NEBOSH International Diploma in Occupational Health and Safety

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Version 1.3 (21/03/2013)

IC8 Electrical Safety.

Learning outcomes:
On completion of this element, candidates should be able to demonstrate understanding of the content through the application of knowledge to familiar and unfamiliar situations and the critical analysis and evaluation of information presented in both qualitative and quantitative forms. In particular, they should be able
to:

Outline the basic principles of electricity;

Outline the dangers of electricity;
Outline the issues relevant to the installation, use, inspection and maintenance of
electrical systems;
Outline the main principles for safe working in the vicinity of high voltage systems;
Identify the main hazards, risks and controls associated with the use of portable
electrical equipment.

Relevant Standards
BS7671:2008 Requirements for Electrical Installations. IEE Wiring Regulations.
Seventeenth edition.
Electricity at work: safe working practices HSG85, HSE Books
Maintaining portable and transportable electrical equipment, HSG107, HSE Books
Avoidance of danger from overhead electric powerlines, Gs6, HSE Books
Minimum hours of tuition: 7 hours.

1.0 The Basic Principles of Electricity.

Potential Difference (or voltage):
Voltage is the difference of electrical potential between two points of an electrical network, expressed in volts. It is a measure of the capacity of an electric field to cause an
electric current in an electrical conductor. Between two points in an electric field, such as
exists in an electrical circuit, the difference in their electrical potentials is known as the
electrical potential difference. This difference is proportional to the electrostatic force that
tends to push electrons or other charge-carriers from one point to the other. Potential
difference, electrical potential, and electromotive force are measured in volts, leading to
the commonly used term voltage. Voltage is usually represented in equations by the
symbols V, U or E. (E is often preferred in academic writing, because it avoids the confusion between V and the SI symbol for the volt, which is also V). Electrical potential difference can be thought of as the ability to move electrical charge through a resistance. At a
time in physics when the word force was used loosely, the potential difference was
named the electromotive force or emf-a term which is still used in certain contexts.
Voltage is a property of an electric field, not individual electrons. An electron moving
across a voltage difference experiences a net change in energy, often measured in electron-volts. This effect is analogous to a mass falling through a given height difference in
a gravitational field.
When using the term 'potential difference' or voltage, one must be clear about the two
points between which the voltage is specified or measured. There are two ways in which
the term is used. This can lead to some confusion.

Voltage is a measure of how much energy a charged particle has in relation to another
place, most commonly ground. Compare voltage, which is measured in energy per
charged particle (Joules per Coulomb) to potential energy (PE=mgh) which is the weight
of an object times its height. These quantities would be about the same conceptually if
you divided PE per unit mass. Think of an electron in a circuit compared to a rollercoaster car at the top of a hill.

1.1 High & Low Voltages - The Differences.

The first electricity networks in the UK developed around 120 years ago as localised
street systems and have evolved to become today's interconnected national transmission and distribution network. Transmission is the bulk, often long distance, movement of
electricity at high voltages (400kV [400,000 volts] - and 275kV) from generating stations
to distribution companies and to a small number of large industrial customers. Distribution is electricity provision to the majority of customers through lower voltage, more localised networks (from 132kV to 230V).
The International Electrotechnical Commission and its national counterparts (IET, IEEE,
VDE, etc.) define high voltage circuits as those with more than 1000 V for alternating current and at least 1500 V for direct current, and distinguish it from low voltage (50-1000 V
AC or 120-1500 V DC) and extra-low voltage (<50 V AC or <120 V DC) circuits. This is in
the context of building wiring and the safety of electrical apparatus.
Low voltage is an electrical engineering term that broadly identifies safety considerations
of an electricity supply system based on the voltage used. While different definitions exist
for the exact voltage range covered by "low voltage", the most commonly used ones include "mains voltage". "Low voltage" is characterised by carrying a substantial risk of
electric shock, but only a minor risk of electric arcs through air. "Low voltage" is distinguished from:

Extra low voltage - which carries a much reduced risk of electric shock
High voltage - where electrical arcing is a substantial additional risk.

Commonly used definitions include:

The International Electrotechnical Commission defines low voltage as any voltage in the
range 50-1000 V AC or 120-1500 V DC.
British Standard BS 7671:2008 defines low voltage as:

50-1000 V AC or 120-1500 V ripple-free DC between conductors;

50-600 V AC or 120-900 V ripple-free DC between conductors and Earth.

1.2 Current, Resistance & Impedance.

Current :
Electric current is by definition the flow of electric charge. The SI (International System of
Units) unit of electric current is the ampere (A), which is equal to a flow of one coulomb
of charge per second. 1 coulomb is the amount of electric charge carried by a current of
1 ampere flowing for 1 second.

Resistance and Impedance:

Electrical resistance is a measure of the degree to which an object opposes the passage
of an electric current. The SI unit of electrical resistance is the ohm. Its reciprocal quantity is electrical conductance measured in siemens.
The quantity of resistance in an electric circuit determines the amount of current flowing
in the circuit for any given voltage applied to the circuit.

where:
R is the resistance of the object, usually measured in ohms , equivalent to Js/C2
V is the potential difference across the object, usually measured in volts
I is the current passing through the object, usually measured in amperes
For a wide variety of materials and conditions, the electrical resistance does not depend
on the amount of current flowing or the amount of applied voltage. V can either be
measured directly across the object or calculated from a subtraction of voltages relative
to a reference point. The former method is simpler for a single object and is likely to be
more accurate. There may also be problems with the latter method if the voltage supply
is AC and the two measurements from the reference point are not in phase with each
other.
Ohm's Law:
Ohm's law states that, in an electrical circuit, the current passing through most materials
is directly proportional to the potential difference applied across them.
In mathematical terms, this is written as:

where I is the current, V is the potential difference, and R is a proportionality constant

called the resistance. The potential difference is also known as the voltage drop, and is
sometimes denoted by E or U instead of V.
The SI unit of current is the ampere; that of potential difference is the volt; and that of
resistance is the ohm, equal to one volt per ampere. The law is named after the physicist
Georg Ohm (1789-1854), who published it in 1827.

1.3 Identification of Basic Electrical Circuitry.

An electrical circuit is a network that has a closed loop, giving a return path for the current. A network is a connection of two or more components, and may not necessarily be
a circuit. To design any electrical circuits, electrical engineers need to be able to predict
the voltages and currents in the circuit. Linear circuits can be analysed to a certain extent
by hand because complex number theory gives electricians the ability to treat all linear
elements using a single mathematical representation.
Many electricians utilise special software to design and simulate circuits before building
them. This method increases both time and cost efficiency since it does not require the
engineer to build every circuit prototype in order to test it. The development of technologies such as VHDL has also eased the burden from engineers by simulating and auto-

matically generating circuit designs.

1.4 Earthing Principles.

The term ground or earth usually means a common return path in electrical circuits. The
terms 'earth return' and 'ground return' are also common meanings.
In electrical engineering, the term ground or earth has the following meanings:
An electrical connection to earth. The part directly in contact with the earth (the earth
electrode) can be as simple as a metal (usually copper) rod or stake driven into the
earth, or a connection to buried metal water piping. Or it can be a complex system of buried rods and wires. The resistance of the electrode-to-earth connection determines its
quality, and is improved by increasing the surface area of the electrode in contact with
the earth, increasing the depth to which it is driven, using several connected ground
rods, increasing the moisture of the soil, improving the conductive mineral content of the
soil, and increasing the land area covered by the ground system. This type of ground
applies to radio antennae and to lightning protection systems.
In a mains (AC power) wiring installation, the grounding is the wire that carries currents
away under fault conditions. This power ground grounding wire is (directly or indirectly)
connected to one or more earth electrodes. These may be located locally, be far away in
the suppliers network or in many cases both. This grounding wire is usually but not always connected to the neutral wire at some point and they may even share a cable for
part of the system under some conditions. The ground wire is also usually bonded to
pipe work to keep it at the same potential as the electrical ground during a fault. Water
supply pipes often used to be used as ground electrodes but this was banned in some
countries when plastic pipe such as PVC became popular.
In an electrical circuit operating at signal voltages (usually less than 50 V or so), a common return path is the zero voltage reference level for the equipment or system. This
signal ground may or may not actually be connected to a power ground. A system where
the system ground is not actually connected to earth is often referred to as a floating
ground.
Any excess charges deposited on the inner surface of a Faraday cage will migrate to the
outer surface of the cage, where they can produce no electric fields within the enclosure.
For this reason, the inside surface of a Faraday cage behaves like an infinite sink for
electrical charge from the perspective of objects within. Even if the Faraday cage itself is
not connected to the Earth, the inner surface of the cage can be used in place of an
earth connection.
A ground conductor on a lightning protection system used to dissipate the strike into the
earth.

1.5 Significance of Direct & Alternating Currents.

Direct Current (DC):
Direct current (DC or "continuous current") is the constant flow of electrons from low to
high potential. This is typically in a conductor such as a wire, but can also be through
semiconductors, insulators, or even through a vacuum as in electron or ion beams. In

direct current, the electric charges flow in the same direction, distinguishing it from alternating current (AC). A term formerly used for direct current was Galvanic current. Within
Electrical Engineering, the term DC is a synonym for constant. For example, the voltage
across a DC voltage source is constant as is the current through a DC current source.
The DC solution of an electric circuit is the solution where all voltages and currents are
constant. It can be shown that any voltage or current waveform can be decomposed into
a sum of a DC component and a time-varying component. The DC component is defined
to be the average value of the voltage or current over all time. The average value of the
time-varying component is zero.
Although DC stands for "Direct Current", DC sometimes refers to "constant polarity."
With this definition, DC voltages can vary in time, such as the raw output of a rectifier or
the fluctuating voice signal on a telephone line.
Some forms of DC (such as that produced by a voltage regulator) have almost no variations in voltage, but may still have variations in output power and current.
Direct current installations usually have different types of sockets, switches, and fixtures,
mostly due to the low voltages used, from those suitable for alternating current. It is usually important with a direct current appliance not to reverse polarity unless the device has
a diode bridge to correct for this. (Most battery-powered devices don't.)
High voltage direct current is used for long-distance point-to-point power transmission
and for submarine cables, with voltages from a few kilovolts to approximately one megavolt.
DC is commonly found in many low-voltage applications, especially where these are
powered by batteries, which can produce only DC, or solar power systems, since solar
cells can produce only DC. Most automotive applications use DC, although the alternator
is an AC device which uses a rectifier to produce DC. Most electronic circuits require a
DC power supply. Applications using fuel cells (mixing hydrogen and oxygen together
with a catalyst to produce electricity and water as by-products) also produce only DC.
Most telephones connect to a twisted pair of wires, and internally separate the AC component of the voltage between the two wires (the audio signal) from the DC component
of the voltage between the two wires (used to power the phone).
Alternating Current:
An alternating current (AC) is an electrical current whose magnitude and direction vary
cyclically, as opposed to direct current, whose direction remains constant. The usual
waveform of an AC power circuit is a sine wave, as this results in the most efficient
transmission of energy. However in certain applications, different waveforms are used,
such as triangular or square waves.
Used generically, AC refers to the form in which electricity is delivered to businesses and
residences. However, audio and radio signals carried on electrical wire are also examples of alternating current. In these applications, an important goal is often the recovery
of information encoded (or modulated) onto the AC signal.
William Stanley (1858-1916) designed one of the first practical devices to transfer AC
power efficiently between isolated circuits. Using pairs of coils wound on a common iron
core, his design, called an induction coil, was an early precursor of the modern transformer. The system used today was devised by many contributors including Nikola Tesla
(1856-1943), George Westinghouse (1846-1914), Lucien Gaulard (1850-1888), John
Dixon Gibbs, and Oliver Shallenger from 1881 to 1889. AC systems overcame the limitations of direct current systems, such as that which

Thomas Edison first used it to distribute electricity commercially.

