 7 show less
overall variation, but more harsh variation, as is typical in PCC roads.
Page 27
Left Elevation (mm)

30
Site 4
IRI = 2.46 m/km
20
Site 7
IRI = 2.18 m/km
10
0
-10
-20
-30
50
100
150
Distance (m)
The PSD functions for the two profiles are shown next. At first glance, the two
PSD functions have more in common than not. The PSD amplitudes cover many
orders of magnitude. For low wave numbers, the amplitudes are much higher than
for high wave numbers. Even with this commonality, however, the two PSD plots
reveal the characteristic differences in the profiles. The PSD for Site 4 has relatively
higher amplitudes for low wave numbers in the vicinity of 0.03 cycle/ft (33-m
cycles), corresponding to the undulations visible in the preceding plot. On the other
hand, Site 4 has lower amplitudes at higher wave numbers near 0.3 (3.3-m cycles).
PSD of Left Elevation (m2m/cycle)

-1
0.1x10
0.1x10
0.1x10
0.1x10
0.1x10
0.1x10
0.1x10
0.1x10
0.1x10
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
-8
-9
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
AAAA
AA AA AA AAAAAAAAAAAA
AA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A A AAAAAASite
A =4 2.46 m/km
A A A AAAAAA
A
IRI
A A AAAAAAA
A A A AAAAAA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
AA
SiteA
7 AAAAAA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
AAAA
AA AAIRIAA= 2.18AAAAm/km
AAAAAAAA
AA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A A AAAAAAA
A A A AAAAAA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
AA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
AAAA
AA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
AAAA
AA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
AA
A A
A A
AA
AA
AA
AA
AAAAA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
AAAA
AA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A A AAAAAAA
A A A AAAAAA
A
2
.1
Wave Number (cycle/m)
Page 28
Amplitude in profile elevation grows with wavelengths.

The preceding plot supports what we have already seen from profile plots. We
have seen that when profiles are filtered using software to attenuate long
wavelengths, the resulting profiles show very small variations. An unfiltered profile
might show variations of several meters. When filtered to remove grade and long
undulations, the range of variations might cover only a few centimeters. Thus, we
have seen that long wavelengths are associated with high amplitudes of elevation
variation.
The exact relationship between amplitude and wave number (or its inverse,
wavelength), varies between different profiles. However, all roads show a similar
basic trend. On average the amplitude diminishes rapidly with wave number.
Amplitude in profile slope is more uniform than in elevation.

PSD functions can be computed for derivatives of profile elevation, such as slope
and curvature (spatial acceleration). PSD functions of profile slope best show
differences in roughness properties, because the basic spectrum of roughness over
wave number is more uniform. The next figure shows the slope PSD functions for
the same two examples.
PSD of Left Slope (m/cycle)

-2
0.1x10
0.1x10
0.1x10
0.1x10
0.1x10
0.1x10
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
AAAA4 AA AA AA AAAAAAAAAA
AA
Site
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
IRI = 2.46 m/km
A
AA AA AA AAAAAAAAAA
AA
A A
AA
A A
AA
AA
AA
AAAAA
Site A
7 AAAAA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
AA
IRI
=
A AA AAAAAA
A A A2.18Am/km
AAAA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
AAAA
AA AA AA AAAAAAAAAA
AA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
AA AA AA AAAAAAAAAA
AA
A A
AA
A A
AA
AA
AA
AAAAA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
AAAA
AA AA AA AAAAAAAAAA
AA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
AAAA
AA AA AA AAAAAAAAAA
AA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
AAAA
AA AA AA AAAAAAAAAA
AA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A AA AAAAAA
A A A AAAAA
A
A AA AAAAAA
A A A AAAAA
A
2
.1
Wave Number (cycle/m)
Notice that with this type of plot, the differences between the two roads stand out
clearly: Site 4 is rougher for wave numbers less than 0.1 (10-m cycles), and
smoother for wavelengths between 0.2 (5-m cycles) and 1 (1-m cycles).
Page 29
What is Vehicle Ride?

The purpose of a road is to provide a surface for vehicles to run over at high
speeds. A primary objective for profilers is to try to gather information about the road
that is sufficient to estimate the satisfaction of the motoring public. The judgment of
the public depends in a large part on the ride experienced in their automobiles when
using the road.
Ride is measured as accelerations in the vehicle body.

Automotive ride engineers measure accelerations on the seat to evaluate the
suspension performance and the match between front and rear suspension stiffness
and damping.
Seat vibrations are used to evaluate suspension tuning.

Sensitivity to vibration of the human body in a sitting position has been quantified
by numerous studies. The figures below show sensitivity to vertical acceleration and
horizontal (longitudinal or lateral) obtained from a sampling of research.
10
SAE J6A - Recommended Limits

Parsons
ISO - 1 Hour
Fothergill
ISO - 1 Minute
Lee
RMS Horizontal Acceleration (g)
RMS Vertical Acceleration (g)
10
0.1
0.01
10
Frequency (Hz)
100
ISO - 1 Minute
Lee
Parsons
ISO - 1 Hour
0.1
0.01
1
10
100
Frequency (Hz)
It is generally recognized that the human body has minimum tolerance to vertical
vibration at about 5 Hz due to resonance of the abdominal cavity. Thus cars are
designed to minimize transmission of road inputs at this frequency by placing the
body bounce and pitch frequencies at 1-2 Hz and the wheel hop resonance at 10-15
Hz. (The different levels of tolerance found in the different studies reflects variations
in the experimental methods used.)
Page 30
Minimum tolerance for horizontal acceleration occurs at 1 Hz. Horizontal (lateral)

acceleration may be caused by vehicle roll. Most primary roads do not produce much
roll excitation, although it can be significant on some deteriorated secondary roads.
The effects on the rider are more pronounced on high vehicles such as vans, utility
vehicles and trucks.
Horizontal (longitudinal) acceleration can result from pitch on vehicles that place
the rider high above the ground (vans, utility vehicles and trucks). Ride engineers
normally tune the front and rear suspensions to minimize pitch, however, it is not
always possible on trucks. Hence, truck drivers experience more pitch induced
longitudinal vibrations from road roughness than occupants of passenger cars.
Under conditions with lower vertical vibration (e.g., luxury cars, smooth roads)
the 5 Hz sensitivity is less pronounced. At low levels of acceleration the human
sensitivity becomes more broad in frequency as shown in the figure below.
Discomfort Level
Peak Vertical Floor Acceleration (g)
0.5
0.4
12
11
10
9
0.3
8
7
6
5
4
0.2
3
2
0.1
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
Vertical Frequency (Hz)
There are important vibrations other than at the seat.

Vehicle ride is not judged only by seat vibrations. Automotive engineers
recognize that vibrations felt by the hands and feet also influence ride perception.
They expend considerable engineering effort trying to isolate the steering wheel from
vibrations excited by the road or from shake of the vehicle body. They also work
hard to keep road excitation from vibrating the floor.
Page 31
How Is Vertical Acceleration

Related to Profile?
Given that vertical acceleration is of great interest for summarizing vehicle ride, it
is important to understand the relationship between profile elevation and acceleration.
Consider three sinusoids shown below. (The IRI and RN statistics provided in the
figure will be defined later.)
Page 32
The derivative of a sinusoid is a sinusoid with the same wavelength.

The amplitude of the derivative of a sinusoid is
Slope amplitude =
2A
Amplitude A and wavelength should have the same units (e.g., ft, m). Multiply
m/m by 1000 to get m/km, or multiply by 125280 to get in/mi.
Thus, the derivatives of the three example sinusoids are also sinusoids with the
same wavelengths (60, 15, and 3 m). The formula above gives identical derivative
amplitudes for the three sinusoids, as shown in the next figure. (The amplitude in
dimensionless slope is 0.002094, which is the same as 2.094 m/km and 132.7
in/mi.)
Page 33
The process of taking a derivative can be repeated a second time to get a spatial
acceleration sinusoid.
Travel speed affects how vehicles see sinusoids in the road.

A vehicle moving over the road sees a sinusoid at a frequency
=
V
=V
where frequency f has units of cycle/sec, speed V has units of distance/time (e.g.,
m/sec), wavelength has units of length (e.g., m/cycle), and wave number has
units of 1/length (e.g., cycle/m).
The table below summarizes some characteristics of the three example sinusoids
for a speed of 108 km/hr (67 mi/hr). Although the first has the largest elevation
amplitude, the third produces the largest vertical acceleration.
Wavelength
Amplitude
60 m
15 m
3m
20 mm
5 mm
1 mm
Slope
Amplitude
2.09 m/km
2.09 m/km
2.09 m/km
Frequency
(108 km/hr)
0.5 Hz
2.0 Hz
10.0 Hz
Acceleration
(108 km/hr)
0.02 g
0.08 g
0.40 g
Road PSD functions can be shown as accelerations.

The insight obtained by looking at the three example sinusoids can be extended to
the broad spectrum of frequencies (wave numbers) in typical roads. The figure below
shows the road as an elevation PSD input (see the plot on the left) when the travel
speed is 80 km/hr (50 mi/hr). Differentiating once produces the spectrum of velocity
excitation, and differentiating again yields the acceleration PSD. Note that acceleration
input is greatest at high frequencies, corresponding to short wavelengths in the road.
Elevation PSD (m 2/Hz)

10
-3
Velocity PSD ((m/s) 2/Hz)

10
-2
Acceleration PSD (g 2/Hz)

.1
10 -4
10 -5
10 -2
10 -3
10 -6
10 -3
10 -7
10
10 -4
10 -4
-8
10 -9
.2
1
10 50
Frequency (Hz)
10 -5
.2
1
10 50
Frequency (Hz)
10 -5
.2
1
10 50
Frequency (Hz)
Page 34
The assumed travel speed acts to scale the PSD functions. However, the basic
shape of the road PSD function is the same as when calculated as a function of wave
number. The elevation PSD with units of length2/Hz has the same basic shape as the
elevation PSDs shown earlier as functions of wave number. Only the units are
changed, to involve time rather than distance. The velocity PSD has the same shape
as the slope PSD. Although it has not been shown, the acceleration PSD corresponds
to a spatial acceleration PSD.
How Does Ride Relate to the Road?

Although road roughness is a dominant source of vibration on a motor vehicle,
the public is able to separate the role of the car from that of the road. A Michigan DOT
experiment some years ago showed that when people are asked to rate the ride of a
vehicle on the road, they are influenced by the type of car (luxury or compact) that
they are riding in. However, if asked to rate the road they tend to look beyond the
vehicle and rate the roughness of the road comparably regardless of the type of
vehicle they are riding in.
Car suspensions isolate the rider from the severe acceleration inputs of
the road.
At the most basic level, motor vehicles are dynamically similar to the quarter-car
model. The suspension supporting the body (sprung mass) and the compliance in the
tire help to isolate the body from high frequency road excitation. The figure below
shows the dynamic characteristics
2.0
Road-to-Body Transmissibility
M
1.5
KS
m
CS
Kt
1.0
..
.Z.
ZR
Body
(sprung mass)
Suspension
Axle
(unsprung mass)
Tire
Road
ZR
0.5
0.0
0
10
15
Frequency (Hz)
20
25
Page 35
At very low frequency the body moves up and down exactly as does the ground.
At about 1 Hz the body resonates on the suspension, amplifying the input from the
road by a factor of 1.5-3.0 for typical cars. At higher frequencies the suspension
absorbs the road inputs, isolating the body from the road. At about 10-15 Hz the
wheel resonates, bouncing up and down with motions larger than provided by the
road. This diminishes the isolation somewhat in this frequency range, but is an
unavoidable phenomenon.
A vehicle is a mechanical filter, with a frequency response function.

The isolation performance of a suspension is shown in the next figure. The
road roughness acceleration spectrum on the left goes through the filter of the cars
suspension system to produce an acceleration spectrum on the car body as shown at
the right. The plot in the middle is the frequency response of the vehicle, with the
gain represented in units appropriate for PSDs.
Road Acceleration Spectral
Density (g2 /Hz)
.1
Vehicle Acceleration
Spectral Density (g2 /Hz)
Vehicle Response Gain
10 -3
10
10 -2
10 -4
1
10 -3
10 -5
.1
10 -4
10 -6
10 -5
.2
1
10
Frequency (Hz)
50
.01
.2
1
10
Frequency (Hz)
50
10 -7
.2
1
10
Frequency (Hz)
50
Although the acceleration input at about 1 Hz is amplified in the process, those

above this frequency are strongly attenuated. The second acceleration peak around 10
Hz is due to wheel-hop resonance. Notice, however, how the isolation of the
suspension reduces vibrations near 5 Hzthe frequency at which the human body is
most sensitive to vertical acceleration.
Are the dynamics of vehicle ride this simple?

Not quite. The quarter-car dynamics described above are basic to all vehicles and
account for about 75% of the vibrations present on the vehicle. Four-wheel vehicle
models that can pitch and roll add a little more to the picture, but generally cars can be
tuned to keep these types of vibrations far less significant.
More important are the fore-aft inputs through the wheels and structural modes of
the body that contribute to ride vibrations throughout the body of the car. These
Page 36
contribute to the perceived ride quality of the vehicle, but are very specific to each
model.
What Is Road Roughness?

By far, the main application for road profilers is to quantify road roughness.
There is not a single, standard definition of road roughness.

Here is the American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM) definition (E867):
The deviations of a pavement surface from a true planar surface with
characteristic dimensions that affect vehicle dynamics, ride quality, dynamic
loads, and drainage, for example, longitudinal profile, transverse profile,
and cross slope.
This covers the factors that contribute to road roughness. However, it does not
provide a quantitative definition or standard scale for roughness. It is also very broad,
including qualities such as drainage and ride quality that are generally unrelated to
each other.
Smoothness is a lack of roughness.

Some engineers prefer to consider smoothness as a more optimistic view of the
road condition. Because smoothness is a lack of roughness, you would have to first
determine roughness and then transform the number. In America, the convention is to
deal with roughness rather than smoothness.
For the traveling public, the concept of roughness is simple:
I know it when I feel it.
Some engineers think of roughness as the output of a specific device.

Roughness has been of interest as long as there have been public roads. Old
methods for measuring roughness are often thought of as standards by their users.
Some of the instruments used in the past are described in the next section.
Unfortunately, unless a roughness measure is based on profile, it cannot be
reproduced. (Most of the devices considered as historical standards have either
been discarded or lie rusting and abandoned in back lots.)
Roughness involves variation in surface elevation that induces

vibrations in traversing vehicles.
There are many kinds of vibration, ranging from sickening heaves due to long
wavelengths, to the rapid teeth-jarring impacts and irritating noises cause by short
wavelengths. Any road feature that causes an unwanted vehicle acceleration will be
called roughness by persons concerned with that form of response.
Roughness is defined over an interval of profile.
Page 37
It is meaningless to talk about the roughness of a point. Instead, one must

consider roughness as summary of deviations that occur over an interval between two
points.
There are many types of roughness.

