Settling Velocity of Irregularly

Shaped Particles
Sze-Foo Chien: SPE, Texaco Inc.

Summary

A new correlation has been developed to predict the settling velocity

of irregularly shaped particles in Newtonian and non-Newtonian
fluids for all types of slip regimes. The correlation was derived from
extensive data on the drag coefficients and particle Reynolds numbers of irregularly shaped particles. The effective fluid viscosity at
the settling shear rate is used in the correlation. A trial-and-error or
numerical iteration method is required to predict the settling velocity for non-Newtonian fluids. The correlation predicted and verified
the effects of fluid properties, particle properties, and operation parameters on the settling velocity.
Introduction

The settling process occurs in many petroleum, mining, and process

engineering operations. Applications include lifting of drill cuttings, transportation of fracturing proppants, design of settling and
separating tanks, pipeline transportation of mining and coal particles, and deposition of sediments in river channels. In most practical applications, the particles involved are irregularly shaped. The
irregular shape changes the settling behavior compared with
smooth, symmetrical particles. Another practical consideration is
that the fluid medium, such as drilling fluid, polymer fluid, and clay
slurry, through which the particles settle is often non-Newtonian.
Non-Newtonian fluid rheology is more complex than that of Newtonian fluids. The viscosity of such fluids is generally shear-rate dependent. Some may have time- and history-dependent properties.
Chien 1 presented two empirical correlations for the settling velocity of drill cuttings for rotary drilling operations: one for determination of the settling velocity of cuttings in all slip regimes and
the other a simplified version for the turbulent-slip regime. Since
then, more experimental data on the settling velocity of irregularly
shaped particles have been published, and new models describing
the rheology of non-Newtonian fluids have been introduced. These
developments have been incorporated into a new correlation. The
viscosity used in the correlation is an effective viscosity at the settling shear rate. With the new correlation, effects of fluid and particle properties and operating parameters on the settling velocity are
presented and compared with experimental observations.
Background

Settling Velocity, Slip Regime, and Settling Shear Rate. Richards 2 reported settling-velocity data for galena and quartz particles
in water for a wide range of diameters. Quartz particles have a density comparable with that of drill cuttings and silica sands. Fig. 1
shows the settling velocity of quartz particles as a function of nominal particle diameter.
In a given fluid, the settling velocity increases with particle diameter, but the rate of increase is different for different particle-size
ranges. The logarithmic plot in Fig. 1 shows three distinct regimes
of settling behavior. For particles < 0.018 cm in diameter, settling
velocity increases approximately proportionally to the square of the
particle diameter. For particles > 0.13 cm in diameter, the settling
velocity increases proportionally to the square root of the particle diameter. The settling behavior of the small-diameter range is known
as laminar slip, and that of the large diameter range as the turbulent
slip. Between these two regimes is the transitional-slip regime. In
Now retired.
Copyright 1994 Society of Petroleum Engineers
Original SPE manuscript received for review Nov. 13, 1992. Revised manuscript received
May 23,1994. Paper accepted for publication Nov. 8, 1993. Paper (SPE 26121) presented
at the 1994 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition held in New Orleans, Sept.
25-28.