The first long-distance transmission of alternating current took place in 1891 near Telluride, Colorado, followed a few months later in Germany. Thomas Edison strongly advocated the use of direct current (DC), having many patents in that technology, but eventually alternating current came into general use (see War of Currents).
The first modern commercial power plant using three-phase alternating current was at
the Mill Creek hydroelectric plant near Redlands, California in 1893. Its designer was
Almirian Decker, a brilliant young engineer. Decker's innovative design incorporated
10,000 volt three phase transmission and established the standards for the complete
system of generation, transmission and motors used today. Through the use of alternating current, Charles Proteus Steinmetz of General Electric was able to solve many of the
problems associated with electricity generation and transmission.
AC voltage can be stepped up or down by a transformer to a different voltage. Modern
high-voltage, direct current electric power transmission systems contrast with the more
common alternating-current systems as a means for the bulk transmission of electrical
power over long distances. However, these tend to be more expensive and less efficient
than transformers, and did not exist when Edison, Westinghouse and Tesla were designing their power systems.
Use of a higher voltage leads to more efficient transmission of power. The power losses
in a conductor are a product of the square of the current and the resistance of the conductor, described by the formula P = I2R. This means that when transmitting a fixed
power on a given wire, if the current is doubled, the power loss will be four times greater.
Since the power transmitted is equal to the product of the current, the voltage and the
cosine of the phase difference (P = IVcos), the same amount of power can be transmitted with a lower current by increasing the voltage. Therefore it is advantageous when
transmitting large amounts of power to distribute the power with high voltages (often
hundreds of kilovolts). However, high voltages also have disadvantages, the main ones
being the increased insulation required, and generally increased difficulty in their safe
handling. In a power plant, power is generated at a convenient voltage for the design of a
generator, and then stepped up to a high voltage for transmission. Near the loads, the
transmission voltage is stepped down to the voltages used by equipment. Consumer
voltages vary depending on the country and size of load, but generally motors and lighting are built to use up to a few hundred volts between phases.
Three-phase electrical generation is very common. Three separate coils in the generator
stator are physically offset by an angle of 120 to each other. Three current waveforms
are produced that are equal in magnitude and 120 out of phase to each other.
If the load on a three-phase system is balanced equally between the phases, no current
flows through the neutral point. Even in the worst-case unbalanced (linear) load, the neutral current will not exceed the highest of the phase currents. For three-phase at low
(normal mains) voltages a four-wire system is normally used. When stepping down threephase a transformer with a Delta primary and a Star secondary is often used so there is
no need for a neutral on the supply side.
For smaller customers (just how small varies by country and age of the installation) only
a single phase and the neutral or two phases and the neutral are taken to the property.
For larger installations all three phases and the neutral are taken to the main distribution
panel. From the three-phase main panel, both single and three-phase circuits may lead
off.

Three-wire single phase systems, with a single centre-tapped transformer giving two live
conductors, is a common distribution scheme for residential and small commercial buildings in North America. A similar method is used for a different reason on construction
sites in the UK. Small power tools and lighting are supposed to be supplied by a local
centre-tapped transformer with a voltage of 55V between each power conductor and the
earth. This significantly reduces the risk of electric shock in the event that one of the live
conductors becomes exposed through an equipment fault, whilst still allowing a reasonable voltage for running the tools.
A third wire is often connected between non-current carrying metal enclosures and earth
ground. This conductor provides protection from electrical shock due to accidental contact of circuit conductors with the case of portable appliances and tools.

1.6 Electromagnetism.
Electromagnetism is one of the four fundamental interactions in nature. The other three
are the strong interaction, the weak interaction and gravitation. Electromagnetism is the
force that causes the interaction between electrically charged particles; the areas in
which this happens are called electromagnetic fields.
Electromagnetism is responsible for practically all the phenomena encountered in daily
life, with the exception of gravity. Ordinary matter takes its form as a result of intermolecular forces between individual molecules in matter. Electromagnetism is also the force
which holds electrons and protons together inside atoms, which are the building blocks
of molecules. This governs the processes involved in chemistry, which arise from interactions between the electrons inside and between atoms.
Electromagnetism manifests as both electric fields and magnetic fields. Both fields are
simply different aspects of electromagnetism, and hence are intrinsically related. Thus, a
changing electric field generates a magnetic field; conversely a changing magnetic field
generates an electric field. This effect is called electromagnetic induction, and is the basis of operation for electrical generators, induction motors, and transformers. Mathematically speaking, magnetic fields and electric fields are convertible with relative motion as a
four vector.
Electric fields are the cause of several common phenomena, such as electric potential
(such as the voltage of a battery) and electric current (such as the flow of electricity
through a flashlight). Magnetic fields are the cause of the force associated with magnets.
History of the theory
Originally electricity and magnetism were thought of as two separate forces. This view
changed, however, with the publication of James Clerk Maxwell's 1873 Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism in which the interactions of positive and negative charges were
shown to be regulated by one force. There are four main effects resulting from these interactions, all of which have been clearly demonstrated by experiments:
Electric charges attract or repel one another with a force inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them: unlike charges attract, like ones repel.
Magnetic poles (or states of polarization at individual points) attract or repel one another
in a similar way and always come in pairs: every north pole is yoked to a south pole.
An electric current in a wire creates a circular magnetic field around the wire, its direction
depending on that of the current.

A current is induced in a loop of wire when it is moved towards or away from a magnetic
field, or a magnet is moved towards or away from it, the direction of current depending
on that of the movement.
In 1820, Hans Christian rsted noticed a compass needle deflected from magnetic north
when the electric current from the battery he was using was switched on and off. This
deflection convinced him that magnetic fields radiate from all sides of a wire carrying an
electric current, just as light and heat do, and that it confirmed a direct relationship between electricity and magnetism.
At the time of discovery, rsted did not suggest any satisfactory explanation of the phenomenon, nor did he try to represent the phenomenon in a mathematical framework.
However, he began more intensive investigations and published his findings, proving that
an electric current produces a magnetic field as it flows through a wire. The CGS unit of
magnetic induction (oersted) is named in honor of his contributions to the field of electromagnetism.
His findings resulted in intensive research throughout the scientific community in electrodynamics. They influenced French physicist Andr-Marie Ampre's developments of a
single mathematical form to represent the magnetic forces between current-carrying
conductors. rsted's discovery also represented a major step toward a unified concept of
energy.
This unification, which was observed by Michael Faraday, extended by James Clerk
Maxwell, and partially reformulated by Oliver Heaviside and Heinrich Hertz, is one of the
key accomplishments of 19th century mathematical physics. It had far-reaching consequences, one of which was the understanding of the nature of light. Light and other electromagnetic waves take the form of quantised, self-propagating oscillatory electromagnetic field disturbances called photons. Different frequencies of oscillation give rise to the
different forms of electromagnetic radiation, from radio waves at the lowest frequencies,
to visible light at intermediate frequencies, to gamma rays at the highest frequencies.
rsted was not the only person to examine the relation between electricity and magnetism. In 1802, Gian Domenico Romagnosi, an Italian legal scholar, deflected a magnetic
needle by electrostatic charges. Actually, no galvanic current existed in the setup and
hence no electromagnetism was present. An account of the discovery was published in
1802 in an Italian newspaper, but it was largely overlooked by the contemporary scientific community.

1.7 Video: Introduction to Electricity.

http://www.sheilds-elearning.co.uk/file.php/4/videos/Intro_to_electricity.flv

2 Dangers of Electricity.
Electric shock:
An electric shock occurs when a person comes into contact with an electrical energy
source. Electrical energy flows through a portion of the body causing a shock. Exposure
to electrical energy may result in no injury at all or may result in devastating damage or
death.

2.1 Effects on the Body - Electric Shock.

Description.
An electric shock is usually painful, and can be lethal. The level of voltage is not a direct
guide to the level of injury or danger of death, despite the common misconception that it
is. A small shock from static electricity may contain thousands of volts but has very little
current behind it due to high internal resistance. Physiological effects and damage are
generally determined by current and duration. Even a low voltage causing a current of
extended duration can be fatal. It should be noted, however, that Ohm's Law directly correlates voltage and current for a given resistance; thus, for a particular path through the
body under a particular set of conditions, a higher voltage will produce a higher current
flow.
'Let-go' current.
With sufficiently high current, there can be a muscular spasm which causes the affected
person to grip and be unable to release from the current source. The maximum current
that can cause the flexors of the arm to contract but that allows a person to release his
hand from the current's source is termed the let-go current. For DC, the let-go current is
about 75 mA for a 70kg (11 stone) man. For alternating current, the let-go current is
about 15 mA, dependent on muscle mass.
Shock effects.
Psychological.
The perception of electric shock can be different depending on the voltage, duration,
current, path taken, etc. Current entering the hand has a threshold of perception of about
5 to 10 milliamperes (mA) for DC and about 1 to 10 mA for AC at 60 Hz.
Physiological.
Burns.
Tissue heating due to resistance can cause extensive and deep burns. High-voltage (>
500 to 1000 V) shocks tend to cause internal burns due to the large energy (which is
proportional to the square of the voltage) available from the source. Damage due to
current is through tissue heating.
Ventricular fibrillation.
A low-voltage (110 to 220 V), 60-Hz AC current travelling through the chest for a fraction
of a second may induce ventricular fibrillation at currents as low as 60mA. With DC, 300
to 500 mA is required. If the current has a direct pathway to the heart (e.g. via a cardiac
catheter or other electrodes), a much lower current of less than 1 mA, (AC or DC) can
cause fibrillation. Fibrillations are usually lethal because all the heart muscle cells move
independently. Above 200mA, muscle contractions are so strong that the heart muscles
cannot move at all.
Neurological effects.
Current can cause interference with nervous control, especially over the heart and lungs.
Issues affecting lethality.
Other issues affecting lethality are frequency, which is an issue in causing cardiac arrest
or muscular spasms, and pathway - if the current passes through the chest or head,
there is an increased chance of death. From a mains circuit, the damage is more likely to
be internal, leading to cardiac arrest.
The comparison between the dangers of alternating current and direct current has been
a subject of debate ever since the War of Currents in the 1880s. DC tends to cause
continuous muscular contractions that make the victim hold on to a live conductor,
thereby increasing the risk of deep tissue burns. On the other hand, mains-frequency AC
tends to interfere more with the heart's electrical pacemaker, leading to an increased risk

of fibrillation. AC at higher frequencies holds a different mixture of hazards, such as RF

burns and the possibility of tissue damage with no immediate sensation of pain.
Generally, higher frequency AC current tends to run along the skin rather than
penetrating and touching vital organs such as the heart. While there will be severe burn
damage at higher voltages, it is normally not fatal.
It is believed that human lethality is most common with AC current at 100-250 volts, as
lower voltages can fail to overcome body resistance while with higher voltages, the
victim's muscular contractions are often severe enough to cause them to recoil (although
there will be considerable burn damage). However, death has occurred from supplies as
low as 32 volts.
Electrical discharge from lightning tends to travel over the surface of the body, causing
burns and possible respiratory arrest.
Point of Entry.
Macroshock.
Current flowing across intact skin and through the body. Current travelling from arm to
arm or between an arm and a foot is likely to traverse the heart and so is much more
dangerous than current travelling between a leg and the ground.
Microshock.
Direct current path to the heart tissue.
Avoiding danger of shock.
Current electrical codes in many parts of the world call for installing a residual-current
device (RCD or GFCI, ground fault circuit interrupter) on electrical circuits thought to
pose a particular hazard to reduce the risk of electrocution.
It is strongly recommended that people should not work on exposed live conductors if at
all possible. If this is not possible, then insulated gloves and tools should be used. Also,
remember there can be a voltage potential between "neutral" wires and ground. The
neutral wire from a high-wattage appliance will have nearly as much voltage potential to
ground as its hot wire. However, even a low-wattage appliance isn't safe against
electrocution from its neutral wire.
If both hands make contact with surfaces or objects at different voltages, current can flow
through the body from one hand to the other. This can lead the current to pass through
the heart. Similarly, if the current passes from one hand (especially the left hand) to the
feet, significant current will probably pass through the heart.