Road users can identify different types of roughness, such as the various forms
of unwanted vehicle vibration. It is reasonable to compute more than one roughness
index from a profile, if the different indices provide independent information about
the state of the road. Not all types of roughness are unique. Many of the roughness
indices that have been calculated from profiles are so strongly correlated that one is
statistically sufficient. It is of dubious utility to compute two indices that tell
essentially the same thing.
Different types
wavelengths.
of
roughness
are
associated
with
different
For example, vehicle manufacturers are concerned with different aspects of ride,
ranging from the heaving motions that mainly involve suspension movement, to
audible noise involving acoustics of the body. These are caused by widely different
wavelength ranges. (The vehicle body motions are due to wavelengths on the order of
15 meters, whereas the noise involves wavelengths shorter than 1 meter.)
Roughness analyses can be compared on the basis of how they process a
sinusoid. Most of the analyses filter out very long wavelengths and very short
wavelengths.
Roughness is not as easily identified as a single dimensional property.

Length, weight, and other measures involve static physical properties of objects.
Roughness involves at least two dimensions in a complex way: it involves variation
of a profile height along its length. You cannot even speak of the roughness of a
single profile pointit must be taken over some length.
Roughness is analogous to a sound level for noise. Although air pressure is a
static property, noise level involves changes in air pressure over time. Measurement
of noise has been standardized to the extent that we can buy inexpensive sound
meters that combine the measurement of air pressure over time with a mathematical
analysis (implemented electronically) to process the variations and produce a single
output level. There are several standard analysis methods to choose from, that are
selectable by a switch on the sound meter. The standards allow people who care
about sound to communicate using measures with confidence that they will have the
same meaning.
Maybe in a few years road roughness will be as standard as sound level.
Page 38
What Are Response-Type Systems?

Although this book is about profilers, we must recognize that other types of
systems have historically been used to define road roughness. Many engineers today
have an intuitive concept of roughness that is based on the behavior of older systems.
As early as the 1920s, highway engineers installed devices in cars to record
suspension stroke as a measure of roughness. These were called road meters and had
several generic names, including: response-type road roughness measuring systems
(RTRRMS), response-type systems, and road meter systems. In these systems, the
vehicle is a passenger car, a van, a light truck, or a special trailer. A road meter is a
transducer that accumulates suspension motions. Some of the popular brands were
the Mays Ride Meter, the PCA meter, the Cox meter, and various home-made
models.
Nearly all of the road meter designs follow the concept of the Bureau of Public
Roads (BPR) Roughometer, and accumulate deflections of the vehicle suspension as
it travels down the road. The BPR Roughometer is a single-wheel trailer with a oneway clutch mechanism that accumulates the suspension stroke in one direction. (The
total stroke is twice that value.)
Integrator
Dampers
Hitch
Spring
Cable
Wheel
The BPR Roughometer.

Road meters are more commonly used in ordinary passenger cars, as shown in
the next figure. The roughness measure that is obtained is inches of accumulated
suspension stroke, normalized by the distance traveled. The measure is usually
reported with engineering units such as in/mi or m/km, although sometimes arbitrary
units are used based on the instrumentation hardware, e.g., counts/mi. Although
not obvious, this measure of vehicle response is very similar in its frequency content
to the accelerations on the vehicle body, so it is highly correlated to ride vibration.
Page 39
Transducer
Meter
Axle
housing
A car with a Mays meter.
Measures from response-type systems are subject to each and every

variable that influences vehicle response characteristics.
Even when the vehicle is standardized, differences remain between vehicles that
you might think are identical. To further compound the problem, the response
properties of the vehicles change with time. The fact that the response-type system
depends on the dynamics of the host vehicle has two unwanted effects:
1. Roughness measuring methods have not been stable with time. Measures
made today with road meters cannot be compared with confidence to those
made several years ago.
2. Roughness measurements have not been transportable. Road meter
measures made by one system are seldom reproducible by another.
These problems exist in part because the road meters are typically inventions
devised to be inexpensive, rugged, and easy to use. A rigorous understanding of how
they function together with a vehicle did not exist until 1980, when the variables were
studied in a research project funded by the National Cooperative Highway Research
Program (NCHRP).
NCHRP Report 228 describes how response-type systems work.

A second source of difficulty involving response-type systems has been the lack
of a standard roughness scale. With a standard roughness scale, some of the
problems inherent in a response-type system can be overcome by calibration. The
lack of a standard measure was at first not seen as a serious problem by many of the
users of roughness instruments. Roughness data for a city, county, or State could
have arbitrary units, so long as the data base was internally consistent. However,
even the repeatability of the instruments was a problem.
The in/mi measures from response-type systems are useful.

Although there are problems involving reproducibility and portability of data
taken with response-type systems, one reason that they have been so popular for the
past 50 years is that they work. The measures they produce have been viewed by
engineers as matching their experience for determining pavement quality in a
meaningful way. If they could be made to give results that were reproducible between
Page 40
vehicles and over time, it is possible that there would not be as much interest in
profiling methods today.
What Are the Frequency Responses

of Roughness Measuring Devices?
The early roughness devices act as linear mechanical filters. Given a sinusoid as
an input, they produce a sinusoid with the same wave number, which is then
processed by the on-board instrumentation to produce a summary index.
Roughness measuring systems are band-pass or high-pass filters.

We have already seen by example that an unfiltered profile is dominated by the
slope of the road and long-wavelength undulations. Nearly all road roughness
devices have functioned as mechanical filters, to remove the long wavelengths and
focus on wavelengths that affect vehicle ride.
Low-speed rolling devices filter the profile through their geometry.

Just as the wave numbers were normalized by the moving average base length,
some of the plots that follow have wave number normalized by a characteristic
dimension of the device.
The profilograph is a physical system that is actually close in concept to a highpass moving average. The average is established by the many wheels, and deviations
are measured relative to that average.
Gain
2.0
Profilograph
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
Wave number x Base length (Cycles/base length)
Page 41
Gain
2.0
Sliding Straightedge
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
Gain
2.0
Rolling Straightedge
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
Response-type systems filter the profile through vehicle dynamics.

As shown earlier, automobiles and other vehicle designed for the highway use
suspensions and pneumatic tires to isolate the drivers and cargo from the highamplitude accelerations associated with the road surface. The dynamics of the vehicle
filter the input, amplifying the response at some frequencies, and attenuating it at
others.
It turns out that the frequency response for the road meter input (velocity between
the axle and body of the vehicle) is qualitatively very similar to that of the vertical
acceleration of the body. Both the passenger acceleration and the road meter motion
are affected in roughly equal parts by the body resonance (1 to 2 Hz) and the axle
resonance (roughly 10-15 Hz), with some isolation near 5 Hz and for frequencies
above 15 Hz.
Page 42
Suspension Response
Z Zs
KS
CS
m
Zt
Kt
0
0
10
Frequency
20
Sprung Mass
Suspension
Unsprung Mass
Tire
Road
ZR
Unlike the low-speed devices, the filtering associated with a moving vehicle does
not depend on geometry. Instead, it depends on time-based dynamics. The frequency
response of a car is approximately independent of speed, when the frequency is
defined in units of cycle/sec. However, if treated as a function of spatial frequency
(wave number), then the response depends on speed, due to the relationship that
f=V=
where f is frequency in cycle/sec, V is speed in ft/sec, is wave number in cycle/ft,

and is wavelength in ft/cycle.
What Is a Profile Index?

A profile measurement is a series of numbers representing elevation relative to
some reference. There are thousands of numbers per mile of measured profile. There
may be one, two, or more slices of the road profiled as you drive the profiler. In
just a short time, you can literally accumulate millions of numbers. How can those
millions of numbers be reduced to provide information you can use?
A profile index is a summary number calculated from the many

numbers that make up a profile.
Details of the calculation determine the significance and meaning of the index. The
number might be related to the motion of a mathematical vehicle model, a summary of
Page 43
grinding requirements, some index used in the past, or to an abstract concept of

roughness. Or, it might not be linked to anything at all.
The calculated index is only valid if the profile data is valid.

If the profiler is not functioning correctly, or is not suited for the index of interest,
it is not possible to get the same numerical value that would be obtained from the true
profile. Not every profiler is capable of measuring every possible roughness index.
The accuracy of a calculated index is ultimately limited by errors in the measured
profile.
There is a true value for any given index.

The true value of an index is the value that would be obtained by applying the
calculation method to the true profile.
A profile index is portable and reproducible.

If an index can be calculated from the true profile, then the property it represents
can be measured by any valid profiler. Thus, a profile-based index is portableit can
be measured by different types of profiler instruments, so long as they are valid for
that index.
Some profile analyses are not as portable as others. For example, if an analysis
requires a specific sample interval, a profiler is valid for its calculation only if the
sample interval matches.
A profile index is stable with time.

Because the concept of a true profile has the same meaning from year to year, it
follows that a mathematical transform of the true profile is also stable with time.
All roughness indices in use are calculated with a basic 4-step method.
The mathematical transforms used to compute almost any profile roughness index
can be organized into four steps. Details of the calculations done in each step define
the index. The steps are a follows.
1. How many profiles are needed to capture the surface conditions of interest?
Most indices are calculated from a single profile. If your profiler measures
the profile of the left and right-hand wheel tracks in a lane, then you can get
separate roughness indices for each. However, some indices require two
profiles.
2. How is the profile filtered?
All profile-based roughness indices that are now in use involve at least one
filter, to filter out wavelengths that are not of interest. Some analyses
involve several filters applied in sequence.
3. How is a filtered profile accumulated (and reduced)?
Page 44
The sequence of transformed numbers must be reduced to a single index.

This is commonly done by accumulating the absolute values of the
numbers, or accumulating the squared values. The result is a single
cumulative number.
4. How is the summary number scaled?
The final step is to convert the accumulated number to an appropriate scale.
This nearly always involves dividing by the number of profile points or the
length of the profile, to normalize the roughness by the length covered. For
example, many historical roughness indices have had units of inches/mile.
A scale factor may be used to obtain standard units. A transformation
equation may be used to convert from a profile-based scale to an arbitrary
scale.
Many roughness indices can be calculated from a single profile.

An advantage of using profilers to determine roughness, besides the portability, is
flexibility. You can obtain several statistics from the same profile. Each statistic can
potentially describe a different characteristic of the profile.
What Is the IRI?

Almost every automated road profiling system includes software to calculate a
statistic called the International Roughness Index (IRI). Through the Road Profiler
User Group (RPUG) and the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Highway
Performance Monitoring System (HPMS), profiler users have shared experiences
measuring IRI. IRI measures from different States are largely compatible. Even IRI
measures from different countries can be compared directly.
Background
The IRI is a continuation of the in/mi roughness statistic in use since

the automobile was developed.
Although the in/mi measure from response-type systems has been popular since
the 1940s, it was not possible to obtain the same values from different vehicles, or
even from the same vehicle over time. A number of States requested research, and in
the late 1970s the systems were studied under the National Cooperative Highway
Research Program (NCHRP). The results were reported in NCHRP Report 228.
Most of the research underlying the IRI is in NCHRP Report 228.

In order to calibrate the response-type systems, an ideal system was defined for
the computer. Mathematical models of the vehicle and road meter were developed and
tested, and shown to provide the same type of in/mi index as mathematical function
of the longitudinal profile.
Page 45
Measured
Profile
Body Mass
IRI
Suspension Spring
and Damper
Axle Mass
Tire Spring
Computer Algorithm
Because response-type road roughness measuring systems were common, the
profile index was tailored to correlate well with the output of these systems. The filter
is based on a mathematical model called a quarter-car. The quarter-car filter calculates
the suspension deflection of a simulated mechanical system with a response similar to
a passenger car. The simulated suspension motion is accumulated and divided by the
distance traveled to give an index with units of slope (m/km, in/mi, etc.). The form of
data reduction emulates a perfect road meter.
The NCHRP research led to specific set of parameters for a quarter-car
computerized response system, called The Golden Car. The name was intended to
convey that this computer representation was a calibration reference, such as a
1.0000-m gold bar kept in a vault and brought out once in a while to calibrate other
length measures.
The IRI is essentially a computer-based virtual response-type system. Several
years of research reported in NCHRP Report 228 were spent to develop a profile
index that built on the 50 years of experience accumulated by the States and others
using in/mi roughness indices.
Development and testing of the IRI was continued by The World Bank.
The World Bank sponsored several large-scale research programs in the 1970s
that investigated some basic choices facing developing countries: should the
governments borrow money to build good, expensive roads, or should they save
money with poor, cheap roads? It turns out that poor roads are also costly to the
Page 46
country as a whole, due to user costs such as damage to vehicles. Road roughness
was identified as a primary factor in the analyses and trade-offs involving road quality
vs. user cost. The problem was, roughness data from different parts of the world
could not be compared. Even data from the same country were suspect because the
measures were based on hardware and methods that were not stable over time.
In 1982, the World Bank initiated a correlation experiment in Brazil to establish
correlation and a calibration standard for roughness measurements. In processing the
data, it became clear that nearly all roughness measuring instruments in use
throughout the world were capable of producing measures on the same scale, if that
scale were suitably selected. A number of methods were tested, and the in/mi
calibration reference from NCHRP Report 228 was found to be the most suitable for
defining a universal scale.
Several years of additional development were spent testing computation methods
for a variety of profiling methods and step sizes. Example computer algorithms were
published, and guidelines were written, reviewed, and published to define a reference
measure that was called the International Roughness Index (IRI). The guidelines
published by The Bank explained how to measure IRI with a variety of equipment.
The IRI is reproducible, portable, and stable with time.

The IRI was the first widely used profile index where the analysis method is
intended to work with different types of profilers. IRI is defined as a property of the
true profile, and therefore it can be measured with any valid profiler. The analysis
equations were developed and tested to minimize the effects of some profiler
measurement parameters such as sample interval.
The IRI is a general pavement condition indicator.

The IRI summarizes the roughness qualities that impact vehicle response, and is
most appropriate when a roughness measure is desired that relates to: overall vehicle
operating cost, overall ride quality, dynamic wheel loads (that is, damage to the road
from heavy trucks and braking and cornering safety limits available to passenger
cars), and overall surface condition. The following figure shows IRI ranges
represented by different classes of road.
Page 47
speed of
normal use
IRI
(m/km) (in/mi)
20
1200
18
1100
16
1000
14
900
30 km/h (19 mph)
erosion gulleys and

deep depressions
50 km/h (31 mph)
800
12
700
10
600
500
400
300
frequent shallow
depressions, some
deep
frequent minor
depressions
80 km/h (50 mph)

damaged
pavements
surface
imperfections
maintained
unpaved roads
200
2
rough 60 km/h (37 mph)

unpaved
roads
100
0
0 = absolute
perfection
100 km/h (62 mph)
older pavements
new pavements
airport runways
and superhighways
Properties of the IRI Analysis

The quarter-car model used in the IRI algorithm is just what its name implies: a
model of one corner (a quarter) of a car. The model is shown schematically in an
earlier figure: it includes one tire, represented with a vertical spring, the mass of the
axle supported by the tire, a suspension spring and a damper, and the mass of the
body supported by the suspension for that tire.
The quarter-car model was tuned to maximize correlation with

response-type road roughness measuring systems.
This quarter-car simulation is meant to be a theoretical representation of the
response-type systems in use at the time the IRI was developed, with the vehicle
properties of the golden car adjusted to obtain maximum correlation to the output of
those systems. Considerations in its design are described in NCHRP Report 228.
Page 48
The golden-car parameters give the quarter car a behavior typical of most highway
vehicles with one exception: the damping is higher than most cars. This keeps the IRI
from tuning in to certain wavelengths and degrading correlation with other vehicles.
The figure below shows how IRI values from profile data relate to raw measures
from a response-type system.
IRI (m/km)
10
E[IRI] = 0.395 + 0.883MRM
R2 = .965
8
6
4
asphalt
PCC
composite
2
0
0
6
8
MRM (m/km)
10
12
The IRI describes profile roughness that causes vehicle vibrations.