SPE Drilling & Completion, December 1994

the laminar-slip regime, the settling velocity is affected by both the

rheology and the density of the fluid, while in the turbulent-slip regime, the settling velocity is affected mainly by the density of the fluid
and the surface characteristics of the particle.
Because of the unique velocity-to-particle-diameter relationship
in each slip regime, the ratio of the settling velocity to the particle
diameter, vs/d, also changes with particle size. This ratio is the settling shear rate. For non-Newtonian fluids, viscosity depends on the
shear rate and knowledge of the settling shear rate is important for
evaluation of the viscous force experienced by the particle. In the
turbulent-slip regime, the fluid viscosity has only a minor effect on
the drag force; therefore, the settling shear rate does not have an important role in turbulent slip. For Newtonian fluids, viscosity is independent of the shear rate and the concept of a settling shear rate
is not used. Fig. 2 also shows settling shear rate as a function of particle diameter for the data in Fig. I. In the laminar-slip regime, settling shear rate increases with particle diameter, while in the turbulent-slip regime, shear rate decreases with particle diameter. The
maximum occurs somewhere in the transitional-slip regime. For
comparison, Fig. 2 shows settling shear rates of irregular particles
in several drilling fluids (Fluids Lj, L2, L3, and L4) from the work
of Walker and Mayes. 3
The trend of the settling shear rate in the drilling fluids is the same
as that in water. The settling velocity for a given particle decreases
as the fluid becomes more viscous; therefore, the settling shear rate
curve for viscous fluid shifts downward as the fluid viscosity increases. For the fluid in the immediate neighborhood of the particle,
the settling shear rate represents the shear rate that the fluid is experiencing during the settling process. For fluids that have shear-dependent viscosity, the settling shear rate should be used to determine
the effective viscosity of the fluid.
Besides the general trend of the settling shear rate with respect to the
particle diameter, one should also note the magnitude of the settling
shear rate. The maximum settling shear rate is = 120 seconds- 1 in water. In drilling fluids, the maximum is in the 20 to 50 seconds- 1 range.
Therefore, the rheological properties of the fluid used to predict the settling velocity should be measured in the same low-shear-rate range.
Fig. 3 shows settling velocities for one of Walker and Mayes'3
test series (settling of disks ofthe same diameter but different thicknesses in the four fluids mentioned earlier) and confirms the importance of the effect of rheological properties on settling velocity at
low shear rate. The settling velocity of a disk increases as the effective viscosity of the fluid increases. Fig. 4 shows effective viscosities of these fluids at various shear rates. The decrease in viscosity
among these fluids was only in the low-shear-rate range ( < 50 seconds - J) rather than in the high-shear-rate range.
Novotny4 and Hannah and Harrington 5 used the concept of settling shear rate in their studies of the settling of proppant between
rotating concentric cylinders. In their work, settling shear rate is the
gravitational component of shear rate experienced by the fluid.
Drag Coefficient and Particle Reynolds Number. Analysis of the
drag force on a particle in a flowing system generally uses a relationship between the drag coefficient CD, and particle Reynolds number
NRe. The same treatment can be applied to the settling of particles
in fluids. Basically, the drag coefficient represents the fraction of the
kinetic energy of the settling velocity that is used to overcome the
drag force on the particle, while the Reynolds number is a ratio between the inertial and viscous forces of a fluid. For particles with a
nominal or an equivalent diameter d, the drag coefficient and particle Reynolds number in the settling process are defined as
CD = 1308.7d(Pp -

PNV;Pf ...................... , (1)

281

100 ~--------------------------------.

1,000

."./

J-&:~
/&:

10

100

&:A:
&:

t'"

.,.""'-

f:

10

/'
l

0.1

Laminar ~ansitio~
Turbulent
--Slip'-+rr- Slip ~ - - Slip':.:!.------+

--....
------

Fluid
Fluid
Fluid
Fluid

L1
L2
L3
L4

Water

&:

0.01 l..--1-...J-l.-U...I.uJ....---l......J......I...LUJJ.L--1-..L..J...J..WJ.U....----Jc......L...w.........
0.001
0.01
0.1
10

0.1
0.001

0.001

Particle Diameter, em

0.1

10

Particle Diameter, em

Fig.1-Settling velocity of irregularly shaped particles in water

(data from Ref. 2).

Fig. 2-Settling shear rate vs. particle diameter (data from Refs.
2 and 3).

and N Re = dV spt/(1O.0f.l.e). . .. , ...... ,', .. , ...... " .. (2)

slip regime, attention should be given to the drag coefficient in the

range of NRe < 10. The turbulent-slip regime occurs whenNRe > 50.
Fig. 6 shows experimental data, collected from Hottovy and Sylvester,6 Moore,? Zeidler,8 and Hopkins,9 Richards2 and Walker and
Mayes, 3 that were used to establish the relationship between the
drag coefficient and NRe for irregularly shaped particles. As described earlier, Richards' data were for settling of quartz particles
in water. Hottovy and Sylvester's data were for settling of 0.88-gI
cm 3 particles in a Newtonian fluid of 0.506-g/cm 3 density at three
different temperatures. Walker and Mayes' data and some ofZeidler's data were for particles settling in non-Newtonian fluids.
Moore's data and some of Zeidler's data were for settling of particles in Newtonian fluids. Hopkins used glass and rock particles of
various shapes and sizes settling in water and twelve drilling fluids.
Most of his data were in the transitional- and turbulent-slip regimes.