2.2 Factors Influencing the Severity of the Effects on the Body.

Direct Current Circuits.
Sweat acts like acid in a battery (an electrolyte solution). The electrons in the copper
plate are very mobile and move from the copper to your hand. On the other hand, the
aluminium draws electrons from your hand. Thus by placing your hands on the two different metals, your body is no longer electrically neutral, but develops a difference in the
type of net electric charge (positive or negative) between your two hands (a potential difference or voltage is developed between your hands). Any time there is a potential difference in a conductor, electric charge (electrons or other charged particles) flows, which
creates an electric current. Voltage is required to create a current. Although your body is
a very good conductor of electricity, it does offer some resistance to the flow of current,

with the greatest resistance located in the skin. Dry skin is a very poor conductor of electricity. What happened in the above experiment when your hands were wet? Did the resistance of your skin increase or decrease?
The current meter (ammeter) probably registered about 0.1 mA (0.1 milliamperes or
0.0001 A) of current passing through your body when your hands were wet. The electric
resistance of your wet hand is large (about 20,000 Ohms). This means that the voltage
developed across your body when your wet hands were pressed down onto the copper
and aluminium plates was about 1.5 volts (the same as a D cell, but the current your
body can deliver is much less than a D cell battery). (Note: Voltage = resistance x current). If you place your wet fingers across the ends of a 1.5 volt D cell battery, your body
draws only: current = voltage/resistance = 1.5 v/20,000 Ohms = 0.0001 Amps. The electric power in your body when you were a "human battery" in this experiment or if you
were to hold a D cell battery with a wet hand is only about 0.0002 Watts (a 15 watt bulb
generates 75,000 times more electric power) (Note: Power = current x voltage).
What current would your wet hands draw from the 9 volt battery? What electric power
would pass through your body if you held a 9 volt battery with wet hands? How much
electric power is needed to cause an electric "shock"?
Alternating Current Circuits.
If you flipped the battery back and forth, changing polarity very rapidly in the circuits you
built above, you would create current in the circuit that would reverse direction each time
you reversed the polarity of the battery in the battery holder. This of course is not a very
practical way to create alternating current electricity. The power company supplies alternating current, because it is easier to generate large amounts of electric power of the ac
variety than the dc (direct current) variety. The power company delivers electric power at
120 volts (an average of each cycle, since the voltage alternates between positive and
negative voltages as the current reverses direction). The rate at which the current reverses direction is set by the power company, and in the U.S. is (unfortunately!) 60 times
each second (60 cycles/second or 60 Hertz). In the rest of the world, it is 50 Hertz, 220
volts. In the US, the electric power delivered to homes is referred to as R120 volt, 60
Hertz electric power.
The amount of current an appliance draws depends on the ability of an appliance to resist electricity. Resistance depends on the material through which the electricity is passing. The human body (especially the skin) has a fairly high resistance to electricity. However, the power delivered by electric companies is sufficiently high to be very dangerous
to humans. To make things worse, the nerve impulses in the human body resonate (react very strongly) at a frequency of the current alternating directions at the frequency of
60 times each second (60 Hertz). This unfortunate biological coincidence means that
nerves in the human body have maximum responsiveness to the ac electricity with a frequency of 60 times a second delivered to US homes by the electric power company.

2.3 Electrical Burns.

Electrical burns occur when current jumps from an electrical outlet, cord or appliance and
passes through your body. The electricity can burn the skin, sometimes very deeply, and
may also cause internal damage. How quickly you heal depends on the severity of the
burns and injuries.
Signs/Symptoms.
There are three degrees of severity, each with distinctive symptoms:

First-degree burns are mild and injure only the outer layer of skin. The skin becomes red, but turns white when touched. The area may also be painful to the

touch.
Second-degree burns are deeper, more severe, and very painful. Blisters may
form on the burned area. This type of burn takes about two weeks to heal.
Third-degree burns are the deepest and most serious kind. The skin becomes
white and leathery, but it does not feel very tender when touched.

There may be swelling in the burned area. Serious burns may be accompanied by
headache, fever, and dizziness.
Causes.
There are innumerable ways for anyone - particularly a child - to get an electrical burn.
Among the leading causes are sticking a knife into a plugged-in toaster, dropping a
plugged-in appliance into water, sucking or chewing on an electrical cord, and sticking
something into an electrical socket.
Care.
Always call your doctor when you get an electrical burn. If the burn is small, you may be
able to take care of it at home, but if the burn is large or you received a serious shock
from the electricity, you should get to the hospital right away. Do not drive yourself.

2.4 Direct & Indirect.

Direct.
When an electrical current passes through the human body, it heats the tissue along the
length of the current flow. This can result in deep burns that often require major surgery
and are permanently disabling. Burns are more common with higher voltages but may
occur from domestic electricity supplies if the current flows for more than a few fractions
of a second.
Indirect.
Overloaded, faulty, incorrectly maintained or shorted electrical equipment can get very
hot, and some electrical equipment gets hot in normal operation. Even low voltage batteries (such as those in motor vehicles) can get hot and may explode if they are shorted
out.
People can receive thermal burns if they get too near hot surfaces or if they are near an
electrical explosion. Other injuries may result if the person pulls quickly away from hot
surfaces whilst working at height or if they then accidentally touch nearby machinery.
A single low voltage torch battery can generate a spark powerful enough to cause a fire
or explosion in an explosive atmosphere such as in a paint spray booth, near fuel tanks,
in sumps, or many places where aerosols, vapours, mists, gases, or dusts exist

2.5 First Aid Treatment: Principles for Electrical Injuries.

WHAT YOU SHOULD DO:

Soak the burned skin in cold water for about 10 minutes.

Gently wash the burn with warm, soapy water. Pat it dry with a clean towel, and
cover it with a clean, dry bandage.
You will need to clean the burn and put on a new bandage once a day. Be sure
that everything that touches the burn is clean. Only use the burn medicine pre-

scribed by your doctor.

When changing bandages:

Wash your hands well with soap and water. Dry them with a clean towel.
Remove the outer bandage by cutting it off with a pair of scissors. Do not pull off
the bandage if it is sticking to the burn. Instead, soak it in warm water for a few
minutes and then remove it slowly.
Gently wash the burn with warm, soapy water. Use a clean, soft cloth to help remove any old cream, blood, and loose skin. Do not break blisters. This may increase the pain.
Rinse the burn with clear warm water. Pat dry with a clean towel.
With a clean tongue depressor, apply a thin layer of the antibiotic cream prescribed by your doctor to a gauze pad. Throw the tongue depressor away when
you have finished. Do NOT put it back in the container of antibiotic cream.
Cover the burn with the gauze. Be careful not to touch the gauze that comes in
contact with the burn. Carefully rewrap the burn with a clean bandage as directed
by your doctor.
Keep the bandage clean and dry. Change it if it gets wet.
If the burn is on your arm or leg, keep it raised or propped up for the first 24 hours
to help reduce swelling.
You may use aspirin, paracetamol, or ibuprofen for pain.
Try to drink plenty of water or juice.
Do not bump or overuse the burned area.

2.6 Fires.
Overloading of conductors - Overheating: This is caused in the main by too many electrical items plugged into the same socket, extension leads plugged into extension leads,
unwound extension cables etc.
Ignition of flammable vapour:
If electrical equipment is used in areas where there is (or there is a possibility of) a flammable vapour build-up, then a spark from an electrical circuit can ignite the atmosphere,
causing a fire.
Ignition of combustible material:
The overheating of flammable materials that are positioned too close to electrical equipment, e.g. waste paper next to electrical surfaces that have become too hot.
Breakdown of insulation:
Broken or damaged sockets and plugs can lead to fires.

2.7 Electric Arcs.

An electric arc is an electrical breakdown of a gas which produces an ongoing plasma
discharge, similar to the instant spark, resulting from a current flowing through normally
nonconductive media such as air. An archaic term is voltaic arc as used in the phrase
"voltaic arc lamp".

The various shapes of electric arc are emergent properties of nonlinear patterns of current and electric field. The arc occurs in the gas-filled space between two conductive
electrodes (often made of carbon) and it results in a very high temperature, capable of
melting or vaporising virtually anything.
On a commercial basis, electric arcs are used for welding, plasma cutting, for electrical
discharge machining, as an arc lamp in cinema projectors and follow spots in stage lighting. Electric arc furnaces are used to produce steel and other substances. Calcium carbide is made in this way as it requires a large amount of energy to promote an endothermic reaction (at temperatures of 2500 C).
Low-pressure electric arcs are used for lighting, e.g., fluorescent tubes, mercury and sodium street lamps, camera flash lamps, plasma displays and neon signs.
Undesired or unintended electric arcing can have detrimental effects on electric power
transmission systems and electronic equipment.

2.8 Description of Molten Metal Splash, Radiation.

When arcing takes place, ultraviolet radiation is generated. This radiation has the potential to cause severe injuries to the skin and the eye retina. Also, radiated heat may cause
burns to the body as well as splashes of molten metal or hot fragments. This type of
hazard has the potential to cause serious and indeed life-threatening injuries to personnel.

2.9 Static Electricity.

Static electricity forms part of our daily experience. Most people have noticed electric
shocks when getting out of their car, or after walking across a carpet and touching a
metal door handle. This electrostatic discharge nuisance is normally a minor inconvenience, but in some cases static electricity can cause more serious problems. Static electricity can also be harnessed to good effect in technologies as diverse as photocopiers,
dewatering and flue emissions control.

2.10 The Circumstances Giving Rise to the Generation of Static Electricity.

Static electricity is, in fact, generated whenever two materials touch and then separate.
One material charges positively, and the other negatively. The charge which is generated may not be noticed, as often there is an electrically conductive path which can dissipate the static electricity harmlessly away. The build-up of static electricity depends on
whether the rate of charge dissipation is greater than the rate of charge generation. If it
is, there is no problem. If charge generation is greater than the charge dissipation rate,
static electric charges build up. A very high voltage can be produced quite rapidly, leading to electrostatic discharge (ESD) sparks and shocks.
If there is a flammable atmosphere present, such as a solvent vapour or dust cloud, then
the risk of explosion hazard may cause concern. Less dramatic, but also very important,
is the possibility of ESD damage in electronic manufacture. Here, even a small amount of
static can destroy a sensitive electronic component, resulting in component losses, re-

duced reliability and increased rework costs.

Where static electricity is controlled to reduce these effects, it is usually by choice of materials specified as having certain electrical properties. In many cases, these will be
specified to particular national and international test standards.
Static electricity can also be useful in new technology. An example is in the application of
electrostatic separation in recycling of materials. Electrostatics also forms the basis of
some sensor solutions, for example where the level of a liquid or size or proximity of an
object may be detected.

2.11 Dangers & Precautions.

Electronic equipment manufacturers know that small electrostatic discharges (ESD) can
occur during assembly and handling of printed circuit boards and modules in electronic
equipment. ESD damage can cause failed components, leading to equipment test failures and rework costs, or latent component failures which could cause failures in equipment in the field.
Whilst it is difficult to attribute specific failures to ESD damage, most manufacturers prefer to prevent possible damage and reliability problems by assembling equipment under
electrostatic safe conditions in an electrostatic protected area (EPA). In Europe, guidance is given in the EN100015 series of standards, and many manufacturers adhere to
this as part of their Quality Assurance procedures. Whilst installation of static preventative equipment can provide good protection against static damage, the effectiveness of
these measures can be compromised by working practices, materials and equipment
allowed into the EPA.
Good quality advice on effective implementation of EN10015 or in-house standards, tailored to suit the manufacturer's needs, can lead to significant savings in equipment outlay as well as product failure and rework costs.
The following text also gives useful information to help in the prevention of static
electricity:
Stop getting shocks.
One of the biggest complaints that people have about static electricity is that it causes
sparks or gives them mild shocks when they touch things or even other people. Most
people experience this problem in the winter, but there are others who are constantly
getting shocks and are actually plagued by the problem.
Dry air and materials that rub against each other to build up the static electricity are two
factors in the problem, and certain materials - including dry human skin - can especially
build up charges. (For more information, see the Explaining Static Electricity lesson.)
The way to reduce the problem of excess static electricity is to try to get more humidity in
the air, change the materials or modify their surface, and ground yourself before touching
things, whenever possible.
Increase humidity.
Static electricity is more active when the air and materials are dry. The humidity is normally lower in the winter, and heating the house further reduces the humidity. Also, locations with a desert climate usually have very low relative humidity.
One thing you can do is to use a humidifier to raise the humidity in the house. That may

help a little.
Change materials.
When certain materials rub together, they build up static electricity. Items that
commonly rub together to cause static electricity are:

clothes rubbing on your skin;

pyjamas rubbing on your skin and the sheets in the bed;
clothes rubbing on furniture and car seats;
the soles of your shoes rubbing against the rug or floor.