The response of the IRI to sinusoids is intentionally very similar to measured
physical responses of highway vehicles. It was mainly developed to match the
responses of passenger cars, but subsequent research has shown good correlation
with light trucks and heavy trucks. The IRI has become recognized as a generalpurpose roughness index that is strongly correlated to most kinds of vehicle response
that are of interest. Specifically, IRI is very highly correlated to three vehicle response
variables that are of interest:
1. road meter response (for historical continuity),
2. vertical passenger acceleration (for ride quality), and
3. tire load (for vehicle controllability and safety).
The IRI is not related to all vehicle response variables. For example, it does not
correlate well with vertical passenger position, or axle acceleration.
The fact that IRI correlates well with both road meter response and passenger
acceleration is no coincidence; the correlation between road meter response and
passenger acceleration was certainly a factor in the decades of acceptance of the road
meter as a useful tool for measuring roughness.
Page 49
IRI is influenced by wavelengths ranging from 1.2 to 30 meters.

The wave number response of the IRI quarter-car filter is shown in the next
figure. The amplitude of the output sinusoid is the amplitude of the input, multiplied
by the gain shown in the figure. The gain shown in the figure is dimensionless.
Thus, if the input is a sinusoid with an amplitude that is slope, the output is the
product of the input amplitude and the value taken from the plot.
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A
IRI
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Gain for Profile Slope |H()|

2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
0.01
0.1
1
Wave Number (cycles/m)
10
The IRI filter has maximum sensitivity to slope sinusoids with wave numbers
near 0.065 cycle/m (a wavelength of about 15 m) and 0.42 cycle/m (a wavelength of
about 2.4 m. The response is down to 0.5 for 0.033 and 0.8 cycle/m wave numbers
which correspond to wavelengths of 30 m and about 1.25 m, respectively. However,
there is still some response for wavelengths outside this range.
The IRI scale is linearly proportional to roughness.

If all of the elevation values in a measured profile are increased by some
percentage, then the IRI increases by exactly the same percentage. An IRI of 0.0
means the profile is perfectly flat. There is no theoretical upper limit to roughness,
although pavements with IRI values above 8 m/km are nearly impassable except at
reduced speeds.
The IRI was the first highly portable roughness index that is stable
with time.
The IRI is not the first profile-based roughness index. When it was introduced,
profilers from different countries and different manufacturers were each used with
profile analyses developed for their specific hardware. Most of the analyses were not
intended to work with true profile. Those that did had specific requirements for the
Page 50
interval between elevation measures, and gave significant errors when applied to
profiles that had a different interval.
The software published by The World Bank was tested by new users, who found
that under controlled research tests, they could obtain nearly identical IRI values
using different profilers.
Definition of the IRI

The above descriptions of the IRI background and properties are intended to give
an idea of what the IRI computer software is intended to simulate, and how you can
interpret the IRI scale. However, the IRI is rigorously defined as a specific
mathematical transform of a true profile. The specific steps taken in the computer
program to compute IRI are listed below.
The IRI is calculated for a single profile.

If your profiler measures several profiles simultaneously, then you can get the IRI
for each. The IRI standard does not specify how you locate the line on a road that
defines the profile. Any possible line on the ground has an associated IRI statistic.
The standard does not specify how you combine IRI values for different profiles
taken for the same road. They can be averaged, but the result is not IRIit is the
average of several IRIs.
The profile is filtered with a moving average with a 250-mm (9.85-in)

base length.
The moving average is a low-pass filter that smoothes the profile. The computer
program does not apply the filter unless the profile interval is shorter than 167 mm
(6.6 in).
The 250-mm moving average filter should be omitted for profiles

obtained with some systems.
This step should be omitted if (1) the profile has already been filtered by a moving
average or with an anti-aliasing filter that attenuates wavelengths shorter than 0.5 m,
and (2) the sample interval is less than 167 mm (6.6 in). For example, Profilometers
by K.J. Law detect elevation values at intervals of 25 mm, apply a 300-mm moving
average filter, and store the result at 150 mm intervals. The filter used prior to storing
the profile is identical to the one used in the IRI (for a 150-mm sample interval), and
therefore the moving average in the IRI should not be applied a second time.
The profile is further filtered with a quarter-car simulation.

The quarter-car parameters are specified as part of the IRI statistic, and the
simulated travel speed is specified as 80 km/hr (49.7 mi/hr). The Golden Car
parameters are:
ks
ms = 63.3
kt
ms = 653
c
ms = 6
mu
ms = 0.15
Page 51
where ks is the spring rate, ms is the sprung mass, kt is the tire spring race, c is the
damper rate, and mu is the unsprung mass.
The output of the filter represents suspension motion of the simulated quarter car.
The filtered profile is accumulated by summing absolute values and

then is divided by the profile length.
The resulting IRI statistic has units of slope. As a user, you can express the slope
in any appropriate units. The most common choices are in/mi (multiply slope by
63,360) and m/km (multiply slope by 1000).
Details of the IRI are handled in computer software.

The above summary illustrates how the IRI fits the earlier description of a generic
profile index. The analysis is applied to a single profile, the profile is filtered (twice),
the filtered result is accumulated, and finally divided by the length of the profile. The
IRI is linearly related to variations in profile, in the sense that if all of the elevation
values in the profile are doubled, the resulting IRI will also be doubled.
A reference for more information about the IRI calculation method is:
M. W. Sayers, On the Calculation of International Roughness Index from
Longitudinal Road Profile, Transportation Research Record 1501, (1995)
pp 1-12.
Free computer software is available for computing IRI.

Fortran source code is available on the Internet for use by developers. The
analysis is also included in a free Windows package called RoadRuf. The RoadRuf
software and example source code can be found at:
What Are Panel Ratings?

In 1960, F.N. Hveem noted, Ever since roads and highways have been
constructed, the people who use them have been keenly aware of the relative degrees
of comfort or discomfort experienced in traveling. Long before high-speed profiling
technology existed, engineers have attempted to estimate the general opinion of the
traveling public of specific roadways. Perhaps the most direct method is to drive
people over sections of road and ask them what they think.
Panel ratings are subjective.

Ratings from people reflect their opinions and are subjective. Besides reflecting
the condition of the road, the rating from a person is influenced by his or her
standards, beliefs, and mood at the time the opinion is given. In contrast, measures
obtained from analysis of profile data are considered to be objective.
Page 52
Subjective rating scales for roads usually go from 0 to 5.

The next figure shows a rating form in which a person rates a road on a scale of 0
to 5. The 0 to 5 scale was used for a large-scale road test conducted by AASHO in the
1950s, in which roads were subjected to mixed traffic and researchers tracked the
condition of the pavement. A panel of pavement experts made their best evaluations
of the conditions of the test pavements based on close inspection, the experience of
driving over them, and the use of measures taken from several instruments in use at
the time.
5
Very Good
Acceptable ?
4
Good
Yes
No
Undecided
Fair
Poor
Very Poor
0
Rating
Section Identification
Rater
Date
Time
Vehicle
Ratings from the original AASHO test were called PSR.

The ratings from the panel of experts were processed to assign a single number to
each pavement that represented its serviceability, defined as:
the ability of a specific section of pavement to serve high-speed, highvolume, mixed (truck and automobile) traffic in its existing condition.
The summary number was called present serviceability rating (PSR). The researchers
also asked persons who were not engineers to rate the pavements. Nearly the same
results were obtained.
The current meaning of PSR is not standard. Some engineers consider PSR to be
a one-of-a-kind measure that applied only for the tests done in the 1950s. Since the
numbers were based on human opinion at the time, there is no way to confirm or
deny the relation of ratings taken today with the original PSR scale. With this
concept, the scale can no longer be used.
Other engineers use the name PSR to refer to any study in which ratings are taken
for roads on a 0 to 5 scale.
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Predictions of PSR were called PSI.

In addition to the rankings obtained from the panel of raters in the original
AASHO tests, several measures were taken of the pavements with instruments in use
at the time. Using the instrument measures, PSR could be estimated using an
equation obtained from statistical analyses of the data. The estimate of the present
serviceability rating (PSR) was called the present serviceability index (PSI).
Statistical processing is used to calculate mean panel rating (MPR).

Past research has shown that opinions of a single person tend to be unreliable,
relative to objective measures, and also relative to opinions of other persons.
However, when a group of ratings are taken together, the average rating can be fairly
consistent. After statistical processing, the results are processed to yield a single
rating for the panel as a whole, typically called mean panel rating (MPR). In most
studies, ratings are re-scaled before being averaged. Thus, the MPR is not necessarily
the mean value of the original ratings of the panel members.
We see this everyday, in the nature of opinion polls where a small group of
people are surveyed to indicate the opinions of a larger part of the population.
Panel rating experiments are designed with the intent of estimating the opinion of
the public from the small group composing the panel. A typical panel size is about
30, but reasonable results can be obtained with smaller groups. In the period of time
since the AASHO Road Test was conducted, the panel rating concept has evolved
considerably. Statistical distortions in the rating scale have been identified such as
central tendency, error of leniency, and others. Statistical analysis methods have been
established for minimizing their effects.
Subjective ratings depend on questions and instructions.

Subjective panel ratings depend strongly on the instructions given to the members
of the panel to define what physical property or quality is being judged. The
instructions must train the rater. Yet, in a research program, the physical properties
are not fully knownthat may be the point of the research. The NCHRP sponsored
two research projects in the 1980s to develop a methodology for obtaining valid
ratings, resulting in the concept of ride number described in the next section.
However, even today, procedures are not standard for obtaining panel ratings.
Mean Panel Ratings are not practical for network use.

There are two problems with using MPR data directly for evaluating the state of a
road network:
1. The rating scale is not a measure of road condition that is stable with time.
For example, roads considered good by a panel today might be
considered something else by a panel 50 years from now.
2. It is expensive to obtain panel ratings due to the number of people required,
and the need to transport them to the roads being rated.
Page 54
What Is Ride Number?

For decades, highway engineers have been interested in estimating the opinion of
the traveling public of the roughness of roads. The PSI scale from the AASHO Road
Test has been of interest to engineers since its introduction in the 1950s. Ride
number is a profile index intended to indicate rideability on a scale similar to PSI.
Background
Direct collection of subjective opinion in the form of mean panel rating is too
expensive, and provides no continuity from year to year.
Ride Number is the result of NCHRP research in the 1980s.

The National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP) sponsored two
research projects by Dr. Michael Janoff in the 1980s that investigated the effect of
road surface roughness on ride comfort, as described in NCHRP Reports 275 and
308. The objective of that research was to determine how features in road profiles
were linked to subjective opinion about the road from members of the public. During
two studies, spaced at about a 5-year interval, mean panel ratings (MPR) were
determined experimentally on a 0-to-5 scale for test sites in several States.
Longitudinal profiles were obtained for the left- and right-hand wheel tracks of the
lanes that were rated.
At the time that the NCHRP studies were performed, the IRI was not well
known. However, the researchers investigated a quarter-car analysis nearly identical
to IRI, and found significantly less correlation between the quarter-car index and
panel rating than between a profile index based on short wavelengths. (Subsequent
studies have shown that higher correlation is obtained with IRI if an appropriate
nonlinear transform is made.)
Profile-based analyses were developed to predict MPR. A method was developed
in which PSD functions were calculated for two longitudinal profiles and reduced to
provide a summary statistic called PI (profile index). The PI values for the two
profiles were then combined in a nonlinear transform to obtain an estimate of MPR.
Ride Number (RN) is an estimate of Mean Panel Rating.

The mathematical procedure developed to calculate RN is described in NCHRP
Report 275, but not in complete detail. Software for computing RN with the PSD
method was never developed for general use.
In 1995, some of the data from the two NCHRP projects and a panel study
conducted in Minnesota were analyzed again in a pooled-fund study initiated by the
Federal Highway Administration. The objective was to develop and test a practical
mathematical process for obtaining RN. The method was to be provided as portable
software similar to that available for the IRI, but for predicting MPR rather than IRI.
The profile data in the original research were obtained from several instruments. Most
Page 55
were measured with a K.J. Law Profilometer owned by the Ohio Department of
Transportation, and are thought to be accurate. A few other test sites were profiled
with instruments whose validity has been questioned. The new analyses were limited
to 140 test sites that had been profiled with the Ohio system.
A new profile analysis method was developed that is portable. The software was
tested on profiles obtained from different systems on the same sites, and similar
values of RN were obtained. It predicts MPR slightly better than previously
published algorithms. The figure below shows the correlation for the new RN. For
comparison, the figure shows a correlation involving a transform of IRI.
Ride Number
5
Std. Error = .29
2
4 R = .85
Transformed IRI
5
Std. Error = .43
2
4 R = .65
0
0
1
2
3
4
Mean Panel Rating
1
2
3
4
Mean Panel Rating
Correlation between Ride Number and MPR.
Properties of the Ride Number Analysis

The new ride number analysis method shares features with the IRI. It uses the
same filtering method, which has been demonstrated to work with sample intervals
ranging from zero up to about one foot.
Ride Number uses the 0 to 5 PSI scale.

The 0 to 5 scale for present serviceability was used because it is so familiar to the
highway community. However, the methods used in the NCHRP research were not
the same as used in the older tests. (The newer methods are based on a better
understanding of psychological scaling than existed when the early tests were done.)
Ride Number is a nonlinear transform of a statistic called PI.

Keeping with the naming convention of Janoff and others, the profile index used
in the ride number analysis is called PI, for profile index. Like other profile indices,
Page 56
PI generally ranges from 0 (a perfectly smooth profile) to positive values proportional

to a type of roughness. PI is transformed to a scale that goes from 5 (perfectly
smooth) to 0 (the maximum possible roughness). The experimental data validate the
scale for values from 1 to 4.5.
The choice of scale creates a highly nonlinear relationship between profile
variations and RN. If the RN is known for a profile, and the values of elevation are
all doubled to increase roughness by a factor of 2, the RN will go down. However,
the amount that RN decreases cannot be determined simply.
Nonlinearity limits some applications of Ride Number.