Moisturise skin.
Some people have very dry skin that may cause the build-up of static charges, especially
in the winter. One thing to try is to use moisturisers or lotions on your skin. The only
problem with that, of course, is that you might have to put it all over your body.
You can experiment with different types of moisturisers and in different locations.
Perhaps just putting lotion on you hands may be sufficient, since shocks and sparks
usually come from touching objects with your hands.
Clothes.
Some clothing materials cause more static electricity than others. Objects that cling
together when you take them out of the clothes dryer have extra static electricity. This is
called static cling.
When you slide out of a car or off furniture in the house, you can create static electricity if
the combination of materials is right. Try putting a cover on the seat, changing the
materials or your clothes, or perhaps spraying things with an anti-static spray, such as is
used to prevent static cling.
Pyjamas.
If your pyjamas and bed sheets are the type of materials that create static electricity
when rubbed together, you can be bothered with shocks all night long on a dry winter
night. If you have dry skin, the problem can be amplified.
Try using pyjamas and/or sheets made of different materials. Cotton does not seem to
develop as much static electricity as some artificial fibres.
Soles of shoes.
People get shocks from walking on the rug in the house, jumping on a trampoline, or
playing basketball in the gym. Certain synthetic rubber soles on shoes create a lot of
static electricity. Experiment with different shoes.
The reason you build up static electricity usually comes from walking on a rug with
certain types of shoes, when the weather is very dry. Static electricity is more common in
the winter, because the air is often dry.
On a day that you get a lot of sparks, you can experiment walking on the rug with
different shoes to see what type of soles create the most (or least) static electricity.
Unless you can change the type of shoes you wear (or not wear shoes at all), it is difficult
to stop the problems of sparks. The only other solution is to anticipate the sparks. You
can touch some non-conducting material, such as a wooden door, before you touch
something metal. This will allow some of the electrical charges to leave your body.

Ground yourself.
Another idea is to use a metal object like a key and touch other metal things first with
key. This will cause the spark to fly from the key and not your finger. That is much more
comfortable. You can also use a ring or even a thimble to move the shock from your
finger to the metal object.

Using a thimble to protect finger from shock before touching doorknob

One more thing to do is to try to ground yourself before touching another person or
something metal. You can touch a wall or wooden table or something. Another way is to
use a ring or a key and touch something metal. Let the spark fly that way instead of off
your finger.
Static electricity nuisance.
Static electricity can be a nuisance in your everyday life. Clothes cling together, sparks
fly and you get shocks. All sorts of things happen. You can easily control or prevent
problems with static electricity.
Let's look at how you can control static electricity.
Static cling.
There are solutions can you spray on your clothes to prevent them from holding the
electrical charge on their surface. There are also sheets of the material you can put in
your dryer that will put a thin coating on your clothes, preventing the collection of
electrons or charged atoms on the surface.
Controlling dangers
There are places where static electricity can be a danger or hazard:

A spark can
o Ruin your computer.
o Cause an explosion.

Lightning can
o Damage a building.
o Severely injure a person.

There are ways to control these dangers.

Use ground when working on computer A static electricity spark can damage the internal
electronics of a computer. Normally, when operating a computer, static electricity is not a
problem. But if you have been having problems with static electricity causing sparks
when you touch things, it is wise to take precautions before touching even the computer
keyboard. Touch something metal to ground out any charges in you before you touch the
computer. Technicians who work on the inside of computers should have a special pad
on the floor and use a grounded strap on their wrist that will suck any charges from their
bodies. This is to avoid any chance of damaging the electronics with a static electrical
spark. When a person handles computer boards, it doesn't take much of a spark to
damage the circuitry.

Petrol station safety.

When many gallons of petrol are transferred from a tanker into the underground tank at a
filling station, there is a lot of friction caused by the gasoline flow. Also, since the fuel is
very flammable, a single spark caused by static electricity could cause an explosion.
Thus, the tanker uses a grounding device on the hose that draws the electrical charges
away from the petrol, preventing any static sparks from occurring. People who are filling
a petrol container at the pump are advised to use caution to avoid static sparks. When
you slide out of your car, touch something metal to get rid of any excess charges. It is
also recommended to place the container on the ground when filling it.
Lightning rods protect buildings.
The way to protect a building that is out in the open - such as those on farms - is to
attach a lightning rod to the building. It is a sharp pointed metal rod on the top of a house
or barn that runs down into the ground. When lightning strikes near the building, it would
hit the highest part of the structure, which is the lightning rod. Since the rod is made of
metal, the current would quickly flow through the rod, into the ground, where it would be
dissipated. In this way, damage to the house would be minimal. For a long time people
thought that the static electricity was attracted to the pointed end of the rod. Recent
studies showed that a larger, rounded surface would be effective than a sharp point.
Protect from lightning.
Lighting can also strike people out in the rain. It is not a good idea to stand under a tree
during a thunderstorm, in case the tree gets struck by lightning. Also, it is not a good idea
to walk out in an open area with an umbrella, because if you are the highest object in the
field, you may be a target for the lightning strike. There are cases where people have
been hit by lightning and lived through it. In fact, one man had been struck by lightning
seven different times with no major harm done to him. But most people who get hit by
lightning are seriously injured. Although such lightning strikes are rare, you still should
use caution.
In conclusion.
Static electricity can cause sparks and other problems. You should try different materials
and clothes, as well as to ground yourself often, to prevent personal sparks. Grounding
is also used to prevent sparks from damaging computers and houses and causing
explosions.

2.12 Video: Dangers of Electricity.

http://www.sheilds-elearning.co.uk/file.php/4/videos/Electricityy.flv

3 Installation, use and inspection of electrical systems.

Planning design and installation of electrical systems
Definition of 'duty holders', 'construction'
Duty Holders are defined in the Electricity at Work Regulations as every:
1. employer and self-employed person to comply with the provisions of these Regulations in so far as they relate to matters which are within his control; and
2. manager of a mine or quarry (within in either case the meaning of section 180 of
the Mines and Quarries Act 1954) to ensure that all requirements or prohibitions

imposed by or under these Regulations are complied with in so far as they relate
to the mine or quarry, or part of a quarry, of which he is the manager and to matters which are within his control.
3. It shall be the duty of every employee while at work: (a) to co-operate with his
employer so far as is necessary to enable any duty placed on that employer by
the provisions of these Regulations to be complied with; and
4. to comply with the provisions of these Regulations in so far as they relate to matters which are within his control.
'Construction' is defined in the Electricity at Work Regulations as:
Regulation 4 states:
1. All systems shall at all times be of such construction as to prevent, so far as is
reasonably practicable, danger.
2. All systems shall be maintained so as to prevent, so far as is reasonably practicable, such danger.
3. Every work activity, including operation, use and maintenance of a system and
work near a system, shall be carried out in such a manner as not to give rise, so
far as is reasonably practicable, to danger.
4. Any equipment provided under these Regulations for the purpose of protecting
persons at work on or near electrical equipment shall be suitable for the use for
which it is provided, be maintained in a condition suitable for that use, and be
properly used.

3.1 Regulations 5 to 15.

strength and capability of electrical equipment
insulation, protection and placing of conductors
reducing the risk of shock
excess current protection
cutting off supply and isolation
working space, access and lighting.
Regulation 5 and 6 give the following requirements :
Regulation 5
Strength and capability of electrical equipment: No electrical equipment shall be put into
use where its strength and capability may be exceeded in such a way as may give rise to
danger.
Regulation 6
Adverse or hazardous environments: Electrical equipment which may reasonably
foreseeably be exposed to
1. mechanical damage;
2. the effects of the weather, natural hazards, temperature or pressure;
3. the effects of wet, dirty, dusty or corrosive conditions; or

4. any flammable or explosive substance, including dusts, vapours or gases, shall

be of such construction or as necessary protected as to prevent, so far as is reasonably practicable, danger arising from such exposure.
Regulation 7
Insulation, protection and placing of conductors: All conductors in a system which may
give rise to danger shall either
1. be suitably covered with insulating material and as necessary protected so as to
prevent, so far as is reasonably practicable, danger; or
2. have such precautions taken in respect of them (including, where appropriate,
their being suitably placed) as will prevent, so far as is reasonably practicable,
danger.
Regulation 8
Earthing or other suitable precautions: Precautions shall be taken, either by earthing or
by other suitable means, to prevent danger arising when any conductor (other than a
circuit conductor) which may reasonably foreseeably become charged as a result of
either the use of a system, or a fault in a system, becomes so charged; and, for the
purposes of ensuring compliance with this regulation, a conductor shall be regarded as
earthed when it is connected to the general mass of earth by conductors of sufficient
strength and current-carrying capability to discharge electrical energy to earth.
Regulation 9
Integrity of referenced conductors:

If a circuit conductor is connected to earth or to any other reference point, nothing

which might reasonably be expected to give rise to danger by breaking the electrical continuity or introducing high impedance shall be placed in that conductor
unless suitable precautions are taken to prevent that danger.

Regulation 10 Connections:
Where necessary to prevent danger, every joint and connection in a system shall be
mechanically and electrically suitable for use.
Regulation 11 Means for protecting from excess of current:
Efficient means, suitably located, shall be provided for protecting from excess of current
every part of a system as may be necessary to prevent danger.
Regulation 12 Means for cutting off the supply and for isolation:
Subject to paragraph (3), where necessary to prevent danger, suitable means (including,
where appropriate, methods of identifying circuits) shall be available for
(1) cutting off the supply of electrical energy to any electrical equipment; and (b) the
isolation of any electrical equipment.
(2) In paragraph (1), "isolation" means the disconnection and separation of the electrical
equipment from every source of electrical energy in such a way that this disconnection
and separation is secure.
(3) Paragraph (1) shall not apply to electrical equipment which is itself a source of
electrical energy but, in such a case as is necessary, precautions shall be taken to
prevent, so far as is reasonably practicable, danger.
Regulation 13 Precautions for work on equipment made dead:
Adequate precautions shall be taken to prevent electrical equipment, which has been
made dead in order to prevent danger while work is carried out on or near that

equipment, from becoming electrically charged during that work if danger may thereby
arise.
Regulation 14 Work on or near live conductors:
No person shall be engaged in any work activity on or so near any live conductor (other
than one suitably covered with insulating material so as to prevent danger) that danger
may arise unless

it is unreasonable in all the circumstances for it to be dead; and

it is reasonable in all the circumstances for him to be at work on or near it while it
is live; and
suitable precautions (including where necessary the provision of suitable protective equipment) are taken to prevent injury.

Regulation 15 Working space, access and lighting:

For the purposes of enabling injury to be prevented, adequate working space, adequate
means of access, and adequate lighting shall be provided at all electrical equipment on
which or near which work is being done in circumstances which may give rise to danger.

3.2 Description of Control Measures.

Selection and suitability of equipment
The Provision and Use of Work Equipment (Regulation 4) should be used as guidance in
this matter, inasmuch as the following is stated in relation to the suitability of equipment:
1. its initial integrity;
2. the place where it will be used; and
3. the purpose for which it will be used.
The selection of suitable work equipment for particular tasks and processes makes it
possible to reduce or eliminate many risks to the health and safety of people at the
workplace. This applies both to the normal use of the equipment as well as to other
operations such as maintenance.

3.3 Protective Systems for Electrical Circuitry.

Fuses.
In electronics and electrical engineering a fuse, short for 'fusible link', is a type of overcurrent protection device. It has as its critical component a metal wire or strip that will
melt when heated by a prescribed electric current, opening the circuit of which it is a part,
and so protecting the circuit from an over-current condition.
Reduced Voltage Systems.
Reduced voltage systems are particularly appropriate for portable and transportable
equipment, in highly-conducting locations such as boilers and tunnels where the risk of
mechanical damage to equipment and trailing cables is high, where the body may be
damp and have large areas of contact with the conducting location and on construction
sites. One example is that of building or construction site supply systems operating at 550-55V A.C. single phase, or at 110V three phase with a phase earth voltage of 64V A.C.
Another example is that of an extra-low voltages system operating at or below 50V A.C.
or 120V D.C. as recommended internationally. Supply systems like these are referenced
to earth and are therefore a special case of systems operating at reduced voltage for

which bonding and earthing of all metallic enclosures are still recommended.
Isolation.
Using methods of isolation will help reduce the risk of electric shock, although you must
keep in mind that other measure should be utilized as a first instance.
Residual Current Devices.
A residual current device (RCD), or residual current circuit breaker (RCCB), is an electrical wiring device that disconnects a circuit whenever it detects that the flow of current is
not balanced between the phase ("hot") conductor and the neutral conductor. The presumption is that such an imbalance may represent current leakage through the body of a
person who is grounded and accidentally touching the energised part of the circuit. A
shock, possibly lethal, is likely to result from these conditions; RCDs are designed to disconnect quickly enough to prevent such shocks.

Double Insulation.
A Class II or double-insulated electrical appliance is one which has been designed in
such a way that it does not require (and must not have) a safety connection to electrical
earth (US: ground) (UK Plugs: It has no Earth Wire).
The basic requirement is that no single failure can result in dangerous voltage becoming
exposed so that it might cause an electric shock and that this is achieved without relying
on an earthed metal casing. This is usually achieved at least in part by having two layers
of insulating material surrounding live parts or by using reinforced insulation.
There are also strict requirements relating to the maximum insulation resistance and
leakage to any functional earth or signal connections of such appliances.
In Europe, a double-insulated appliance must be labelled "Class II", "double insulated" or
bear the double insulation symbol (a square inside another square):

Earth Free Zones.

These are zones (or environments) whereby no danger will arise in the event of a
conductor(s) becoming charged. This is a costly exercise, and as such is used in
specialised areas - such as test areas.

3.4 BS7671:2008.
BS 7671:2008 Requirements for electrical installations.
IEE Wiring Regulations.
Seventeenth edition.
BS 7671 is a publication from the IEE (Institution of Electrical Engineers) in agreement
with the BSI British Standards Institute (UK). The BSI publishes numerous titles concerning acceptable standards of design/safety/quality etc. in various fields.
BS 7671, although not a legal requirement, is a set of golden rules for electrical installation work and encourages best practice amongst the profession. The regulations are extensively referred to in health and safety documentation and, as of 30th June 2008, all
installations in the UK have to comply with them.
These guidelines from the British Standards Institution (BSI) and the Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET) are designed to ensure that your electrical installations
conform. This is especially important as the Building Regulations Part P Electrical Safety
now applies to all fixed electrical installations (for operation at low voltage or extra-low
voltage) that are not controlled by the Electricity Supply Regulations 1988 or the Electricity at Work Regulations 1989.
BS 7671 applies to the design, erection and verification of electrical installations, also
additions and alterations to existing installations. Existing installations that have been
installed in accordance with earlier editions of the Regulations may not comply with this
edition in every respect. This does not necessarily mean that they are unsafe for continued use or require upgrading.
BS 7671:2008 includes changes necessary to maintain technical alignment with
CENELEC harmonisation documents.
BS 7671:2008 Requirements for Electrical Installations came into effect on 1st July
2008. Installations designed after 30th June 2008 are to comply with BS 7671:2008.
BS 7671 (The IEE Wiring Regulations) are the national standard to which all domestic
and industrial wiring must conform. The 17th edition contains substantial changes to
align with European documents.
The 17th Edition reflects significant changes to both the technical content and
structure. Key changes include:

A change allowing a socket outlet in bathrooms (if 3m from the edge of a bath or
shower and rcd protected).
Extension of the Regulations to cover new 'special locations': exhibition shows,
photovoltaic (pv) power supply systems, floor and heating systems, marinas and
fairgrounds and amusements parks.
Re-numbering and re-structuring of chapters to align with international standards.
The Regulations move from being the 16th to the 17th edition - a major shift in
name and perception of its contents. The 16th edition had been in place since
1991.

The contents of the IEE 17th Edition are outlined here:

Part

Title

Scope, objects and fundamental requirements for safety.

Definitions.

Assessment of general characteristics.

Protection for safety.

Selection and erection of equipment.

Inspection and testing.

Special installations or locations - particular requirements.

3.5 BS7671 and the Electricity at Work Regulations.

British Standard BS 7671 Requirements for Electrical Installations (also known as
the IEE Wiring Regulations)
The British Standard BS 7671 Requirements for Electrical Installations is also known as
the IEE Wiring Regulations - they are non-statutory regulations. They 'relate principally to
the design, selection, erection, inspection and testing of electrical installations, whether
permanent or temporary, in and about buildings generally and to agricultural and horticultural premises, construction sites and caravans and their sites'. BS 7671 is a code of
practice which is widely recognised and accepted in the UK and compliance with it is
likely to achieve compliance with relevant aspects of the 1989 Regulations.
The Electricity at Work Regulations 1989, requires that as may be necessary to prevent
danger, all electrical equipment, conductors, cables, building electrical services (from
400kV overhead line to a battery powered hand lamp) be maintained, so as to prevent,
so far as is reasonably practicable, such danger. Clearly the primary object of the legislation is to help ensure the users of the building and visitors are not exposed to risk of injury by electrocution, by fire or an injury arising as a result of such dangers in the building.
To comply with these electrical safety requirements, it has traditionally been a requirement / recommendation that an 'Periodic Inspection Report' (PIR) be carried out on the
building's electrical services, in accordance with BS7671 : 2008. However, in the 2008

revision of BS7671, provision was made to allow for the changing requirements of commerce and industry and the increasing requirements for workplace activity to operate
24hours a day, 7 days a week. It was recognised that it was not practical for certain
business activities (hospitals, financial institutions, supermarkets etc.) and professions to
be subject to a electrical shut-down while a traditional PIR was undertaken.
There are however many types of system, equipment and hazard to which BS 7671 is
not applicable; for example, certain installations at mines and quarries, equipment on
vehicles, systems for public electricity supply and explosion protection. Furthermore, BS
7671 applies only to installations operating at up to 1000 volts ac or 1500 volts dc.
Installations to which BS 7671 is relevant may have been installed in accordance with an
earlier edition, now superseded but then current. That, in itself, would not mean that the
installation would fail to comply with the 1989 Regulations.

3.6 Inspection & Maintenance Strategies.

User checks.
Advice on user checks is that the person using the electrical equipment should
complete the following checks:

Damage (apart from light scuffing) to the cable sheath.

Damage to the plug, for example the casing is cracking or the pins are bent.
Inadequate joints, including taped joints in the cable; the outer sheath of the cable is not effectively secured where it enters the plug or the equipment. Obvious
evidence would be if the coloured insulation of the internal cable cores were
showing.
The equipment has been subjected to conditions for which it is not suitable, e.g. it
is wet or excessively contaminated.
Damage to the external casing of the equipment or there are some loose parts or
screws; evidence of overheating (burn marks or discolouration).

These checks also apply to extension leads and associated plugs and sockets. The user
should make visual checks when the equipment is taken into use and during use.
Formal Visual Inspections.
The most important component of a maintenance regime is usually the formal visual
inspection, carried out routinely by a trained person. Such inspections can pick up most
potentially dangerous faults and the maintenance regime should always include this
component.
To control the risks and to monitor the user checks, a competent person should carry out
regular inspections that include visual checks similar to those listed above but
undertaken in a more formal and systematic manner.
Additional checks could include:

Removing the plug cover and ensuring that a fuse is being used (e.g. it is a fuse
not a piece of wire or a nail etc).
Checking that the cord grip is effective.
Checking that the cable terminations are secure and correct, including an earth
where appropriate, and there is no sign of internal damage, overheating or in-

gress of liquid or foreign matter.

The formal visual inspection should not include taking the equipment apart. This should
be confined, where necessary, to the combined inspection and testing. The trained
person can normally be a member of staff who has sufficient information and knowledge
of what to look for, and what is acceptable, and who has been given the task of carrying
out the inspection. To avoid danger, trained people should know when the limit of their
knowledge and experience has been reached. Simple, written guidance relating to the
visual inspection can be produced that summarises what to look for and which
procedures to follow when faults are found or when unauthorised equipment is found in
use.
The formal visual inspections should be carried out at regular intervals. The period
between inspections can vary considerably, depending on the type of equipment, the
conditions of use and the environment. For example, equipment used on a construction
site or in a heavy steel fabrication workshop will need much more frequent inspection
than equipment such as floor cleaners in an office. In all cases, however, the period
between inspections should be reviewed in the light of experience. Faulty equipment
should be taken out of service and not used again until properly repaired. If necessary, it
should be tested.
The pattern of faults can help management decide what action to take, depending
on whether the faults show:

the wrong equipment is being selected for the job;

further protection may be necessary in a harsh environment;
the equipment is being misused.

Combined Inspections and tests.

The checks and inspections outlined in the previous paragraphs will, if carried out
properly, reveal most (but not all) potentially dangerous faults. However, some
deterioration of the cable, its terminals and the equipment itself can be expected after
significant use. Additionally, the equipment itself may be misused or abused to the extent
that it can give rise to danger. Some of these faults, such as loss of earth integrity (e.g.
broken earth wire within a flexible cable), or deterioration of insulation integrity, or
contamination of internal and external surfaces, cannot be detected by visual inspection
alone. Periodic combined inspection and testing is the only reliable way of detecting such
faults, and should be carried out to back up the checks and inspection regime.
Testing is likely to be justified:

whenever there is reason to suppose the equipment may be defective (but this
cannot be confirmed by visual inspection);
after any repair, modification or similar work;
at periods appropriate to the equipment, the manner and frequency of use and
the environment.

The inspection carried out in conjunction with testing should usually include
checking:

the correct polarity of supply cables;

correct fusing;
effective termination of cables and cores;
that the equipment is suitable for its environment.

Such combined inspection and testing requires a greater degree of competence than
that required for inspection alone, because the results of the tests may require
interpretation and appropriate electrical knowledge will be needed. However, it can often
be carried out by a competent employee.
People carrying out testing of portable electrical equipment should be appropriately
trained for this work. It is the employer's duty to ensure that they are competent for the
work they are to carry out. Basically, there are two levels of competency.
The first level is where a person not skilled in electrical work routinely uses a simple
'pass/fail' type of portable appliance tester (PAT), where no interpretation of readings is
necessary. The person would need to know how to use the PAT correctly. Providing the
appropriate test procedures are rigorously followed and acceptance criteria are clearly
defined, this routine can be straightforward.
The second level is where a person with appropriate electrical skills uses a more
sophisticated instrument that gives actual readings requiring interpretation. Such a
person would need to be competent through technical knowledge or experience related
to the type of work.
Some combination of actions should provide the most cost effective way of ensuring, so
far as is reasonably practicable, that equipment will be maintained in a safe condition
wherever it is used.
Testing can be carried out at minimal cost where an employee has been trained to a
suitable level of competence and provided with appropriate equipment.
Records of maintenance and tests.
Although there is no requirement in the Electricity at Work Regulations to keep
maintenance logs for portable and transportable electrical equipment, the EAW
Memorandum does refer to the benefits of recording maintenance, including test results.
A suitable log is useful as a management tool for monitoring and reviewing the
effectiveness of the maintenance scheme and also to demonstrate that a scheme exists.
It can also be used as an inventory of equipment and a check on the use of unauthorised
equipment (e.g. domestic kettles or electric heaters brought to work by employees).
The log can include faults found during inspection, which may be a useful indicator of
places of use, or types of equipment, that are subject to a higher than average level of
wear or damage. This will help monitor whether suitable equipment has been selected.
Entries in a test log can also highlight any adverse trends in test readings that may affect
the safety of the equipment, thus enabling remedial action to be taken. Be careful when
interpreting trends where a subsequent test may be done with a different instrument from
that used for an earlier test, as differences in the results may be due to difference in the
instruments rather than deterioration in the equipment being tested.
Records do not necessarily have to be on a paper system. Test instruments are available
that store the data electronically, which can then be downloaded directly onto a computer
database. Duty holders with large amounts of equipment will find it useful to label
equipment to indicate that the equipment has been tested satisfactorily i.e. has been
passed as safe, and when the date for the next test is due. Otherwise, individual items
may be missed on consecutive occasions.
Frequency of inspection and testing.
Deciding on the frequency of inspection and testing is a matter of judgement by the duty
holder, and should be based on an assessment of risk. This can be undertaken as part of
the assessment of risks under the Management of Health and Safety at Work

Regulations 1999.
The Table below can help any duty holder decide how often to carry out a formal visual
inspection as well as combined inspection and testing, particularly where a maintenance
regime has not previously existed. Alternatively, seek advice from a competent person
who has the knowledge and experience to make the necessary judgement, e.g.
manufacturers or suppliers of equipment, or relevant trade associations.
Factors to consider when making the assessment include the following:

Type of equipment and whether it is hand-held or not.