The nonlinearity poses no problem for the collection of roughness information to
describe the condition of a road network. For roughness collected on a per-mile basis
(or any standard length), profile indices are converted to the 0-to-5 scale and entered
into the data base.
Some advanced capabilities of the IRI, such as the roughness profiles that will be
shown later, are difficult to apply. The problem is that RN values for adjacent
sections of profile cannot be averaged in the same way as IRI. For example, if one
mile has an RN value of 3 and the next has an RN of 4, the RN for the two-mile
segment is not 3.5. (It is about 3.37.)
PI and RN are sensitive to shorter wavelengths than the IRI.
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Gain for Profile Slope |H()|

1.5
1.0
0.5
0
0.01
0.1
1
Wave Number (cycles/m)
10
The above figure shows the sensitivity of PI. As in the earlier section on IRI, this
shows the response of the profile index for a slope sinusoid. If given a sinusoid as
input, the PI filter produces a sinusoid as output. The amplitude of the output
sinusoid is the amplitude of the input, multiplied by the gain shown. The maximum
Page 57
sensitivity is for a wave number of 0.164 cycle/m (0.05 cycles/ft), which is a

wavelength of about 6 meters (20 ft). Recall that the IRI had great sensitivity to
sinusoids with a wavelength of 16 meters (wave number of 0.065 cycle/m). The
figure shows that the ride number analysis has a low sensitivity to that wavelength
and even lower sensitivity for longer wavelengths.
Ultrasonic profilers are not valid for obtaining ride number.

Ride Number is portable, but not as much as the IRI. Although we do not yet
have the experience with RN as we do with IRI, research to date shows that most
profiles obtained with ultrasonic systems give incorrect results. The PI values are too
high, leading to RN values that are too low.
Ride Number is correlated to IRI but the two are not interchangeable.
The content of a road profile that affects RN is different than the content that
affects IRI. Each provides unique information about the roughness of the road,
although there is correlation. For example, the next figure shows the correlation
between IRI and the PI statistic used to determine RN.
PIQC (-)
.01
.008
.006
.004
.002
R2 = .819
0
0
3
4
IRI (m/km)
Correlation between PI (used to define RN) and IRI.
Definition of Ride Number

The above descriptions of the RN background and properties are intended to give
an idea of how to interpret the RN scale. As implemented in new software, RN is
rigorously defined as a specific mathematical transform of a true profile. The specific
steps taken in the computer program to compute RN are listed below.
Page 58
Ride Number is calculated from one or two profiles.

Ride Number is ideally calculated from the profiles in the left and right
wheelpaths of automobiles. Each profile is processed independently and the results
are combined in the last step. RN can also be calculated for a single profile if only one
is available.
The profile is filtered with a moving average with a 250-mm (9.85-in)

base length.
The moving average is a low-pass filter that smoothes the profile. The computer
program does not apply the filter unless the profile interval is shorter than 167 mm
(6.6 in).
The 250-mm moving average filter should be omitted for profiles

obtained with some systems.
This step should be omitted if (1) the profile has already been filtered by a moving
average or with an anti-aliasing filter that attenuates wavelengths shorter than 0.5 m,
and (2) the sample interval is less than 167 mm (6.6 in). For example, Profilometers
by K.J. Law detect elevation values at intervals of 25 mm, apply a 300-mm moving
average filter, and store the result at 150 mm intervals. The filter used prior to storing
the profile is identical to the one used in RN (for a 150-mm sample interval), and
therefore the moving average in the RN should not be applied a second time.
The profile is further filtered with band-pass filter.

The filter uses the same equations as the quarter-car model in the IRI. However,
different coefficients are used to obtain the sensitivity to wave number shown in the
last figure. The quarter-car parameters for the RN filter are:
ks
ms = 390
kt
ms = 5120
c
ms = 17
mu
ms = 0.036
The filtered profile is reduced to give PI.

The filtered profile is reduced to yield a root-mean-square (RMS) value called PI,
that should have units of dimensionless slope (ft/ft, m/m, etc.).
PI is transformed to RN.
RN is defined as an exponential transform of PI according to the equation:
RN = 5e160(PI)
If a single profile is being processed, its PI is transformed directly. If two profiles for
both the left and right wheel tracks are processed, values for the two are averaged
with the following equation, and then the transform is applied.
PI =
PI 2L + PI 2R
2
Details of Ride Number are handled in computer software.
Page 59
The above summary illustrates how the RN fits the earlier description of a generic
profile index. The analysis is applied to two profiles, the profile is filtered (twice), the
filtered result is accumulated, and cast onto the familiar PSI scale.
A reference for more information about RN is:
Sayers, M.W. and Karamihas, S.M., Estimation of Rideability by Analyzing
Longitudinal Road Profile. Transportation Research Record 1536, (1996)
pp 110-116.
The entire development is described in:
Sayers, M.W. and Karamihas, S.M., Interpretation of Road Roughness
Profile Data. Federal Highway Administration Report FHWA RD-96-101.
Free computer software is available for computing RN.

Fortran source code is available on the Internet for use by developers. The
analysis is also included in a free Windows package called RoadRuf. The RoadRuf
software and example source code can be found at:
What Other Roughness Indices Are

In Use?
Only a few profile analyses are described in detail in this little book: moving
average, PSD, IRI, and RN. However, as noted earlier, there is an unlimited number
of analyses that can potentially be applied. Most analyses that have been tried in the
past have not received broad acceptance for one of two reasons:
1. They are not widely available in the form of software that works with
profiles obtained with equipment from different manufacturers.
2. They correlate so highly with IRI that there is little reason to use them, if
IRI is already being calculated.
Half-car Roughness Index (HRI) is the IRI algorithm applied to the

average of two profiles.
Prior to the development of the IRI, vehicle simulation was used with measured
profiles to calibrate response-type systems. The response of a half-car model can be
obtained with the same equations as used for the quarter car. The trick is to take a
point-by-point average of the two profiles (one from the left wheeltrack and one from
the right wheeltrack) first, and then process the averaged profile with a quarter-car
filter, as shown in the next figure.
Page 60
The advantage of the half-car analysis is that it more closely matches the way road
meters are installed in passenger cars. There is a subtle difference in the way the
vehicle responds.
Movement between
center-of-mass locations
is not affected by roll
Sprung Mass
Unsprung Mass
Right Profile
Left Profile
Left
Profile
Average of
Profiles
Right
Profile
1/2 Car = 1/4 Car using averaged

profile input
Consider a sinusoidal input. If both sides receive the same sinusoid, in phase,
then the whole vehicle bounces in response. It does not roll at all. However, if they
are out of phase, such that the left side goes up when the right side goes down, the
vehicle rolls but doesnt bounce. With the road meter installed at the center of the
axle, it senses bounce but not roll. In real roads, there is a mixture of bounce and roll.
The bounce part gets through, but the roll part does not. Consequently, the roughness
Page 61
as calculated with an HRI analysis must be less than or equal to the result obtained
from the IRI analysis.
A disadvantage of the half-car analysis is that in order for it to work, the two
profiles must be perfectly synchronized before they are averaged. For profilers that
measure profiles in two wheel tracks simultaneously, the two are properly
synchronized and this is not a problem. However, for profilers that profile only one
line, it would be extremely difficult and time consuming to make two passes
(measuring the profiles of the left and right wheeltrack) and then align the two
profiles within a foot, as needed for the analysis. Practically speaking, the HRI
analysis can only be used for systems that profile two wheel tracks simultaneously.
Profile data taken in some research projects in the 1980s were analyzed both
ways. The HRI values, calculated from the average of the left and right profiles, were
compared to the average IRI values calculated separately for the left and right profiles.
The correlation between the HRI and averaged IRI statistics was very high, indicating
that little or no additional information is provided by the HRI.
HRI (m/km)
6
Approximate conversion:
HRI = 0.89 IRI
5
4
3
2
1
0
0
3
4
IRI (m/km)
For more information about the differences between HRI and IRI, see the TRB paper:
Sayers, M.W. Two Quarter-car Models for Defining Road Roughness: IRI
and HRI. Transportation Research Record 1215, (1989) pp. 165-172.
Page 62
Mays Response Meter (MRM) on some profilers is HRI with adjustable

simulated vehicle speed.
The research described in NCHRP Report 228 investigated the correlation and
calibration of response-type systems, and described a standard quarter-car model
called the Golden Car. K.J. Law, Inc. participated in the research, providing profile
measurements upon which the analyses were tested. The model developed in the
research was included with the software in Profilometers made by Law. The Mays
Ride Meter (MRM) simulation was the name of the Law version of the half-car
model. If set for a simulated speed of 80 km/hr (49.7 mi/hr), the MRM simulation is
the same as the HRI analysis.
RMSA is an alternate output from a quarter-car model.

Engineers concerned with vehicle performance generally characterize ride using
data that is measured in a moving vehicle. Ride is most easily described using vertical
acceleration, which can be measured with an accelerometer. The quarter-car model
used for IRI and HRI calculations can also give simulated vertical acceleration as an
output. As a profile-based statistic, the simulated vertical acceleration provides a timestable measure of ride. The acceleration is summarized with a root-mean-square
(RMS) value, leading to the acronym RMSA. The analysis was originally called
RMSVA, but was changed to avoid confusion with an index by that name that was
recommended by Prof. W.R. Hudson and is described next.
Statistically, the RMSA correlates almost perfectly with HRI and IRI if a standard
simulation speed is used. Thus, it provides little additional information about the
profile if IRI values are already being calculated.
RMSVA is nearly the same as a rolling straightedge.

In the late 1970s W.R. Hudson and others tested several simple profile analyses
for use in calibrating response-type systems and as profile-based summary roughness
statistics. They proposed a simple filter to process the profile elevation, with the
form:
Ai =
Y i+2k 2Y i+k + Y i
B2
where Yi is the ith profile elevation, k is an integer parameter for the filter, and B is
the base length (B = k X).
Now consider a rolling straightedge, shown below. This device senses the
deviation at the center of a straightedge that is supported at either end.
Page 63
The equation for the output of a rolling straightedge is

1
SEi = 2 (Yi 2 Yi+k + Yi+2k)
This is shown geometrically below.
Yi+k
Yi+2k
Yi
Yi + Yi+2k
2
B = X k
Thus, RMSVA is proportional to the output of a rolling straightedge whose full

wheelbase is 2B. There is also a scale factor between the two:
A=
2 SE
B2
Hudson and others proposed that RMSVA statistics for different base lengths be
calculated and combined to provide a roughness index such as MO, described next.
Despite the name, RMSVA has little to do with vertical acceleration of the profile.
There are two technical problems with RMSVA. One is that it requires the sample
interval to divide evenly into the base length of interest to obtain the integer k for the
above equations. For example, if the base length is 4.0 ft, a sample interval of 1.14 ft
results in k=3.5. Setting k to 3 or 4 changes the effective base length and gives
different results. Strictly speaking, a profiling device is not valid for RMSVA
analysis unless the sample interval is set to divide evenly into the specified base
length. Thus, RMSVA is a profile index that is not transportable.
A second problem is that RMSVA values are slightly lower from inertial profilers
than from static devices, due to anti-aliasing filters in the inertial systems.
Texas MO and Brazil QI are based on RMSVA.
Page 64
Hudson and others proposed an index for the same general purpose as the IRI. It
was defined as:
MO = 20 + 23 RMSVA4 + 58 RMSVA16
where RMSVA values were calculated with base lengths of 4 and 16 ft. The symbol
MO referred to a specific vehicle with a Mays Ride Meter. The equation predicted the
output of that device over a period of a few years in the early 1980s. Being a
transform of RMSVA, it has the same limits as RMSVA.
Cesar Queiroz and others from Brazil proposed a similar roughness index to
calibrate response-type systems. QI stood for quarter-car index, and an equation was
developed to predict the output of an early GMR profiler with an electronic quartercar simulation:
QI = 8.54 + 6.17 RMSVA1.0 + 19.38 RMSVA2.5
where the RMSVA values were computed with base lengths of 1.0 m and 2.5 m.
Research has shown that MO and QI correlate highly with IRI. If IRI is already
being calculated, then there is no additional information provided by MO and QI.
Several Ride Number indices have been described in the literature.

As soon as the inertial profiler was developed by General Motors Research, it
was tested and evaluated by the Michigan Department of Transportation.
Psychological testing by Dr. Holbrook of the Michigan Department of Transportation
(DOT) linked user opinion to wavelengths in roughness power spectral density (PSD)
functions in the late 1960s. Based on Holbrooks work, John Darlington of the
Michigan DOT developed an electronic filter to produce a profile-based statistic called
Ride Quality Index (RQI). RQI has been revised several times since then, and details
of its current implementation are not yet published.
As described earlier in the section on Ride Number, the National Cooperative
Highway Research Program (NCHRP) sponsored two research projects by Dr.
Michael Janoff in the 1980s that investigated the effect of road surface roughness on
ride comfort, as described in NCHRP Reports 275 and 308. Simultaneously, the
Ohio Department of Transportation (DOT) funded research by Elson Spangler and
William Kelly of Surface Dynamics, Inc. on the same topic. As part of those research
programs, mean panel ratings (MPR) were obtained for roads that were also profiled.
Profile-based analyses were developed to predict MPR. Janoff described a method in
which PSD functions were calculated for two longitudinal profiles and reduced to
provide a summary statistic for each profile called PI (profile index). The PI values
for the two profiles were then combined in a nonlinear transform to obtain ride
number on a 0 to 5 scale. The mathematical transform is described in NCHRP Report
275, but not in complete detail. Software for computing RN with the PSD method
has not been developed for general use.
Spangler and Kelly analyzed the same data set and developed an alternative profile
analysis that was linked to MPR. It uses a high-pass filter, rather than PSD, to define
a profile index for two wheeltrack profiles. The PI values are transformed to a 0 to 5
Page 65
ride number scale. Later research showed the equation predicted mean panel ratings
only for profiles obtained with a sample interval of 6 inches.
The Ride Number analysis described earlier was developed after the two existing
RN analyses were investigated and applied to profiles obtained from a variety of
instruments. All three of the RN analyses involve filtering profiles to obtain a
summary index called PI, which is then transformed to a 0 to 5 scale. Because
different transforms are used to get PI, the PI values are not compatible for the
different versions. Also, different conversion equations are used to calculate RN from
PI. However, the overall result is that the RN values from all three methods are
nearly identical if the profiles were measured with the same type of profiler used in
the NCHRP research.
At the time the little book was last edited (September 1996), none of the ride
number analyses were in widespread use. However, free computer software to
perform the ride number analysis described in an earlier section is now available
through the Internet.
Present Serviceability Index (PSI).

As described in the discussion of Ride Number, Carey and Irick defined PSI and
a measure of pavement performance for the AASHO Road Test. They used present
serviceability ratings (by a panel of users) and statistical analyses to find a way of
predicting the PSI of roads with a combination of objective measures of pavement
condition, one of which was a roughness measure. They proposed:
C + P for flexible pavements

PSI = 5.03 1.91 log(1 + SV) 1.38 RD2 0.01
and
PSI = 5.41 1.78 log(1 + SV) 0.09

C + P for rigid pavements,
where SV was the mean slope variance, RD was the mean rut depth, and C and P
were cracking and patching indices, respectively.
When Carey and Irick defined PSI, they also suggested its use as a standard
performance indicator for road network monitoring. The concept is still in use today,
but has not been standardized. A variety of methods and perhaps over one hundred
formulas have been developed independently by State agencies and consultants for
calculating a version of Serviceability Index. Many of them were linked directly to
the output of specific response-type systems. Several States currently calculate their
own version of PSI that combines a profile roughness index with other measures of
distress.
Some States with profilers calculate a version of PSI using regression equations
involving profile indices such as IRI. Be aware that if a profile index is converted to
PSI, it is still reflecting the sensitivity of the original index. No additional information
is provided. The main practical reason for performing such a transformation is to deal
with the requirements of existing pavement management software. If the software can
Page 66
be updated to handle profile indices with different units, then conversion to a pseudoPSI statistic should be abandoned.
Tests where the same roads were measured by different States have shown
differences in PSI by over one PSI unit.
What Is the Effect of Length?

For network monitoring, it is sufficient to determine roughness levels on a permile basis (or some other manageable length). However, for diagnostic work and
research, it is useful to be able to pinpoint exactly where a road is rough and where it
is smooth.
Roughness indices can be computed for various lengths of profile.

Consider the following table showing IRI values for two sections of road that are
152 m long. The IRI values are shown both for the entire sections, and also in 30-m
sections. For example, the roughness for the left profile (LElev) of Site 1 is 2.70
m/km over its entire length. However, the five 30-m sections show IRI numbers as
low as 1.35 (120-150) and as high as 5.66 (60-90).
Site
Start:
End:
IRI: (m/km)
m
m
LElev.
RElev.
----------------------------------------------------Site 1
.00
150.00
2.697
2.686
-----------------------------------.00
30.00
1.995
1.705
30.00
60.00
1.762
1.922
60.00
90.00
5.662
5.540
90.00
120.00
2.762
2.938
120.00
150.00
1.351
1.269
----------------------------------------------------Site 4
.00
150.00
2.464
2.440
-----------------------------------.00
30.00
1.831
3.311
30.00
60.00
3.303
3.023
60.00
90.00
3.894
1.930
90.00
120.00
1.492
1.426
120.00
150.00
1.766
2.494
-----------------------------------------------------
Now compare the two sites, looking at the right-hand profile (RElev). Site 1 has a
total roughness of 2.69 m/km, and Site 4 has a comparable level of 2.44 m/km.
However, the range of roughness values in 30-m sections is as high as 4.27 m/km in
Site 1, but only as high as 1.88 m/km for site 4. Thus the roughness is more uniform
for Site 4 than it is for Site 1.
Profile-based indices are affected by where a profile starts and stops.
Page 67
For example, the IRI analysis was rerun for Site 1, starting the 30-m intervals at
20 m instead of 0 m. The following table was obtained.
Site
Start:
End:
IRI: (m/km)
m
m
LElev.
RElev.
----------------------------------------------------Site 1
.00
150.00
2.697
2.686
-----------------------------------20.00
50.00
1.596
1.747
50.00
80.00
3.782
3.426
80.00
110.00
4.471
4.727
110.00
140.00
1.853
1.861
140.00
150.00
0.974
1.178
-----------------------------------------------------
Look again at the values for the right-hand profile (RElev). The big difference is
that the largest IRI value for the right-hand profile is now 4.73 m/km, instead of 5.54
m/km. The roughness around 80 m into the section is now spread over two adjacent
30-m sections, where its influence is diluted.
A roughness profile shows roughness vs. distance.

A roughness profile adds another dimension to the description of road roughness.
Rather than providing a single index that summarizes the roughness of a road section,
it shows the details of how roughness varies with distance along a road section. It is
generated for a fixed length L used for averaging. At a point in the profile, take the
IRI for the interval starting at L/2 prior to the current location, and ending +L/2 past
the current location. For example, if the averaging length is 30 m, the IRI value for
the first 30 m is plotted at X=15. The IRI covering the range of 1 to 31 is plotted at
X=16. The next figure shows the roughness profiles for the same data used in the
previous tables.
The figure includes all of the IRI values listed in the previous two tables for the
right-hand profiles. For the first table, the values occur at X=15, 45, 75, etc. For the
second, they occur at X=35, 65, 95, etc. Further, the figure shows the values for
every possible table that could be made, using a 30-m print interval.
A quick glance at the roughness profile for Site 1 shows that the roughest 30-m
section is centered near the point X=80 with a level over 6 m/km. (The maximum is
actually 6.31 m/km, for the interval centered at X=82.75.)
Length affects the variation seen in roughness indices.

For very long sections, the effects of rough sections are averaged out. If you
summarize IRI over long intervals, such as a mile, you might not see the that one
very short section is significantly rougher than anything else for miles.
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A
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100
150
IRI of Right Elevation (m/km)

7
Distance (m)
Roughness profile based on 30-m length.
The range of IRI values obtained depends on the lengths used. This might seem
surprising at first, because, like most profile indices, IRI is normalized by length.
Length does not affect the averageit affects ranges of IRI that are seen above and
below the average. The effect of length is shown in the next figure, based on the
same data used for the previous figure and tables. In this case, the IRI is computed
for the relatively short distance of 10 m. Notice that for Site 1, the IRI values range
from a low of 0.75 m/km at X=22 m, to a high of 11.08 m/km at X=83 m.
Roughness profiles require linear accumulation.

A characteristic of the IRI is that the average of the IRI values of two adjacent
sections of road are the same as the IRI for the total. This is not true of PSD functions
or Ride Number, because the outputs are not linearly accumulated.
Page 69
IRI of Right Elevation (m/km)

12
A
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Site 1 A
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10 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
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Site 4
A
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2
A
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A0
A50
100
150
Distance (m)
Roughness profiles based on 10-m length.
What Is Verification Testing?

Up to this point, we have covered what you can do with profile measurements
that are valid. The assumption is that statistics such as IRI, RN, and PSDs taken
from actual profile measurements are the same as would be obtained by analyzing the
true profile.
How do you know your profile measurements are to be trusted?
Verification testing is used to confirm that a piece of equipment is operating
properly. In general, verification testing will not determine if the equipment was
properly calibrated or properly designed. Calibration and validation tests are more
difficult to conduct and interpret, and are normally done by researchers and
developers.
Before placing a new profiler in service, verify that its output seems
reasonable.
On one hand, a profiler is providing large amounts of information that are difficult
to obtain any other way. But on the other hand, roughness indices such as IRI and
RN are strongly linked to the publics perception of road quality. As a member of the
public, you can evaluate whether numbers coming out of the computer make sense.
Tests of this sort are sometimes called reality checks or sanity checks.
Page 70
These simple tests cannot determine the accuracy of the system, but they can
verify that it is producing output that looks reasonable.
For example, nearly all profilers include software to computer IRI. IRI values for
highways typically range from 0.7 m/km for a very smooth new pavement, to 1.62.0 m/km for average sections, to 3 m/km and higher for sections that should be
considered for repair. Highways rarely get to roughness levels higher than 3.5 m/km.
Most heavily-traveled roads are in the range of 1.5-2.5 m/km.
Choose outputs that you use and understand.

If you are using the profiler mainly to collect IRI values, verify its operation by
getting IRI values. If you are using it to view profiles, verify its operation by
inspecting plots of profiles.
Determine the repeatability.

In practice, no profiling device is perfect. Errors exist. If you profile the same
imaginary line in the road several times, you will not get exactly the same result each
time. (There will be more discussion on this later.) However, you should get almost
the same result with repeated measurements.
The repeatability is usually better for longer profiles. If you are processing the
profiles to get IRI, you should be able to repeat the measured values within 5% for
profiles that are one mile in length. With care, you should be able to repeat within 1
or 2%. For shorter profiles, larger variations occur.
If the output is not reasonable, call the factory!

If you obtain questionable outputs from the profiler, it probably wouldnt hurt to
read the instructions that came with the system and check that everything is connected
properly.
If you suspect the device is not valid, that it is not giving the same results as you
would obtain for the true profile, then there is little you can do to compensate.
Something in the system is not working right and it has to be fixed.
Periodically verify that the measures from the profiler remain

reasonable.
A profiler has many parts that can fail and place the accuracy of the measures in
jeopardy. Like any complex measuring system, your profiler should be tested
periodically to ensure it is working as intended. You should establish periodic sanity
checks to verify that the system appears to be working.
A good practice is to establish highway sections that can be used as verification
sites. Profile them on a regular basis and compare the new readings with those
obtained in the past. Try to include a site that is fairly smooth and one that is rough.
The readings from these sites are not used to adjust future outputs. The
instrument is either a valid profiler, or it is not. If it is not, get it fixed or stop using it.
Page 71
What Is Calibration?
Much of engineering measurement involves conversion between different
physical variables (voltage, inches, etc.) and conversion between different units
scales applied to the same type of measure (inches, meters, etc.)
Calibration is a process of correcting the scale of a measuring device.

For instruments that measure steady-state properties, calibration involves
determining a scale factor by comparing the output of the instrument to a known
input. For example, the calibration of laser height sensor in a profiler might be
checked by setting the distance between the laser and its target to a known value and
then reading the output of the sensor. If the reading is in error, then an electronic
adjustment is made to calibrate the sensor. The test would usually be performed for
several different distances to ensure that the output of the sensor is linearly
proportional to height above the ground.
Calibration of a profiler is done in the laboratory.

A typical inertial profiler includes an accelerometer, a non-contacting height
sensor, a longitudinal distance sensor, a computer, and assorted electronics to power
the sensors and connect them to the computer. Each sensor is independently
calibrated. If any single part does not work properly, then the profiler as a whole
cannot provide valid profiles.
Depending on the design of the system, it may not be possible for you to calibrate
the individual components. Special equipment is usually needed. In most systems of
similar complexity, the sensors are calibrated at the factory, and remain in calibration
throughout their life.
The manufacturer may require that you perform periodic calibrations of some
parts of the system. For example, the distance measuring instrumentation may be
adjustable without advanced equipment. However, if the manufacturer does not
provide instructions for calibrating parts of the system, they are probably not intended
to be adjusted by you.
You cannot calibrate a profiler by measuring roughness.

Given that you calibrate a height sensor by giving it a known height input and
reading the output, you might suppose that a profiler should be calibrated by
measuring a profile with a known roughness level (e.g., IRI). This is wrong.
The exact conditions that contribute to the roughness index of a true profile are
usually unique for that profile. The contributions of various wavelengths are
generally different for another true profile even if it has the same summary index
value.
When you check the value of a roughness statistic computed from your profiler
by comparing it to a reference, this is a verification test, which is described
Page 72
earlier. If the agreement is not satisfactory, then the profiler is not valid for that
condition. It is then time to call the manufacturer!
You do not calibrate equations or computers.

Remember: half of the measuring process involves the analysis made of the
profile data. The analysis part of the process is fixed in the computer software. The
equations are either programmed correctly the first time, or they are not. The analysis
part of the process is not something that can change with time and use, and it is not a
part of calibration.
What Is Correlation?
Correlation is a mutual relation or connection between different variables.
Statistically, it is the degree of correspondence between two data sets.
Correlation analysis describes how much of the variation in variable Y

is related to variation in variable X.
Consider the data shown in the next figure. There are two sets of data, each
representing roughness statistics taken from the same profiles. Values of one statistic
(PI #2) are plotted on the Y axis against values of IRI, plotted on the X axis.
The figure shows that, in general, increases in values of IRI are linked with
increasing values of PI #2. However, the relationship is not perfect. Both IRI and PI
#2 are the outputs of mathematical transforms that respond differently to sinusoids
according to their wavelengths. Two specific profiles might be ranked differently by
IRI and PI #2.
A correlation coefficient describes the relation between two variables.

The regression analysis fits a function to predict Y as a function of X. The
function, f(X), is usually a linear equation with an offset and gain. The constants in
the equation are calculated in the analysis to minimize the squared differences between
the Y values and the fitted values f(X). The regression equation is shown in the
figure, along with a squared correlation coefficient:
variance of f(X)
R 2 = variance of Y
Page 73
PI #2
.08
.07
E[Y] = 2.125x10-3 + (1.724x10-4) IRI
.06
R2 = .74
.05
.04
.03
.02
Best Prediction
of PI #2
.01
0
0
50
100
150
200
IRI
250
300
350
The R2 value is normalized to stay in the range between 0 and 1. If the fitted
equation predicts Y perfectly, then all of the data points in the figure would lie on the
regression line, and R2 would equal 1. If R2 is zero, it means that the assumed form
of the equation cannot use the values of X to improve the estimate of Y. Regardless
of the value of X, the best estimate of Y is its mean value.
R 2 depends on the range of data.

The two plots in the next figure involve points taken from a larger data set with
well-defined statistical properties. Y is equal to X, plus a random error with a
standard deviation of 10. In the first plot, the values cover a large range, and a high
R2 is obtained. In the second, the values cover a limited range. The random error is
more significant relative to the range of the data, and a lower R2 value is obtained.
Page 74
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
300
E[Y] = 13.3 + .9 * X
250
R2 = .94
200
Y
100
50
0
0
R2 = .79
150
E[ Y ] = 3.26 + .98 * X
100
200
X
300
40
80
120
160
R 2 depends on the form of the model.

The two plots in the next figure involve the correlation between mean panel rating
and a profile index. The MPR scale goes from zero to five, whereas the profile index
is linear with profile amplitude. The relationship between the two turns out to be
highly nonlinear. A direct comparison (part a of the figure) shows an R2 of 0.5, with
a lot of scatter because the assumed straight-line fit does not match the data. But when
the index is transformed with an exponential equation into a zero-to-five scale (part b
of the figure), the straight line is a better approximation, and a higher R2 applies.
RMS Slope in 1/3 Octave Band

1.2x10-5
Predicted Panel Rating (RN)

5
R2 = 0.79
4
R2 = 0.51
0.8x10-5
3
0.4x10-5
2
1
center at 0.125 cycles/ft

0
0
2
3
4
Mean Panel Rating
(a) linear fit
1
2
3
4
Mean Panel Rating
(b) exponential fit
Effect of nonlinearity on R2 .
Page 75
Correlation analysis is used to quantify measurement error.

For example, measures made with a profiler might be compared with measures
from a more accurate profiling system thought to capable of measuring the true profile
with negligible error. Consider two data sets, each with IRI values calculated from
different profilers. Values from the two data sets are plotted against each other in the
next figure.
In the definitions that follow, E[] is the expected value of whats in brackets []. In
other words E[x] is the mean value of x.
RMS error indicates the expected error in a single profiler measure.