Manufacturer's recommendations.
Initial integrity and soundness of equipment.
Age of the equipment.
Working environment in which the equipment is used (e.g. wet or dusty) or likelihood of mechanical damage.
Frequency of use and the duty cycle of the equipment.
Foreseeable abuse of the equipment.
Effects of any modifications or repairs to the equipment.
Analysis of previous records of maintenance, including both formal inspection and
combined inspection and testing.

The Table below sets out the suggested frequency of formal visual inspections and
combined inspections and electrical tests for portable and transportable electrical
equipment. It gives suggested starting intervals when implementing a maintenance
programme. Where one figure is given, this is a guide for anticipated average use
conditions; more demanding conditions of use will require more frequent formal visual
inspections, and/or combined inspections and tests. Where a range is shown, the small
interval is for more demanding conditions of use and the longer interval is for less
demanding ones. It is up to the duty holder, with appropriate advice where necessary, to
assess the conditions affecting equipment, which may lead to potential damage and/or
deterioration and should determine the maintenance regime.
Competent persons.
The Electricity at Work Regulations 1989 state:

No person shall be engaged in any work activity where technical knowledge or

experience is necessary to prevent danger or, where appropriate, injury, unless
he possesses such knowledge or experience, or is under such degree of supervision as may be appropriate, having regard to the nature of the work.

HSG 107.
The Health and Safety Executive Guidance booklet is entitled:

Much of its content has been discussed in the text of this unit.

3.7 Safe Use, Maintenance & Repair of Electrical Systems.

Identification of importance of schemes of maintenance schedules, plans and records.

Reg 4 of the Electricity at Work Regulations 1989 state:

1. All systems shall at all times be of such construction as to prevent, so far as is
reasonably practicable, danger.
2. All systems shall be maintained so as to prevent, so far as is reasonably practicable, danger.
3. Every work activity, including operation, use and maintenance of a system and
work near a system,shall be carried out in such a manner as not to give rise, so
far as is reasonably practicable, to danger.
4. Any equipment provided under these Regulations for the purpose of protecting
persons at work on or near electrical equipment shall be suitable for the use for
which it is provided, be maintained in a condition suitable for that use, and be
properly used in order to ensure safety of the system rather than with the activity
of doing the maintenance in a safe manner (which is required by regulation 4(3)).
The quality and frequency of maintenance should be sufficient to prevent danger so far
as is reasonably practicable. Regular inspection of equipment is an essential part of any
preventive maintenance programme. Practical experience of use may indicate an
adjustment to the frequency at which preventive maintenance needs to be carried out.
This is a matter for the judgement of the duty holder who should seek all the information
he needs to make this judgement including reference to the equipment manufacturers'
guidance.
The obligation to maintain arises only if danger would otherwise result. Records of
maintenance, including test results, should preferably be kept throughout so that the
effectiveness of maintenance policies can be monitored. Without effective monitoring,
duty holders cannot be certain that the requirement for maintenance has been complied
with.

3.8 Safe Systems of Work & Criteria of Acceptability for Live Working.
Regulation 14 of the Electricity at Work Regulations 1989 state:
No person shall be engaged in any work activity on or so near any live conductor(other than one suitably covered with insulating material so as to prevent danger) that danger may arise unless

it is unreasonable in all the circumstances for it to be dead; and

it is reasonable inall the circumstances for him to be at work on or near it while it
is live; and
suitable precautions (including where necessary the provision of suitable protective equipment) are taken to prevent injury.

The need for the conductor to be live.

If danger may otherwise arise, it is always preferable from the point of view of safety that
work on or near such electrical equipment should be carried out when that equipment is
dead.
Regulation 14 recognises that there are circumstances, however, in which it is
unreasonable, having regard to all relevant factors, for the equipment to be dead while
work proceeds. An example of this might be where it was found necessary to undertake
some maintenance, checking or repair on a busy section of electric railway track where it
would be disproportionately disruptive and costly in many ways for the live conductors to

be isolated for the period of the work. Other examples are to be found in the electrical
supply industry, particularly live cable jointing, and in much of the work done on
telephone network connections.
Equipment users should bear in mind at the time of ordering, purchase and installation of
plant, the manner of operation, maintenance and repair of the electrical equipment which
will be necessary during the life of the plant. It is recommended that the design of
electrical equipment and of the installation should eliminate the need for live work which
puts persons at risk of injury. This can often be done by careful thought at the design
stage of installations, for example by the provision of alternative power in feeds, properly
laid out distribution systems to allow parts to be isolated for work to proceed and by
designing equipment housings etc to give segregation of parts to be worked on and
protect persons from other parts which may be live.
Circuitry should be arranged so that the power circuits are physically separate and
segregated from logic and control circuits or so placed, recessed or otherwise arranged
that the risk of accidental contact is eliminated. Diagnostic work on the low power voltage
circuits may then proceed with less risk to personnel. Where regular measurements of
voltage, current etc are to be made, consideration should be given to appropriate test
and measuring equipment, e.g. voltmeters, ammeters, etc or test points being built into
the equipment.
Live work includes live testing, for example the use of a potential indicator on mains
power and control logic circuits.

3.9 Permits to Work.

The HSE give general advice when writing and issuing permit to work systems:
General principles.
The following aspects should be considered with respect to Permit to Work Systems:

Human factors.
Management of the work permit systems.
Poorly-skilled work force.
Unconscious and conscious incompetence.
Objectives of the work permit system.
Types of work permits required.
Contents of the work permits.

The following issues may contribute towards a major accident or hazard:

Failing of the site safety management system.

Failure to recognise a hazard before and during maintenance.
Failure to comply with the work permit system in hazardous environments.
Communication failures during the use of a work permit system.

Contributory factors for an assessor to consider concerning the Work Permit

System.
The Safety Report should address the following points:

Whether staff have been sufficiently informed, instructed, trained and supervised
to minimise a potential human failing during operation of the work permit system.
Whether the work permit system includes sufficient safety information, maintenance instructions, correct PPE and equipment for use.
Whether the work permit contains sufficient information about the type of work
required (equipment removal, excavation, hot/cold work, repairing seals, vessel
entry, waste disposal, isolation).
Whether there is sufficient provision available to fulfil the requirements of the
work permit system.
Whether the employees responsible for control of the maintenance work are identified within the work permit system and that the work is properly authorised by a
responsible person.
Whether the work permit system is managed, regularly inspected and reviewed.
Whether all work permits are kept on file.
Human factors (stress, fatigue, shift work, attitude).
Whether sufficient precautions are taken prior to initiating a work permit (isolation,
draining, flushing, environmental monitoring, risk assessments, communication,
time allotted for the work).
Whether staff are aware of the type of environment they are working in during the
operation of a work permit (flammable, corrosive, explosive, zones 0, 1 & 2, electricity supplies).
Whether the person responsible for operating the plant is aware of the type of
maintenance involved and how long it is likely to take.
Whether the work permit system involves a formal procedure whereby the maintained plant or equipment is handed back to operation.

Major hazards.
Major hazards could arise from the following:

Wrong type of work permit used.

Wrong information about work required on the work permit.
Failure to recognise the hazards where work is carried out (e.g. flammable substances).
Introduction of ignition source in controlled flameproof area (e.g. welding, non
spark-proof tools, non-intrinsically safe equipment used in intrinsically safe
zones).
Terms of work permit not adhered to (e.g. failure to isolate plant and/or drain lines
of hazardous substances).
Failure to hand over plant in safe condition on completion of work/cancelling of
work permit.
Unauthorised staff performing work permit functions.
Poor management of the work permit system.
Insufficient monitoring of the work permit system.

3.10 Safe Systems of Work on Installations Made Dead.

Work carried out on equipment which has been made dead must include a safe
system to prevent the equipment becoming electrically charged. The following
points must be considered:

The job must be planned.

The equipment disconnected.

The equipment securely isolated.
Ensure the equipment is dead (by relevant test).
Earth the equipment.
Use of signs and notices.
Ensure all personnel understand the final safe system.

3.11 Definition of Competent Person.

Regulation 16 of the Electricity at Work Regulations 1992 gives information on
competent persons:
No person shall be engaged in any work activity where technical knowledge or experience is necessary to prevent danger or, where appropriate, injury,unless he possesses
such knowledge or experience, or is under such degree of supervision as may be appropriate having regard to the nature of the work.
Further information is also stated:
Technical knowledge or experience:

Adequate knowledge of electricity.

Adequate experience of electrical work.
Adequate understanding of the system to be worked on and practical experience
of that class of system.
Understanding of the hazards which may arise during the work and the precautions which need to be taken.

4 Safe Working in the Vicinity of High Voltage Systems.

Common high voltage systems and prevention of danger.
Work on or near high voltage (HV) equipment presents a higher risk which requires careful assessment, and should be carried out in accordance with the Permit to Work (PTW)
system. Only competent persons fully trained and experienced in this particular work,
and authorised in writing, should be allowed to implement the permit system.
Before any work is carried out on or near HV equipment, precautions must be taken to
avoid risks from the HV system. The risks and the action to avoid them should be set out
in a permit to work before work begins. In general, circuits should be isolated, tested to
ensure they are dead and earthed and secured in the earthed position i.e. locked. Additional precautions in the form of portable earths may be required in particular circumstances e.g. for work on overhead lines. Caution notices should be posted at points of
isolation and danger notices posted on adjacent live equipment.
.

4.1 Competent & Authorised Person's Role Related to System Modifications.

All persons required to carry out work on electrical equipment must be competent to
carry out those duties. This means that maintenance and installation staff must have sufficient knowledge and experience to carry out their duties. It also means that staff that
operate electrical equipment must be competent to carry out their tasks safely and understand the limits of their particular duties and competence.
Persons not competent to work on their own, for example, trainees should be adequately
supervised. Consideration should be given to the qualities and experience of persons
selected to fulfil supervisory duties.
In some instances, greater engineering expertise than that available on site may be required to assess the results of inspections or to carry out electrical projects. Access to
this expertise should be made available when necessary.
A way of having confidence in the competence of inspection personnel is to use inspection bodies who are either accredited by UKAS to BS EN 45004:1995 for the scope of
RG 103 (Electrical Installations in Quarries) for instance.

4.2 Safe Systems of Work, Permit to Work Procedures.

It may also be appropriate for the safety isolation procedures to be formalised in written
instructions or house rules. 'Permits-to-work' may form part of the written procedures and
their use is considered essential to ensuring a safe system of work where this involves
work on the conductors or equipment of high voltage power distribution systems (typically where the working voltage exceeds 3000 volts) or where the system is very complex. Properly formulated and regulated 'permit-to work' procedures focus the minds of
those issuing and of those receiving the permits both on the manner in which the work is
to be done and on how the equipment has been made safe.

4.3 Safe Working Near Overhead Power Lines Underground Cables - Hazards &
Precautions.
Underground Cables
Electricity cables: Injuries are usually caused by the explosive effects of arcing current,
and by any associated fire or flames which may result, when a live cable is penetrated by
a sharp object such as the point of a tool. Such effects can also occur when a cable is
crushed severely enough to cause internal contact between the conductors or between
metallic sheathing and one or more conductors. Injuries are typically severe, potentially
fatal, burns to the hands, face and body. Direct electric shock is less likely.
Incidents may also arise from cables which have been damaged but left unreported and
unrepaired. Other nearby services, such as plastic gas pipes, may also be at risk from
damaged live electricity cables. This could result in explosions and a greater fire risk.
The following diagram is taken from the publication HSG 47 and gives a good
overview of the precautions to take.