Root-mean-square (RMS) error = {E[(measure - truth)2]}1/2
All profilers exhibit some total RMS error level. For closely scrutinizing a few
specific road sites, such as newly repaired of constructed pavement, the RMS error
should be low. For routine monitoring of a road network, a higher RMS error level
can be tolerated.
Without taking special efforts to locate the imaginary profile line precisely, RMS
errors under 5% can be expected for profiles that are about a mile long, assuming the
profiler is highly accurate. Experience in past research programs indicates the errors
in IRI roughness can be controlled to several percent for test sections that are 0.1 mile
long (528 ft), if special care is taken by the operators to profile the same line that was
used to obtain a reference profile.
Measurement
350
E[Var 2] = -5.383 + 1.05*Truth
R2 = .941
300
250
Thick line = this regression

Thin line = inverse
200
150
100
50
0
0
100
200
300
Truth
Page 76
The average of the errors from many measures is the bias error.
Bias = E[measure - truth]
The bias error indicates whether a profiler is systematically high or low compared
to the truth. The bias error for a valid profiler should be very small. Bias levels of 1%
and less can be expected for profilers that are valid for the index being used.
If the profile data are being used for PMS applications, bias is potentially a
serious problem. Bias errors distort the aggregate picture of the state of a network,
indicating that things overall are better or worse than they are. Significant bias errors
prevent meaningful comparison to measures from valid profilers.
Significant bias error means the profiler is not valid.

This statement may not be welcome news, but thats the way it is.
Bias error is caused by an error in the factory calibration, physical damage to the
system, or a defect in the profiler design. Bias can exist for some profile statistics but
not others, because the factors causing bias may or may not apply for a specific
profile analysis.
Standard error is a helpful indicator for developers and researchers.

Standard Error = {E[(measure truth bias)2]}1/2
Standard error is the portion of the total error due to random effects. It is good for
researchers and developers of profiler technology to understand the sources of errors
in their instruments. For end-users, the total RMS error is the more meaningful
measure. If the bias error is negligible, as it should be for a valid profiler, then the
standard error equals the RMS error.
Correlation analysis is used to calibrate response-type instruments.

Users of response-type systems must calibrate them to a reference that is
reproducible and stable with time. This means that the reference must be a statistic
defined for true profile. Usually, values of IRI calculated from measured profile are
used.
For this application, a set of test sites is established. IRI values are determined by
analyzing profiles taken for the sites. The instrument to be calibrated is driven over
the sites, and a regression analysis is performed. Results for one such instrument are
shown in the next figure.
Page 77
IRI (in/mi)
500
E[IRI] = 25 + .883 * MRM
R2 = .965
400
300
200
100
0
0
100
200
300
MRM (in/mi)
400
500
The regression equation is developed with the truth on the Y axis, and the
instrument being calibrated on the X axis. The regression line is used as a calibration
curve, to convert measures on the arbitrary scale of the instrument to estimates of the
profile-based reference (e.g., IRI).
This method of converting raw measures from the instrument to a standard scale
is called calibration by correlation. It is necessary because a response-type instrument
cannot be calibrated any other way. The measuring system depends on the dynamic
response properties of the vehicle in which the road meter is installed. The overall
properties are complex, depend on many factors outside the users control, and cannot
all be adjusted. Although the road meter is calibrated by conventional means at the
factory, the response of the vehicle is unknown.
Do not use calibration by correlation for profilers!

Calibration by correlation is time consuming and limited in accuracy. The desire
to avoid calibration by correlation for response-type system is an important reason
that States have been switching from response-type systems to profilers. If you use a
correlation equation to convert outputs of your profiler system to match another
profiler reference, then you are reducing the profiler to a response-type system.
Calibration by correlation is not needed for profilers because the dynamics of the
host vehicle are not a factor when it is functioning as designed. Vehicle motions are
eliminated from the profile produced by a valid, working system. The instrumentation
and electronics are calibrated separately, using accurate laboratory rigs and special test
equipment at the factory.
Page 78
If the outputs of your instrument do not agree with a profile-based reference, its
time to call the factory!
What Are Errors?

In a perfect world, you could make repeat passes down the same imaginary line
on a road and obtain exactly the same profile statistics each time. Further, the results
would match those obtained with other profilers. In fact, the agreement is not perfect.
Accuracy is a lack of error.

Optimistic engineers speak of the accuracy of their systems. However, the
accuracy is defined by the error. The smaller the error, the better the accuracy.
There are different concepts of exactly what an error is. Lets start with the view
that a difference between two profiler measures indicate that things are not as good as
they could be.
Repeatability is the ability to obtain repeat measures with the same

instrument at (nearly) the same time.
Suppose you take a profiler and make repeated measures along a line, over and
over, until you have taken 10 repeats. Repeatability is defined by the variation of the
profile indices taken for each run.
It is common to characterize the variation in a summary index such as IRI by
taking the standard deviation of the measurements. The units of the standard deviation
match those of the index. For example, if you process the profiles to obtain IRI with
units of in/mi, the repeatability will be in terms of in/mi.
To scale the variation as a percentage, divide the standard deviation by the mean
value of the measures, and multiply by 100.
To characterize the repeatability of your instrument, you should run repeat tests
for different road conditions of interest. As noted earlier, textured surfaces are likely
to cause measurement errors and should be tested. Rough sections generally show
larger standard deviations than smooth sections. The next figure shows repeat
measurements taken by a variety of profilers on the same road section.
For static profilers such as the Dipstick, repeatability is usually very good if the
profiles are taken within an hour of each other. Larger repeatability errors are seen
with inertial profilers operated at highway speeds.
Repeatability is mainly of concern for diagnostic applications.

Repeatability does not affect the mean value obtained with a profiler. Some
calculated index values are too high and others are too low, but they average out.
Page 79
ICC (Ultrasonic)
ICC (Ultrasonic)
ICC (Ultrasonic)
ICC (Ultrasonic)
ARAN (Laser)
PRORUT (Laser)
K.J. Law (Optical)
ICC (Laser)
K.J. Law (Optical)
Dipstick
100
120
140
160
IRI (in/mi)
180
200
If a profiler is used to survey the condition of a network for statistical analysis,

the repeatability will probably not be of great concern.
On the other hand, if the profiler is used to evaluate newly built or repaired roads,
to reward or penalize contractors, repeatability assumes greater importance.
Reproducibility is the ability to repeat the measures with a different

profiler of the same basic design.
Now suppose someone else takes a profiler similar to yours and makes repeated
measures along the same line that you measured, and processes the profiles to obtain
the same index (e.g., IRI). The difference in the average values obtained for the
different instruments is the reproducibility. For example, the previous figure shows
independent measures made with several profilers from the same manufacturer. There
are four ICC ultrasonic units and two K.J. Law units.
To characterize the reproducibility of an instrument, it is necessary to make
measures on a set of test sites, taking repeat measures with both instruments on each
site. The number of repeats that should be taken depends on the repeatability of the
instruments and the testing methodology. If they are very repeatable, a single measure
might be sufficient. For less repeatable measures, sufficient repeats should be taken
to obtain a mean value of the profile index with some confidence.
For profilers, reproducibility is not of as much interest as portability.
Portability is the ability to repeat the measures with completely

different profiler designs.
The standard for portability is the true profile. Recall that a profiler is considered
valid if values of a given index are neither higher nor lower, on average, than values
Page 80
of the index obtained from true profile. Because any valid profiler is linked to the true
profile, its measures are portable by definition.
On the other hand, if the measures are not portable, then the profile is not valid.
Simple.
The previous figure shows the degree of portability that existed for measuring IRI
for a particular PCC test section. The reproducibility between similar profilers was
about the same as the portability between devices from different manufacturers.
The true profile is more of a concept than a reality. Given two profilers, which
one gives the truth? The accepted method for establishing that a profiler is valid for
measuring an index to test it against a static method such as rod and level or a
Dipstick. For IRI or analyses that can be applied for profiles taken with a 1-ft sample
interval, the Dipstick is a popular choice.
Repeatability and reproducibility can be calculated for each point in a

profile.
If you are using profile plots to diagnose pavement condition, then you may want
to compare the profile plots for repeat runs. One method, described in ASTM
standard E950, is to apply an identical high-pass filter to each profile, treat the
elevation values of each point along the profile as an independent measurement. The
standard deviation at each point can be calculated.
The interpretation of the variability of each point is not clear. As shown in
previous sections, analyses have sensitivity that changes with wavelength. Also, the
amplitudes associated with PSD functions show that elevation amplitudes are mainly
a function of how the profile is filtered to remove long wavelengths.
More research needs to be done to evaluate the usefulness of point-to-point
repeatability and reproducibility. The point-to-point variability does not have a direct
link to error in specific profile indices such as IRI and Ride Number.
What Causes Profiling Error?

The act of profiling involves: (1) a user, (2) a profiler, and (3) a road.
Errors are caused by: (1) the user, (2) the profiler, and (3) the road.
You are profiling a different line each time.

A major source of variation in profiler measures is that a different line on the road
is being profiled each time, and the lines simply have different true profiles. For static
profilers, the line is usually marked physically, and this error is small. For inertial
profilers, variations in choosing the line on the road are usually more significant than
any other errors.
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Assuming that you drive the profiler along a path parallel with the centerline of the
road, there are two variables that locate the line being profiled:
1. the longitudinal starting position, and
2. the lateral position.
At 100 km/hr, you cover almost 28 meters each second. The normal human
reaction time of several tenths of a second corresponds to distances of 5 to 8 meters.
In addition, when you trigger the profiler to start sampling, there may be a delay that
depends on the design of the electronics and the computer software that controls the
system during testing. The profile starts wherever the accelerometer and height
sensors are located when the measurement process begins.
Even expert drivers add variability to starting locations.

In past research programs, where test sites are marked with paint on the road, and
profilers have been run by experienced teams with a driver and instrument operator,
errors of 60 meters have been observed. Even the best teams had starting errors of 10
meters or so.
The roughness profiles shown earlier reduce the sensitivity of where the profile is
started, because they show roughness information for all possible starting locations.
The line being profiled is located directly under the height sensor. In most
profilers, it is in line with the wheels of the vehicle. However, the driver of the
vehicle should vary its location.
Lateral position is also important.

Highly skilled drivers can maintain a lateral position within about 15 cm.
However, variations of 30 to 50 cm are more common.
Operating some of todays profiling equipment is so easy, that the driver can
forget about the data being collected and drive like a normal motorist, even changing
lanes. A profile exists for a line that crosses from one lane to another, but it is not
something that can be easily reproduced.
The profiler has measurement error.

The valid measurement of profile requires that all parts of the system function
correctly: the accelerometer, the height sensor, the speed sensor, the power supplies,
the electronic signal conditioning, the analog-to-digital converter, and the computer.
Each part of the process involves some error. Ideally, the errors are small, but they
do exist.
In past research programs, the main observed error sources for systems with laser
and optical height sensors have been due to user practice. However, unexplained
differences exist even in controlled experiments, as will be seen later.
The sample interval may be too large for the analysis.
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Most of the mathematical analyses applied to profile measures are nearly exact for
very small sample intervals, but become approximate as the sample interval grows.
As a user, you trade off the convenience of a larger sample interval with the
potentially larger errors in the statistics calculated from the data. The next figure
shows the error level in PI (the intermediate statistic used to calculate RN) as a
function of sample interval. This shows that for sample intervals larger than 1 ft, even
a perfectly accurate profile is not sufficient to calculate RN.
Percent Error in PI
20
0
-20
-40
-60
-80
-100
0.1
10
Sample Interval (ft)

There is an effect called aliasing that can be a problem on textured surfaces. It
involves an interaction between the choice of sample interval, the roughness
characteristics of the road, and the analysis being applied. (Aliasing will be illustrated
later in a discussion on texture.) This source of error is reduced with anti-aliasing
filters in the profiler. However, not all profilers have anti-aliasing. For those that do
not, the error is reduced by using a smaller sample interval.
Recall that ultrasonic sensors cannot provide rapidly repeated measurements
because they must wait for echoing of the sound impulse to clear. At highway
speeds, the required time limits the sample interval to about 1 foot.
Ultrasonic systems have more error.

Systems with ultrasonic sensors are not as accurate as lasers and other optical
units. The ultrasonic sensor has a resolution of about 2.5 mm. A sinusoid with an
amplitude of 1 mm (2 mm from peak to peak) and wavelength of 3 meters has an IRI
value of 1.91 m/km. It would seem from this example that an ultrasonic sensor could
not even begin to work! However, they do work, under limited conditions, because
real roads are not sinusoids. If the vehicle motions are relatively large compared to the
resolution of the sensor, the error is less significant.
Except in a few odd situations, the error due to limited resolution causes the
roughness measured by an ultrasonic profiler to be higher than the true value.
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For smooth roads, the limited resolution of the ultrasonic device assumes greater
significance. Differences in performance have been observed with ultrasonic profilers
from different manufacturers. The roughness level where the systems are valid
depends on many factors and we do not have a rule of thumb.
A transducer may be disconnected or broken.

When a profiler malfunctions, it is often because one part has failed completely.
One cause is a broken connection.
Due to the complexity of the measuring process in an inertial profiler, it may still
appear to be producing profiles even if a critical element is broken. Recall that the
accelerometer and height signal together provide the information to generate the
profile. They also provide the information to cancel the effect of the vehicle bouncing.
If one of the sensors is broken or disconnected, you lose the profile contribution from
that sensor, which tends to reduce the calculated roughness. However, you gain the
vehicle bouncing that should have been canceled, an effect that tends to add to the
calculated roughness.
Although you might think the vehicle motion is random, it actually repeats fairly
well if you make repeat runs over the same road. Therefore, repeatability may still be
good (although not as good as when everything is working).
With experience, you can tell if either the accelerometer or height sensor is
missing by looking at plots of profile. If the accelerometer part is missing, the
variation in the profile with no filtering will be much more limited than is normal,
with a range of just an inch or so. For example, the following figure compares a
profile measurement to the one obtained using only the height sensor output.
Left Elevation (ft)

.10
.05
height sensor only
0
-.05
-.10
height sensor and accelerometer

0
200
400
600
Distance (ft)
800
1000
The IRI computed from the height sensor signal alone is about 97 in/mi, whereas
the IRI computed from the actual profile is about 140 in/mi. Although these values are
very different, the IRI value from the height sensor signal is in the expected range,
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and might not cause any notice when entered into a data base. Without a profile plot,
this error could go undetected.
If the height sensor is not working, the profile will be much smoother, showing
no texture or sharp variations.
The height sensor might not work for the surface type.
As mentioned earlier in the section on texture, textured surfaces are difficult to
sense with ultrasonic height transducers, and can cause problems with some laser
sensors.
Heavily cracked surfaces can also cause problems with laser sensors, as will be
described in a later section on cracks.
The height sensor might not work for other reasons.