Cable- and pipe-locating devices.

The position of any services in or near the proposed work area should be pinpointed as
accurately as possible by means of a locating device, using plans, and other information
as a guide to the possible location of services and to help interpret the signal. The main
types available can be classed as follows:
Hum detectors are receiving instruments which detect the magnetic field radiated by
electricity cables which have a current flowing through them. They do not respond to:

cables where there is little or no current flowing, for example service connection
cables to unoccupied premises or street lighting cables in the daytime;
direct current cables;
some well-balanced high-voltage cables, where these generate relatively little

field (which in turn may be further screened by the cable sheathing).

Transmitter-receiver instruments - a small portable transmitter or signal generator can be
connected to a cable or pipe or placed very close to it so that the signal is introduced into
it. The receiver can then detect this signal. Usually the location of some part of the cable
or pipe needs to be already known so that the transmitter can be properly positioned and
these locators generally require more skill to operate than most other types. They can,
however, provide useful information in difficult situations where the techniques using hum
detectors and radio frequency detectors have not been successful.
Metal detectors - conventional detectors will usually locate flat metal covers, joint boxes
etc, but may well miss round cables or pipes.
Ground probing radar - a relatively new method which is capable of detecting anomalies
in the ground. When these anomalies can be plotted into a continuous line, this may
indicate a cable, duct or pipe. However, this technique alone would not determine the
precise nature of the service and it should be supported by information available about
the services present, and also preferably with the use of other, more conventional, forms
of locating device. Knowledge of ground conditions is important. For example, false
readings are most likely where there are boulders and debris in the ground, or where the
ground has often been disturbed. Because of equipment costs, and the need for
specialist training, it may be cost-effective to use firms specialising in this technique.
Use of locating devices.
The degree of confidence with which buried services can be detected depends on
a number of factors such as:

the training, skill, hearing and experience of the operator;

the characteristics of the device being used;
the calibration and reliability of the locating device;
the type, length and depth of the service;
for cables, the magnitude of the current being carried; and
the effects of other nearby services.

It is very important that anyone who uses a locator should have received thorough
training in its use and limitations. Locating devices should always be used in accordance
with the manufacturer's instructions and should be regularly checked and maintained in
good working order.
A locator may not be able to distinguish between cables or pipes running close together
and may represent them as a single signal. If, for example, two are sited one above the
other, the lower one may not be detected. Exposing one cable or pipe does not mean
that there is not another close by. Frequent and repeated use should be made of locators
during the course of the work.Service location is likely to become more accurate as cover
is removed.

4.4 Overhead Power Lines.

Contact with live overhead lines kills people and causes serious injuries every year.
About 60% of electrical fatalities at work are caused by inadvertent contact with overhead power lines. This equates to about 10 to 15 deaths a year. The following link gives
a good picture of what can happen in just such an occurrence.

http://www.hse.gov.uk/press/2009/coisco11409.htm
Contact with overhead electric lines can be lethal whether they are carrying a voltage as
high as 400 000 V or as low as 230 V. Overhead lines consist usually of bare (uninsulated) conductors (sometimes called cables) supported via insulators by wooden poles or
metal towers and structures. Many people mistake overhead power lines carried on
wooden poles for telephone wires. If a crane jib, tipper lorry, excavator, scaffold pole,
ladder, agricultural sprayer or similar object makes contact with, or approaches near to,
these lines, an electric current can flow with a risk of fatal or severe shock and burns to
any person in the immediate vicinity. This can also occur with objects made from materials such as wood or plastic, which are normally regarded as electrical insulators. If damp
or dirty, these may also be capable of transmitting sufficient current to cause dangerous
or fatal electric shocks.
For work at or near overhead power lines, application of this hierarchy suggests
the following actions:

find out if the work has to be carried out under or near overhead lines (can it be
avoided altogether) or,
if this cannot be done;
divert all overhead lines clear of the work area or, if it is not reasonable for this to
be done;
make lines dead while the work is in progress or, if this cannot be done;
work around the live overhead lines, using the precautions outlined in this guidance.

In some cases, it may be necessary to use suitable combinations of these measures,

particularly where overhead lines pass over permanent work areas.
Work near overhead lines.
Pre-planning of safe working procedures is important. The first step in avoiding
danger is to find out whether there is any overhead electric line;
(a) within or immediately adjoining the work area, or
(b) across any route to it.
Information may be available from the local electricity supplier about location of their
lines. If any such lines are found, it should be assumed that they are live unless - or until
- this has been proved otherwise by their owners.
If there are any electric lines over the work area, near the site boundaries, or over access
roads to the work area, consult the owners of the lines so that the proposed plan of work
can be discussed. Allow sufficient time for the line to be diverted or made dead, or for
other precautions to be taken as described below. If the lines can only be made dead for
short periods, then the passage of tall plant and, as far as is possible, other work around
the lines should be scheduled at these times. Liaison between the persons responsible
for the work and the owner(s) of the lines should be continued until the work has been
completed.
The precautions depend on the nature of the work at the site. It is strongly recommended
they are taken even when work near the line is of short duration.
There are three broad categories of this work.

Work areas where there will be no scheduled work or passage of plant under the
lines. Here, barriers can prevent close approach, particularly for construction or
quarrying work.
Work areas where plant will pass under the lines. Here, defined passageways
should be made.
Work areas here work will be carried out beneath the lines. Here, further precautions must be taken in addition to the erection of barriers with passageways.

Where passage is required under the overhead line either along an access road or from
one part of the work area to another, it is recommended that the danger area should be
made as small as possible. This should be achieved by restricting the width of the
passageway to the minimum needed for the safe crossing of plant. It is safest if the
passageway crosses the route of the line at right angles.
1. The following precautions are recommended:
2. The number of such passageways should be kept to a minimum.
3. The passageway should be fenced to define its route, and goal posts erected at
each end to act as gateways in the barriers running parallel to the overhead line.
4. The goal posts should be constructed from rigid, non-conducting material such as
suitable timber or plastic pipe and distinctively marked, for example, in red and
white stripes.
5. At either side of the passageway, on or near the goal posts, there should be
warning notices giving the cross-bar clearance height and instructing drivers to
lower jibs, tipper bodies etc. and keep below this height while crossing.
6. On sites where work continues after dark, the notices and cross-bars should be
lit. It has also been found that illuminating the conductors is useful. The light fittings used for this illumination should be sited at ground level, projecting the light
upwards towards the conductors.
7. Additional warning notices should be erected on the approaches to the crossing,
about 30 metres away.
8. The surface of the passageway should be levelled, firmed up and well-maintained
to prevent undue tilting or bouncing of the equipment when under the overhead
line.

4.5 Live Line Working & the Use of Hot Gloves.

Live working is carried out on a variety of tasks including tension insulator replacement,
pin insulator replacement, conductor repairs, binder replacement, pole and cross arm
changes, jumper connection and disconnection, installation of plant, flying sections, and
temporary ABIs to minimise outage areas, tree cutting within the live zone and installation of bird flight diverters.
Regulation 14 of the Electricity at Work Act 1989 asks a number of specific questions in
order that the need for the work to be carried out using live methods can be justified. In
all circumstances, a live-line justification should be carried out to determine whether the
work can be done.
In many cases, it would take far longer to complete a relatively simple job using shut
down and traditional working, and would take a substantial number of customers off supply. Before any work commences a member of the live working team undertakes a feasibility study to determine whether the work identified can be carried out using live working
techniques. The team informs the job owner of the outcome; however, the team has the

final say as to whether a job can be done using live working techniques.
Key tasks and responsibilities for a live line working team are to:

ensure safety on site, including that of third parties, while work is undertaken
liaise with the distribution control engineer when live working is undertaken on the
high voltage network
carrying out a tail-board conference on the day of the job to determine the procedure for the job. This procedure is specific to the site and the work to be carried
out
complete the work following the correct codes of practice, method statements,
and specifications that apply
advise the distribution control engineer of the condition the system in when work
is completed.

A minimum of three people are required for hot working on overhead lines: two in the to
carry out the task and control the working platform with a third on the ground as a
dedicated observer. There are specific responsibilities for live working attached to the live
working project manager and live working teams.
The live working project manager must:

ensure safe working conditions for the teams

perform advance site safety inspections
ensure work instructions, plans, etc are adequate for the tasks undertaken
ensure work is performed in accordance with the prescribed standards, procedures, rules and regulations
ensure employees are competent, through proper instruction and training, to work
safely
ensure a sufficient number of staff are allocated to carry out the work safely
carry out regular safety audits on sample jobs

For low or medium voltages, work can be carried out if a worker wears insulating gloves
of an adequate standard. The gloves often extend all the way to the shoulder to protect
the worker's arms. Additional protection can be provided by a rubberised apron. To
reduce the length of exposed conductor, insulating blankets and hoses can be draped
over the equipment not being worked upon. An additional layer of protection can be
provided by the use of insulated tools such as pliers. Linemen often work from an
insulated platform or non-conducting ladder, however the primary protection is deemed
to come from the gloves. This provides an ultimate limit on voltage for hot-glove working,
perhaps 60 kV.
Hot stick techniques are another method used. Hot stick work involves the use of rods
tested and approved to a higher rating and designed to be used closer to the work zone,
but still outside the safety clearance zone. This approach to working allowed an
increased range of activities to be carried out. However, in recent years, due to the
restrictions of working from the pole and the physical effort involved, the comparable
benefits have become quite small and have been restricted to minor operations such as
jumper cutting.
Hot glove working involves staff working within safety distance zones and actually
handling live conductors. The methodology combines the use of hot stick techniques to
complement hands-on working. The range of work that can be carried out using hot
glove techniques is extensive. The justification for hot glove working is based upon the
generic safety case. The technique requires careful consideration of all the safety

aspects of the work to be carried out, the procedures and equipment used, and due to
the nature of the work, those involved need to undergo extensive training. Every five
years, all hot glove personnel should undertake refresher training.

4.6 Portable Electrical Equipment.

Conditions and practices likely to lead to accidents including unsuitable equipment inadequate maintenance use of defective apparatus.
Nearly a quarter of all reportable electrical accidents involve portable equipment. The
vast majority of these accidents result in electric shock.
Portable and transportable electrical equipment should only be used for its intended purpose, and in the environment for which it was designed and constructed. Maintenance
will not allow safe use of equipment in circumstances for which it is not intended, e.g.
using a table lamp as a hand lamp, or equipment that is not waterproof in a wet environment.
Major items of plant, such as vehicles, cranes and generators, are beyond the scope of
this section, as are electro medical equipment and electrostatic spraying equipment, and
equipment used below ground in mines, for which there are special requirements.

4.7 Portable Generator Hazards.

When power lines are down, residents can restore energy to their homes or other structures by using another power source such as a portable generator. If water has been
present anywhere near electrical circuits and electrical equipment, turn off the power at
the main breaker or fuse on the service panel. Do not turn the power back on until electrical equipment has been inspected by a qualified electrician.
If it is necessary to use a portable generator, manufacturer recommendations and specifications must be strictly followed. If there are any questions regarding the operation or
installation of the portable generator, a qualified electrician should be immediately contacted to assist in installation and start-up activities. The generator should always be positioned outside the structure.
When using petrol and diesel-powered portable generators to supply power to a building,
switch the main breaker or fuse on the service panel to the "off" position prior to starting
the generator. This will prevent power lines from being inadvertently energised by backfeed electrical energy from the generators, and help protect utility line workers or other
repair workers or people in neighbouring buildings from possible electrocution. If the
generator is plugged into a household circuit without turning the main breaker to the "off"
position or removing the main fuse, the electrical current could reverse, go back through
the circuit to the outside power grid, and energise power lines or electrical systems in
other buildings to at or near their original voltage without the knowledge of utility or other
workers.
Effects of Backfeed
The problem of backfeed in electrical energy is a potential risk for electrical energy workers. Electrocutions are the fifth leading cause of all reported occupational deaths.
Safeguards against Backfeed

Extreme caution must be exercised by persons working on or in the vicinity of unverified de-energized power lines. All persons performing this work should treat
all power lines as "hot" unless they positively know these lines are properly deenergised and grounded. Because of the possibility of a feedback circuit, the person performing the work should personally ground all lines on both sides of the
work area and wear the proper required protective equipment.
Linemen must be instructed to treat all power lines as energized unless they personally de-energise them by establishing a visible open point between the load
and supply sides of the line to be repaired, by opening a fused disconnect, by
opening a fused switch, or by removing a tap jumper if the load permits.
Workers must verify that the power lines have been de-energized.
Workers must provide proper grounding for the lines. Unless a power line is effectively grounded on both sides of a work area, it must be considered energized
even though the line has been de-energized. Lines must be grounded to the system neutral. Grounds must be attached to the system neutral first and removed
from the system neutral last. If work is being performed on a multiphase system,
grounds must be placed on all lines. Lines should be grounded in sight of the
working area and work should be performed between the grounds whenever possible. If work is to be performed out of sight of the point where the line has been
de-energized, an additional ground should be placed on all lines on the source
side of the work area.
Persons working on or in the vicinity of power lines should be provided with appropriate safety and protective equipment and trained in procedures that address
all magnitudes of voltages to which they may be exposed. Procedures should be
established to perform a dual voltage check on the grounded load and supply
sides of the open circuit. Once it has been determined that high voltage is not
present, low voltage testing equipment, such as a glowing neon light or a lightemitting diode, should be used to determine if lower voltage is present.

Don't overload the generator.

Do not operate more appliances and equipment than the output rating of the generator.
Overloading your generator can seriously damage your valuable appliances and
electronics. Prioritize your needs. A portable electric generator should be used only when
necessary, and only to power essential equipment.
Never use a generator indoors or in an attached garage.
A portable generator uses an internal combustion engine that emits deadly carbon
monoxide. Be sure to place the generator where exhaust fumes will not enter the house.
Only operate it outdoors in a well-ventilated, dry area, away from air intakes to the home,
and protected from direct exposure to rain and snow, preferably under a canopy, open
shed or carport. A carbon monoxide detector would be a good investment when using
any combustion engines near the home.
Use the proper power cords.
Plug individual appliances into the generator using heavy-duty, outdoor-rated cords with
a wire gauge adequate for the appliance load. Overloaded cords can cause fires or
equipment damage. Don't use extension cords with exposed wires or worn shielding.
Make sure the cords from the generator don't present a tripping hazard. Don't run cords
under rugs where heat might build up or cord damage may go unnoticed.

Read and adhere to the manufacturer's instructions for safe operation.

Don't cut corners when it comes to safety. Carefully read and observe all instructions in your portable electric generator's owner manual.
To prevent electrical shock, make sure your generator is properly grounded.

Consult your manufacturer's manual for correct grounding procedures.

Do not store fuel indoors or try to refuel a generator while it's running.
Petrol (and other flammable liquids) should be stored outside living areas in properly
labelled, nonglass safety containers. They should not be stored in a garage if a fuelburning appliance is in the garage. The vapour from gasoline can travel invisibly along
the ground and be ignited by pilot lights or electric arcs caused by turning on the lights.
Avoid spilling fuel on hot components. Put out all flames or cigarettes when handling
gasoline. Always have a fully-charged, approved fire extinguisher located near the
generator. Never attempt to refuel a portable generator while it's running.
Turn off all equipment powered by the generator before shutting down your generator.
Avoid getting burned.
Many generator parts are hot enough to burn you during operation. Keep children away
from portable electric generators at all times.

5 Portable Electrical Equipment.

Choosing Portable Appliance Testing Equipment.
When you start looking for a portable appliance tester, the first thing you will notice is the
large range from which you can choose. For simplicity, we can place the PAT testing
equipment in one of three distinct categories. The following is a guide to the different
types, and highlights features for which to look.
Simple PASS/FAIL types.
PASS/FAIL or GO/NO GO, type testers give a simple pass or fail test result allowing no
interpretation of the test data. These testers generally only carry out insulation and earth
continuity tests. Most PASS/FAIL PAT testers do not have a selectable Earth Continuity
test current.
The IEE Code of Practice states that the earth continuity of the appliance can be tested
either:
A - with a current between 20-200mA while flexing the lead of the appliance or,
B - a current not less than 1.5 times the rating current of the appliance, and no greater
than 25 amps.
If the earth circuit on an appliance is susceptible to corrosion such as those found in a
fridge, washing machine, kettle or dryer then you should test these appliances with the
higher earth current to ensure any potential corroded earth wires are suitably stressed.
To test IT equipment, the tester must be able to perform an earth bond test at the lower
current of between 20 - 200mA.
The disadvantage of this type of tester is that the high current types (usually 25A) are
unsuitable for testing IT equipment and the low current types (usually 100mA) are
unsuitable for testing general electrical appliances. A further disadvantage with all the
PASS/FAIL type of testers is the earth bond pass limit is set, allowing no interpretation of
the test result. The IEE Code of Practice requires the earth bond resistance to be no
greater than 0.1 Ohms + the resistance of the cable. A tester with a set Earth Continuity
limit of 0.1 Ohms will wrongly fail equipment with long leads or low csa that may have a
higher resistance. Some testers avoid this by setting the limit higher, usually 0.3 Ohms,
but these do not comply with the IEE Code of Practice and may still wrongly fail
equipment.
PASS/FAIL testers have the advantage of being easy to use but have a limited practical
use.

Manual PAT Testers.

Manual PAT testers give much more functionality than the simple PASS/FAIL testers but
do require a level of understanding to correctly interpret the test data. As well as the
standard Insulation and Earth Continuity tests, many also carry out Earth Leakage and
Load tests. Look for testers with selectable Earth continuity test currents enabling the
testing of IT equipment.
Downloadable PAT Testers.
For testing large amounts of equipment, a tester that automates the process and has
recording capabilities is more suitable. These testers are able to initiate a preprogrammed test sequence via a shortcut menu. Test data, including the overall PASS or
FAIL result, is stored for downloading or printing out. These testers often have a
bewildering amount of features. Some of the important ones to look for are:
Multiple Earth Paths ability.
It is important to choose a PAT tester with the ability to make accurate earth bond
measurements, even when multiple earth paths exist. Most PAT testers can measure
earth leakage over multiple earth paths, but this is not the same as checking the integrity
of an appliance's main earth. For example, consider the common office computer, which
often has several other devices attached to it via a screened data cable - for example a
printer, monitor or scanner.
An earth return path can still exist even if the earth bond wire in the cord of a computer is
faulty.
If you buy a PAT tester that does not automatically cater for earth bond measurement
under Multiple Earth Path conditions, the only way to ensure you are actually testing the
earth bond of the computer is to disconnect it from all other ancillary equipment. The end
result is an increase in test time, and a significant reduction in the number of tests you
can do in a day.
On-board help.
PAT testers can be complicated instruments and there is nothing worse than having to
hunt for that ever-elusive manual. A PAT tester with on-board help that walks you through
the tests and displays on-screen connection diagrams when you need them is a definite
advantage.
Multiple Voltage Insulation Testing:
With the advent of the EMC regulations in Europe, an increasing number of appliances
have used filters to manage conducted emission problems. These surge filters can cause
inconsistent test results with PAT testers that use a 500V insulation test. Buy a PAT tester
with the option of a 240/250V insulation test.
110V Testing:
If you intend on testing large amounts of 110V equipment, look for a tester that is able to
carry out a full Leakage and Load test at 110V. Most testers stating 110V testing are only
able to perform sub-leakage tests on 110V equipment.
PAT Testing Labels.
All equipment that has been tested and inspected must be clearly identifiable. This
usually achieved by labelling the equipment with a PAT Testing label.
The label/sticker must contain the following:

Unique identification code to enable equipment to be indefinable.

The status of the equipment following the testing i.e. PASS or FAIL.
The date the equipment was tested, together with the re-test period or the re-test
date.

The above information on the label is designed to enable the equipment to be easily
identifiable even if several similar items exist within the same premises and also indicate
to a non-technical user if the equipment is due for re-testing or should not be used.
Additional information contained on the label may include fuse rating, engineers' initials,
company name or logo.
Many modern PAT testers are able to read bar-coded labels and this is particularly
suitable for the identification code. Barcodes should ideally contain both the barcode and
the numerical number underneath.
Labels or stickers can vary in design but should be of suitable quality that they can
readily stick to a variety of surfaces. They should also be durable and hard-wearing to
such an extent that they are capable of withstanding the period between testing without
deterioration. The label should be positioned in a prominent position where it can be
clearly seen.
Equipment failing the inspection and testing must be put beyond use and clearly labelled
with a sticker indicating that it has failed.
An example pass label:

An example fail label:

5.1 Aspects of Supply.

The most vulnerable item is often the cable (sometimes called cord or lead) that supplies
the equipment. Most portable equipment is supplied by a flexible cable, which is made
up of thin, flexible wires covered in insulation and then enclosed in an overall sheath.
The cable may deteriorate due to ageing or environmental effects, fail because of
repeated flexing, or suffer mechanical damage. The most obvious examples of
mechanical damage are being struck or penetrated by objects.
Repeated or excessive flexing will eventually cause the conductor to fracture and the
sheath to crack. Damage usually occurs first at the cord grip or gland where the cable
enters the equipment or its plug. The damage is usually apparent at the user check and
should be reported. The cable should be replaced before a dangerous fault develops,
such as exposure of conductors, or possibly arcing between broken conductor ends.
Some portable equipment (such as floor-polishers, hedge-trimmers, saws and soldering
irons) is capable of causing damage to the sheath, or even to the insulation, of its own
flexible cable. The cable should be secured in such a way that it does not come into
contact with parts that are moving or hot. The users of such equipment should always be
on the alert to avoid such damage. If damage does occur they should stop using the
equipment and report it.
As well as damage to the cable itself, the way in which the cable is laid out should be
examined carefully. Cables run along the ground could be damaged by equipment being
dragged or rolled over them, or may be subject to ingress of water if the area is
particularly wet. Cables that run at body height run the risk of being caught or dislodged
by those passing by. Cables that are higher than head height could be caught by
vehicles or large loads and disconnected, possibly leading to damage either to the
equipment or the operator.
The layout of building sites requires that where electrical cables have to cross routes
used by vehicles and plant, they are either contained in reinforced conduits or taken
across the route by means of high poles and gantries, and these are clearly marked to
enable users of the site to be aware of them and take steps to avoid potentially
dangerous contact with them.
Refer to Sections 5.3 and 5.4 above for further details.

Question 1.
An example of a conductor is
Multiple Choice (HP)
Answer 1:

porcelain

Response 1:
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Answer 2:

gold

Response 2:
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Next page

Answer 3:

glass

Response 3:
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This page

Answer 4:

pure water

Response 4:
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Question 2.
_____ is an electrical wiring device that disconnects a circuit whenever it detects that the
flow of current is not balanced between the phase ("hot") conductor and the neutral conductor.
Multiple Choice (HP)
Answer 1:

Fuses

Response 1:
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Answer 2:

Reduced Voltage Systems

Response 2:
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Answer 3:

Residual Current Devices

Response 3:
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Next page

Answer 4:

Isolation

Response 4:
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Question 3.
The following aspects should be considered with respect to Permit to Work Systems
Multiple Choice (HP)
Answer 1:

All of these

Response 1:
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Answer 2:

Human factors

Response 2:
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Answer 3:

Management of the work permit system

Response 3:
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Answer 4:

Poorly-skilled work force

Response 4:
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Answer 5:

Unconscious and conscious incompetence

Response 5:
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Answer 6:

Objectives of the work permit system

Response 6:
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Answer 7:

Types of work permits required

Response 7:
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Answer 8:

Contents of the work permit

Response 8:
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Question 4.
Electrical potential difference can be thought of as the ability to move electrical charge
through a resistance
True/False (HP)
Answer 1:

True

Response 1:
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Answer 2:

False

Response 2:
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Question 5.
'DC' stands for
Multiple Choice (HP)
Answer 1:

Both of these

Response 1:
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Next page

Answer 2:

"Direct Current"

Response 2:
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Answer 3:

"constant polarity"

Response 3:
Jump 3:

This page

5.2 Video: Ohms Law.

http://www.sheilds-elearning.co.uk/file.php/4/videos/Ohms_Law.flv