Of all of parts that make up an inertial profiler, it is the height sensor that is most
likely to fail in difficult conditions.
Laser and optical sensors should be checked to ensure that the lenses are clear,
and not covered with dirt, rain, or mud that would prevent the continuous viewing of
the image projected on the ground.
Ultrasonic sensors can also be affected by mud, dirt, etc. Without proper barriers,
they are influenced by factors that change the time needed for sound to be reflected
from the ground back to the vehicle. Wind changes the air pressure and the speed of
sound. Outside noises can confuse the sensor logic.
The popularity of inertial profilers increased rapidly with the introduction of the
South Dakota design, which employed low-cost ultrasonic sensors at a small fraction
of the cost of laser-based devices. Unfortunately, performance is limited by the
ultrasonic sensor. Some States (including South Dakota) have modified their
systems, replacing the ultrasonic units with lasers.
The long-term solution is to replace the ultrasonic sensors with more accurate
devices when the budget permits.
Speed can be a factor.

The speed of measurement is integral to the proper operation of an inertial
profiler, and will be discussed in the next section.
The true profile may have changed.

The true profile can change with time. In particular, slab PCC pavements change
daily in response to heating and cooling. When the top of the slab has shrunk, slab
curl exists. Changes in IRI roughness of 20% have been observed due to this effect.
Besides the daily changes, seasonal changes can affect profile, as the ground
moisture varies. Freezing and thawing seasonal changes also can have a big effect.
For example, the plots below were obtained by Novak and DeFrain of the Michigan
DOT, showing how the profile changes for an overlay pavement in Michigan.
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Variations seen in profile measurement due to changes in the true profile are of
course not errors. The profiler is just capturing the current profile. Unfortunately, it is
not always easy to determine if observed changes are in the true profile or in the
measurement process.
What Is The Effect of Speed?

An inertial profiler is built on an ordinary highway vehicle, such as a van or
passenger car. When it is not measuring profile, the vehicle can be driven at the same
speeds that would be used if the vehicle did not have the instrumentation on board.
But when measuring profile, what is the effect of speed?
Most profilers are valid for a range of speeds.

Nearly all inertial profilers now in use produce profiles that are valid even if the
speed changes during the measurement. The range of speeds depends on the profiler
design and the use to be made of the data.
True profile is static.

Remember that the true profile is a property of a line on the ground. It has no
associated speed. If your profiler is valid for a given purpose, then its speed during
measurement is not a factor.
Under no conditions should you consider a speed correction factor. If different
results are obtained from your system at different speeds, something is wrong that
must be repaired.
You will finish sooner if you go fast.

Drivers of inertial profilers tend to figure this out fairly quickly.
It is harder to track an exact line at high speed.
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In applications where the intent is to capture a specific true profile, defined by a

specific (imaginary) line on the road, low speeds make it easier for the driver to
precisely locate the vehicle to follow the line.
A significant source of variability in repeated measures is variation in the lateral
position of the profiler between runs. In one run, the profile line might go over a
pothole, increasing the profile roughness. In the next run, if the operator goes just 8
inches to the right, the pothole is missed and a lower roughness is seen. Both results
might be correct, in the sense that the instrument obtained a valid profile in each case.
Its just that the profiles are based on different lines.
In the long run, variations like this average out. Potholes and other causes of
roughness are scattered about the road. Roughness features omitted in one profile are
made up for with additional features not present in other profiles on the same road.
Unless close agreement for repeat measures is needed, the exact location of the line
being profiled is not of interest, and the variability normal at highway speeds (60
mi/h) is acceptable.
The profiler senses longer wavelengths at higher speeds.

Recall that the inertial profiler has an accelerometer to sense vertical movement of
the vehicle and establish an inertial reference. Ideally, the output of the accelerometer
would be valid no matter how little the vehicle moves. However, in the real world of
imperfect sensors and electronics, there is also electronic noise. The profiler works
acceptably if the signal (output due to acceleration) from the accelerometer is
significantly larger than the noise. However, if the signal is at the same level as the
noise, or smaller, then the computer generates a profile that is in error because it is
based on the noise.
The accelerometer and its electronics must be set to handle the largest vertical
accelerations that are anticipated in normal use. A 1.0 g (g = gravity) vertical
acceleration is the level where objects in the vehicle bounce in the air. The exact limit
in a profiler depends on the design and possibly user settings, but it will be in the
range of 0.4 g to 1.5 g. (For accelerometers mounted on the bumper or in utility
vehicle, ranges may go up to 2 or 3 gs.) With these settings, noise and other errors
start to assume significance for acceleration levels less than 0.01 g.
Consider the three example sinusoids introduced earlier. The vertical acceleration
that each causes as you drive over it (ignoring vehicle dynamics) depends on speed.
The table below shows the relation between speed and vertical acceleration. The 60 m
wavelength () generates 0.02 g vertical acceleration at 60 mi/h, but only 0.0013 g at
15 mi/h. At the high speed, the profile should be valid for analyses that involve 200-ft
wavelengths. At the low speed, the profile might be questionable for the same
analysis.
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(m) Amp.
(mm)
60
20
15
5
10 ft 0.05 in
At 27 km/hr
Freq.
Accel.
(Hz)
(g)
0.13
0.0013
0.50
0.005
2.50
0.025
At 54 km/hr
Freq. Accel.
(Hz)
(g)
0.25
0.005
1.00
0.02
5.00
0.10
At 108 km/hr
Freq. Accel.
(Hz)
(g)
0.50
0.02
2.00
0.08
10.00
0.40
There is a low-speed limit for inertial profilers.

For very low speeds, the vertical acceleration is too small even for wavelengths of
15 m and shorter. The exact limit depends on two factors: (1) the use to be made of
the data, and (2) the quality of the accelerometer and the instrumentation in the
profilers.
As a rule of thumb, 25 km/hr should be viewed as a lower limit for obtaining
profiles for typical analyses such as IRI. If the profiles are analyzed with
mathematical transforms that involve only short wavelengths, the speed could be
lowered to 15 km/hr. For analyses in which longer wavelengths are of interest,
higher speeds should be used.
Using the brakes causes a small measurement error.

Modern inertial profilers allow the speed to vary during the measurement process.
The speed change is perfectly compensated if the accelerometer is oriented so (1) its
axis is purely vertical, or (2) the longitudinal acceleration is zero. In fact, neither of
these conditions is satisfied perfectly. As the vehicle responds to roughness in the
road, it pitches forward and back, slightly, changing the vertical axis of the
accelerometer relative to pure vertical. The pitch angles are small, usually being much
less than one degree. However, during braking, the pitch can rise to one or two
degrees. Except for braking or heavy use of the gas pedal, the longitudinal
acceleration is also small.
A potential problem exists when the accelerometer is tilted and the vehicle is
undergoing longitudinal acceleration, as shown in the figure below.
Ax = Longitudinal
acceleration due to braking
Az = Vertical acceleration due

to profile + vehicle
g = acceleration due to gravity
= Pitch angle
Accelerometer axis
The acceleration measured by the transducer is
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Ameas = (Az g) cos() + Ax sin()

For a 1 pitch angle, cos() is 0.99985. Even with the 1 g due to gravity, the error is
just (1 - .99985) = 0.00015 g. The term sin() is 0.0175. Now, if there is a braking
deceleration of 0.1 g, this adds an error of (0.0175)(0.1) = 0.00175 g. This amount
of acceleration error is small enough that it will not be obvious in the profile data.
Both the longitudinal acceleration and the pitch angle are roughly proportional to
braking effort. Thus, the error is roughly proportional to the braking effort squared.
For example, with a 2 pitch and 0.2 g deceleration, the vertical acceleration error is
0.007 g.
High speeds require higher data collection rates.

For a given sample interval, the computer and data acquisition system must
sample readings from the accelerometer and height sensor at a frequency proportional
to speed. Depending on the computer, the electronics, and the level of complexity in
the calculations made to mathematically compute profile from the outputs of the
accelerometer and height sensor, there may be a limit as to how many readings can be
taken per second. At 100 km/hr (62.5 mi/hr), a profiler with two accelerometers, two
height sensors, and a forward speed sensor must collect and process over 5500
readings per second to sample two profiles at a 25-mm interval.
In past years, computer processing speed has limited the sample intervals that
could be handled at high speeds. With todays computer speeds, the data collection
capabilities should not be a limiting factor except for very small sample intervals
(smaller than an inch).
Speed is limited for profilers with ultrasonic sensors.

The data collection speed for an ultrasonic sensor is limited by echoing of the
acoustic ping and, to a lesser degree, the speed of sound in air. Sound travels at about
335 m/sec. Therefore, if the sensor is 150 mm above the road surface, it takes about
0.001 sec for the sound to hit the road and reflect back. At a forward speed of 100
km/hr, this means the vehicle will have traveled about 25 mm by the time the sound
has been sensed. However, it takes many times that long for the echoes of the
acoustic ping to die out enough to make the next reading accurately.
The exact relation between vehicle speed and the sample interval that can be
achieved at that speed is determined by several factors in the design of the system.
However, the clearances needed for safe operation, combined with the echoing time,
combine to place a limit on sample interval for profilers with ultrasonic sensors. They
typically can measure at intervals no smaller than 300 mm at highway speeds. To
measure at a 150-mm interval requires lowering the measurement speed down to
about 50 km/hr.
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What Is the Effect of Texture?
Textured surfaces cause profile measurement errors.

There are serious measurement problems posed by textured surfaces such as chip
sealed or open graded pavements. The texture involves variations that occur over
short distances that involve wavelengths of several inches or less. These wavelengths
are outside the range of interest for most profile analyses, but they affect the
performance of some instruments. The specific nature of the error depends on the
type of instrument.
Texture can cause alias errors.

Aliasing is illustrated with a sinusoid in the figure below.
Sampled values
True profile
Alias sinusoid
The vertical lines indicate locations where the profile is sampled, and the shortwavelength sinusoid is the example true profile being sampled. The intersections of
the vertical lines and the sinusoid indicate that values that are sampled.
Recall that in order to see a sinusoid, the sample interval must be half the
wavelength or smaller. The above example shows what happens when the sample
interval is too large. Notice that when we connect the sampled values with straight
lines, the samples seem to define a sinusoid with a much longer wavelength. This
effect is called aliasing. The sinusoid with the long wavelength is an alias of the true
sinusoid with the shorter wavelength.
Suppose the profile is being processed with an analysis that has zero response to
the sinusoid in the true profile. The problem is that the analysis applied to the profile
might respond to the aliased sinusoid, which has a longer wavelength. Given that the
aliased sinusoid does not exist in the true profile, this is a source of error.
For profile shapes other than a sinusoid, the same effect exists. Variations in the
profile cause an alias shape if the sample interval is not sufficiently small.
Aliasing can be reduced for static profile measures.

Static methods such as rod and level or the Dipstick involve physical contact with
the road surface. Supports that cover a very small area allow the device to sense
variations that cover small distances. The foot of the Dipstick or the end of the rod fit
into small depressions. On the other hand, supports with larger footprint areas
smooth out the texture variations, reducing the aliasing problem.
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The Dipstick has optional moon feet several inches in diameter, to reduce
aliasing errors and texture effects. For rod and level, pads can be fabricated to
increase the footprint size. For example, an attachment used in past research
programs is shown below.
Rod with precision

scale attached
Distance from scale to

ground is not needed
(but must be constant)
Ball joint
4-in diameter pad
Aliasing can be reduced for laser and optical measures.

Sensors that detect height above the road with light (laser or plain light) can be
triggered at a very high rate. For example, the PRORUT system developed for
Federal Highway Administration uses a laser sensor made by the Selcom company
that produces a continuous output of voltage proportional to height. The laser system
updates the reading 16,000 times per second. Traveling at 100 ft/sec, the samples are
spaced less than 0.1 inches apart. The voltage provided by the unit as an output is
filtered electronically to smooth it before it is sampled at a larger interval (e.g., 2
inches) for computer processing.
As another example, systems made by K.J. Law, Inc. compute profile at about a
1-inch interval. The computed profiles are then smoothed by a digital filter and stored
at about a 6-inch interval.
The footprint of an ultrasonic sensor is large enough that aliasing is not
considered a serious problem. However, textured surfaces cause serious
measurement errors for ultrasonic systems for another reason.
Textured surfaces cannot be profiled with ultrasonic systems.

Ultrasonic height sensors work by emitting a short sound pulse and listening for
the returning echo. The time between the emission of the pulse and its return is
proportional to the distance covered. This technique fails (1) if the surface does not
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reflect the sound well enough to detect, or (2) if the surface reflects the sound many
times, such that the multiple echoes confuse the sensor logic.
Experience gained over the past ten years with ultrasonic sensors repeatedly
shows that they simply do not work on textured surfaces.
Textured surfaces cause difficulty with laser sensors.

Laser height sensors work by projecting an image on the ground, detecting its
position when viewed at an angle, and determining the distance by triangulation. This
technique fails if the image cannot be detected. If the image is small relative to the
scale of the texture features, it may not always be visible to the detection transducer.
Although textured surfaces cause difficulty, some instrumentation systems are
designed to compensate. The laser image is monitored at a very high frequency.
When the image disappears, the most recent height can be used. As soon as the image
re-appears, the height is updated. Thus, a loss of the image is acceptable up to a point
where it is lost nearly all of the time. The electronic logic that holds the last sample
until the image re-appears is called sample and hold.
Optical and laser sensors can reduce texture problems with large
images.
Laser height sensors generally work with small dot images. Optical sensors
typically project a larger image onto the ground. (Both laser and optical systems
usually use infra-red light to avoid interference from visible light, and therefore, you
cannot see the images without special goggles.) A larger image gives a large
footprint. If the image remains visible on textured surfaces, the problems are reduced
considerably.
What About Cracks?

Cracks in the pavement are usually thought of as degrading structural
performance, rather than most of the performance qualities of a road that we derive
from profile.
Cracks do not directly affect vehicle dynamics.

Although the presence of cracks in the road implies that the road is deteriorating,
and may lead to increased roughness in the future, they are not necessarily felt by a
vehicle. This is because they are usually very narrow compared to the length of a tire
contact patch.
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Cracks do not directly affect tires and vehicles.
Bumps do!
Cracks do affect roughness indices.

Laser sensors project an image onto the ground that is small enough to go into a
crack. Unless a very short sample interval is used, there is not enough information to
distinguish a crack from a dip with a longer duration. Systems with a close sample
interval are more likely to pick up a crack, but provide enough information so that
they can be identified as such. Often, however, this information is thrown away
before the profile is recorded.
None of the profile analyses covered in this book include methods for handling
cracks properly. They all treat a crack the same way as a bump that is as high as the
crack is deep. This means that the index can be affected significantly by a road feature
that is not relevant to the quality it is trying to predict.
Conventional filters do not completely remove cracks from profile.

A low-pass filter that is applied to a profile that includes a large dip caused by a
crack will reduce it, but not remove it. A special directional algorithm is needed that
treats cracks differently than bumps. This algorithm will only be useful if the sample
interval is close enough to identify a dip in the profile as a crack.
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Original profile with 1" crack
Smoothing
Length
Filtered Profile (moving average)
Feature is reduced, but not eliminated.
Still has effect on IRI and other indices.
Directional Sample and Hold algorithm

is recommended
How Accurate Should a Profile Be?

There is not a single use for profiles, and there is not a single best profiler
design for all applications.
Network monitoring requires high measurement efficiency.

Year-to-year records of the state of a road network are used to manage sections
that are typically several miles in length. Time is a significant constraintthe
measurement and analysis process for the entire network must be completed in a year,
when it is then time to repeat the process for the next year. Measurement speeds are
typically 80 km/hr (50 mi/hr) or higher for this application.
The accuracy of individual readings is not critical, nor is the ability to pin-point
trouble spots to the nearest 10 m. Recall, one of the criteria for a valid profiler is that
measures are neither higher nor lower, on the average, than would be obtained with
painstakingly measured true profiles. Random errors in measurement average out
for individual sections of road and do not affect the big picture.
Diagnostic applications require accuracy and inspection of profiles.

Time is less of a factor when the intent is to closely study sections of road of a
few kilometers or less. Lower measurement speeds of 25 or 40 km/hr are acceptable.
For diagnostic applications, it may be desirable to show properties of the road on a
scale such that trouble spots can be located to within 10 or 20 meters. (As a point of
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reference, when traveling at 100 km/hr, which is 62.5 mi/hr, you cover almost 28
meters each second. Thus, 33 meters (100 ft) corresponds to a little over 1 second of
time as perceived by a driver at highway speeds.)
Accuracy may be of greater concern for diagnostic applications. The measures are
not just for a statistical data basethey are to describe the exact condition of a
particular section of pavement.
The required profiler accuracy depends on the application.

The application of profiler data involves the analysis that will be used to process
the profile, and the use to be made of the processed results.
Accuracy specifications must involve sinusoidal wavelength.

Most of the analyses that are applied to profile measurements by standard
computer software can be characterized meaningfully by two factors:
1. How does the analysis respond to a sinusoid with a given wavelength?
2. How significant is that wavelength in the roughness of a typical road?
Consider the first factor. Suppose the profiler is used to determine IRI roughness.
It is known that when the IRI software is given a sinusoid with a wavelength longer
than 100 ft, it hardly produces any output. For example, the table below shows IRI
values for several sinusoids.
Wavelength
60 m
30 m
15 m
6m
3m
1.5 m
Amplitude
20 mm
10 mm
5 mm
2 mm
1 mm
0.5 mm
Slope Amplitude
2.09 m/km
2.09 m/km
2.09 m/km
2.09 m/km
2.09 m/km
2.09 m/km
IRI
0.15 m/km
0.62 m/km
1.99 m/km
1.53 m/km
1.89 m/km
0.99 m/km
As the wavelengths get longer, the output goes closer and closer to zero. Thus,
improved accuracy in measuring profile for wavelengths over several hundred feet
cannot improve the accuracy of the IRI.
Now consider the second factor: the content of the roughness in a typical road.
We know from having viewed PSD functions that the variation in profile slope is
approximately uniform with wave number over the range covered by the IRI. From
the IRI frequency response plot, we have seen that the IRI responds more or less
uniformly (within a factor of 2) to slope inputs for wavelengths longer than about 1.5
m and shorter than 24 m. A meaningful accuracy specification for a profiler optimized
for obtaining IRI would specify its accuracy in measuring slope (e.g., error less than
1%, or some threshold such as 0.03 m/km) for sinusoids with wavelengths between
1.5 and 24 meters.
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It is easy to evaluate the effect of profile error on the IRI, because it is linearly
related to the amplitude of the sinusoid. Suppose the amplitude of the sinusoid is in
error by 0.1 mm? That would cause a 10% error for the 3-m sinusoid (0.19 m/km
error), a 2% error for the 15-m sinusoid (0.04 m/km), and a 0.5% error for the 60-m
sinusoid (0 m/km). Clearly, a limit on elevation error alone does not tell much about
accuracy for obtaining IRI.
A limit on slope error is appropriate for profilers used to measure IRI.

A limit on slope error is more directly related to the final outcome. For example,
suppose the error is 0.03 m/km. The IRI error would be close to 0.03 m/km for the
3-m and 15-m sinusoids, and about zero for the 60-m sinusoid.
What Is a Class 1 Profiler?

Two classes of profiling methods were defined with respect to the IRI in the
guidelines published by The World Bank. (Additional classes were provided for
response-type systems and subjective panel ratings.) The Class 1 and Class 2 profiler
definitions were later adopted by FHWA for the HPMS data base. A recent ASTM
standard, E950(94), defines four classes of profilers.
Classes are intended to indicate the accuracy of a profiler.

A common verification test for a new instrument is to compare its results with
those obtained from a reference. If you have two profilers, they will not give exactly
the same results. Which do you use as a reference? Some profilers are clearly more
accurate than others, so the concept of a Class 1 measurement was introduced in
development of the IRI to define a reference to determine the accuracy of a
roughness-measuring instrument and/or method. A Class 1 instrument must be so
accurate that the random error is negligible: for all practical purposes, the IRI measure
of a Class 1 system is the true IRI.
Class 1 originally meant IRI was usually within 2% of the truth.

The concept of a true profile for a given line on the ground leads to the concept of
a true IRI or other profile-based statistic. Using data taken in research, the level of
accuracy associated with Class 1 was set at 2% for 320-m (0.2-mi) test sites. (This
tidbit of information was not published in the World Bank report, but is based on the
recollection of the author.) Computer studies of the sensitivity of IRI to sample
interval and height resolution were used to define a Class 1 profiling instrument.
The concept of Classes for profiler methods has proved popular among users and
manufacturers. However, evidence from correlation studies over the past ten years
indicates that current specifications of a Class 1 IRI profile measurement are not
sufficient. Devices that, on paper, qualify as Class 1, do not always show the
repeatability that was expected. In retrospect, the major problem is thought to be that
Page 96
the specifications focus on the equipment and not its use. Some of the error sources
mentioned in the previous section exist no matter how accurate a profiler is.
Existing Class 1 definitions are not sufficient.

Evidence of the problem is obtained when studies are done where different
instruments profile the same sites to obtain IRI measures. For example, the figure
below shows repeated measures from six devices that, on paper, qualify as Class 1
devices.
Pennsylvania Section 6
250
240
230
220
210
200
DipStick
PRORUT ARAN
60%
100%
Law
(Ohio)
50%
Law
(NAS)
80%
ICC
90%
The plot shows data from taken from 1993 correlation data collected for a study
initiated by RPUG. In the study, considerable effort was taken to ensure that profiles
all began at the same longitudinal location. The boxes in the figure show 2% range.
The plot shows two interesting results:
1. The repeatability for some of the instruments is not within 2%, however,
the repeatability is generally pretty good.
2. The total range covers 205 to 247 in/mi, which is approximately a 20%
variation.
There are limitations with the equipment that are not covered by the specification
of sample interval and height resolution. Experience now shows that a device might
have trouble with a specific road surface. A common example is that certain textured
surfaces can confuse even the best non-contacting height sensors used in high-speed
profilers. Another example is that the Dipstick can miss significant roughness on a
surface with bumps shorter than its 12-in base length.
Page 97
As experience is gained, areas emerge where differences between instruments are

not easily explained. For example, it was shown earlier that profiles change
significantly due to temperature and seasonal variations. Provisions must be made to
account for this effect in the acquisition of profile data for research involving Class 1
methods.
Research is needed to refine the definition of a Class 1 measurement.

As a minimum, the specification should be extended to describe a test method for
using the instrument that allows the user to estimate its quality (e.g., by looking at the
scatter in repeated measures).
Bibliography
Interpretation of Road Roughness
Sayers, M.W. and S.M. Karamihas, Interpretation of Road Roughness Profile Data.
Federal Highway Administration Report FHWA/RD-96/101, (1996) 177 p.
The International Roughness Index
Sayers, M.W., On the Calculation of International Roughness Index from Longitudinal
Road Profile. Transportation Research Record 1501, (1995) pp. 1-12.
Sayers, M.W., et al., Guidelines for Conducting and Calibrating Road Roughness
Measurements. World Bank Technical Paper Number 46, (1986) 87 p.
Ride Number
Janoff, M.S., Pavement Roughness and Rideability Field Evaluation. National Cooperative
Highway Research Program Report 308, (1988) 54 p.
Janoff, M.S., et al., Pavement Roughness and Rideability. National Cooperative Highway
Research Program Report 275, (1985) 69 p.
Sayers, M.W. and S.M. Karamihas, Estimation of Rideability by analyzing Longitudinal
Road Profile. Transportation Research Record 1536, (1996) pp. 110-116.
Spangler, E.B. and W.J. Kelly, Development and Evaluation of the Ride Number
Concept, Vehicle-Road Interaction, ASTM STP 1225, B. T. Kulakowski ed.,
American Society of Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, (1994) pp. 135-149.
Panel Ratings
Hutchinson, B.G., Principles of Subjective Rating Scale Construction. Highway
Research Record 46, (1964) pp. 60-70.
Loizos, A., et al., Effects of User Characteristics and Vehicle Type on Road Roughness
Perception. Road and Transport Research Vol. 3, No. 4, (1994) pp. 57-65.
Page 98
Nick, J.B. and M.S. Janoff, Evaluation of Panel Rating Methods for Assessing Pavement
Ride Quality. Transportation Research Record 946, (1983) pp. 5-13.
Weaver, R.J., Quantifying Pavement Serviceability as It Is Judged by Highway Users.
Transportation Research Record 715, (1979) pp. 37-44.
Half-Car Roughness Index
Sayers, M.W., Two Quarter-Car Models for Defining Road Roughness: IRI and HRI.
Transportation Research Record 1215, (1989) pp. 165-172.
Root Mean Squared Vertical Acceleration
Hudson, W.R., et al., Root-Mean-Square Vertical Acceleration as a Summary Roughness
Statistic, Measuring Road Roughness and Its Effects on User Cost and Comfort,
ASTM STP 884, T. D. Gillespie and M. W. Sayers ed., American Society of Testing
and Materials, Philadelphia, (1985) pp. 3-24.
Michigan Ride Quality Index
Darlington, J., A Roughness Wavelength Band Determined by Subjective Response.
Michigan Department of State Highways unpublished report, (1976) 6 p.
Pavement Serviceability
The AASHO Road Test, Report 5, Pavement Research. Highway Research Board Special
Report 61E, (1962) 352 p.
Carey, W.N. and P.E. Irick, The Pavement Serviceability-Performance Concept.
Highway Research Board Bulletin 250, (1960) pp. 40-58.
Response-Type Road Roughness Measuring Systems
Gillespie, T.D., et al., Calibration of Response-Type Road Roughness Measuring
Systems. National Cooperative Highway Research Program Report 228, (1980)
81 p.
Hveem, F.N., Devices for Recording and Evaluating Pavement Roughness. Highway
Research Board Bulletin 264, (1960) pp. 1-26.
Profiling Methods
Standard Test Method for Measuring Longitudinal Profile of Traveled Surfaces with an
Accelerometer Established Inertial Profiling Reference. Annual Book of ASTM
Standards Vol. 04.03, E950, (1996) pp. 702-706.
Standard Test Method for Measuring Road Roughness by Static Rod and Level Method.
Annual Book of ASTM Standards Vol. 04.03, E1364, (1996) pp. 750-755.
Gillespie, T.D., et al., Methodology for Road Roughness Profiling and Rut Depth
Measurement. Federal Highway Administration Report FHWA/RD-87-042, (1987)
50 p.
Huft, D.L., South Dakota Profilometer. Transportation Research Record 1000, (1984)
pp. 1-7.
Page 99
Spangler, E.B. and W.J. Kelly, GMR Road Profilometer - A Method for Measuring Road
Profile. Highway Research Record 121, (1966) pp. 27-54.
Vehicle Dynamics
Gillespie, T.D., Fundamental of Vehicle Dynamics. Society of Automotive Engineers,
Warrendale, PA (1992) 495 p.
Truck Ride
Gillespie, T.D., Heavy Truck Ride. Society of Automotive Engineers SP-607, (1985)
66 p.
Truck Wheel Loads
Ervin, R.D., et al., Influence of Truck Size and Weight Variables on the Stability and
Control Properties of Heavy Trucks. Federal Highway Administration Report
FHWA-RD-83-030, (1983) 179 p.
Sweatman, P.F., Study of Dynamic Wheel forces in Axle Group Suspensions of Heavy
Vehicles. Australian Road Research Board Special Report 27, (1983) 56 p.
Whittemore, A.P., et al., Dynamic Pavement Loads of Heavy Highway Vehicles. National
Cooperative Highway Research Program Report 105, (1970) 94 p.
Page 100

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The Little Book of

Revision: September 18, 1998

A profile is a two-dimensional slice of the road surface, taken along an

A profile of a road, pavement, or ground can be measured along any continuous

The width of the line is not standard.

Revision: September 18, 1998

For any line on the road, there is a true profile.

A profiler is an instrument used to produce a series of numbers related

A profiler works by combining three ingredients.

Rod and Level

Revision: September 18, 1998

1. Reference elevation = instrument height

ASTM Standard E1364 provides guidelines for measuring profiles with

Revision: September 18, 1998

Instructions for using a Dipstick are provided by the manufacturer.

Revision: September 18, 1998

Inertial Profiler (GM Design)

The inertial reference is provided by an accelerometer.

An inertial profiler must be moving to function.

Revision: September 18, 1998

Accurate profile statistics can be obtained from inertial profilers.

Revision: September 18, 1998

Roughness statistics obtained by different profilers.

Measures from inertial profiles can be more reliable than measures

Instructions for using an inertial profiler are provided by the

Revision: September 18, 1998

What Can You Do With Profiles?

There are at least four broad categories of profiler applications.

A profile measure should be relevant.

Revision: September 18, 1998

management systems. Ride Number is linked by statistical correlation to public

What is a Valid Profiler?

A profiler is valid if it provides the same statistical values that would

Statistics from two or more valid profilers are directly comparable,

Revision: September 18, 1998

Statistics from valid profilers are stable over time.

No single device is the best reference for every use.

Left Elevation (mm)

Revision: September 18, 1998

When Is a Profiler Not Valid?

A profiler is not valid if its measures are systematically biased.

A profiler is not valid if the random error for an individual

What Is Signal Processing?

Revision: September 18, 1998

engineering and instrumentation, a fluctuating voltage that contains information is

A signal is a series of numbers.

Signal processing is the mathematical analysis and transformation of

What Is Sample Interval?

Nearly all profiling systems in use today are digital.

Revision: September 18, 1998

Sample interval is the longitudinal distance between elevation values.

Sample interval determines the number of stored elevations per

Sample interval limits the information contained in a profile.

Revision: September 18, 1998

Revision: September 18, 1998

RMS Slope (m/km)

A digital filter is a calculation procedure that transforms a series of

Revision: September 18, 1998

Left Elevation (m)

It is necessary to filter profile data to view different types of profile

Left Elevation (m)

Revision: September 18, 1998

Filtering is particularly important when viewing data from high-speed inertial