The drag force consists of a viscous drag, which is the result of the
fluid viscosity, and a profile drag, which is the resistance of the fluid
against the particle profile. A low NRe ( < 10) implies a relatively high
viscous force, and a major portion of the drag force is used to overcome the viscous resistance of the fluid. At high NRe (> 50), the inertial force becomes dominant and the fluid density and the particle profile and surface roughness affect the drag force. At NRe> 100, the
drag coefficient of a given particle approaches a constant value.
To show the range of particle Reynolds numbers of the laminarand turbulent-slip regimes, Fig. 5 plots NRe for Richards'2 data vs.
particle size and another set of data representing particle settling in
a drilling fluid. Note that the regimes representing laminar and turbulent slips can be identified by the slopes of the curves. For most
fluids, the laminar slip prevails when NRe < 10. Because the effect
of the fluid viscosity on the settling process is mainly in the laminar-

10r-------------------------------,
-

100 .....----------------------------------,

- - -~ -_. Fluid L3
- - - - . Fluid L4

50

FluidLl
.. c Fluid L2
- --~ --. Fluid L3
--_-. Fluid L4

FluidLl

.. c Fluid L2

'c,

"

30
0.5
20
.. " 00 ........ -0. ..

-<1 ........

0.2

.0'

..

"' .. "'000"'''' a

...... "'0... .....

10
0.1
0.050

0.020

2~~~L-----~--~~~~~~

0.05

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.5

1.0

__~
2.0

Disk Thickness, em
Fig. 3-Settling velocity of discs in non-Newtonian fluids
(data from Ref. 3).

282

0.010

L-...l...-J...J...L.Ll..1.!l.--L...L..l....L.!..JWL--L-L...I...LJ.LJ..U_ _.J.-L...J...J...I.U.J.J

0.1

0.3

10

30

100

300

l,OO(

Shear Rate, S-l

Fig. 4-f.l.e of non-Newtonian fluids used in Fig. 3.
SPE Drilling & Completion, December 1994

10,000

~--------------.----,

'0

v. ~

1,000
I

"

100

.~
if'

.,

Qj
..0

(.)

E
::l

'"e

10

Cl

en
"0
"0
c:

o Rlchards 2
a Moore 7

Walker & Mayes3

: ~~~f'
t:.

>Q)

a::
Q)
u
.

& Sylveste~

'0" ';:--J...w.JjJJJ"-:-.LLlWJUL..L.L.l.J.il.llL....w....J..llillL-LLllliUL;-l-.J.JJWJ.JJJ';:--J...LJ.lillll

0.1

10. 3

10- 1

10-2

102

10'

103

10"

Particle Reynolds Number

CIl

a..

0.01

... Water
P, = 1.000 g/cm 3
Drilling Fluid PI = 1.678 g/cm'

Fig. 6-Experimental data of CD vs. NRe of irregularly shaped

particles.

0.001

value close to 0.8 (0.7924). With the turbulent-slip data of Hopkins 9

and of Walker and Mayes, 3 the drag coefficient for the turbulent-slip
regime is correlated as

Pp = 2.696 g/cm'
0.0001
0.003

0.01

0.03

0.1

0.3

Particle Diameter, em
Fig. 5-NRe vs. particle diameter.

Three guidelines were followed to obtain a relationship between

the drag coefficient and NRe for the settling process.
1. Settling velocity is usually the parameter of most concern where
settling or sedimentation of the particles can be overcome. In practice.
a settling velocity that is on the high side for a prescribed particle size
and fluid condition will be used to provide a safety factor. In terms of
drag coefficient, this means a lower value of CD for a given Reynolds
number. In other words. the correlation is one that fits most data close
to the lower boundary of the spread of the experimental data.
2. Laminarslipis likely to occur where NRe < 10. As faras fluid
rheology is concerned, the main interest is the drag coefficient for
NRe< 10.
3. For NRe > 100, turbulent slip prevails and the surface condition
ofthe particle has a dominant effect on the drag coefficient. Sphericity, 'P, is used to characterize particle surface condition 10 and is defined as

'P = As/Ap.

(CD)t = 67.289/e5.0301J1 ............................ (4)

for 0.2 ~ 'P ~ 1.0. Smooth spheres will have a drag coefficient of
0.44 in the turbulent-slip regime. For frequently occurring irregular
particles, the drag coefficient for turbulent-slip regime is

(cDl,

Fig. 7 shows the relationship between the drag coefficient and

NRe with these guidelines, which is

CD = (30/NRe )

,@ ~---------------------------------------.
- . - . - . - 'I' '" 0.2

_ . _ .. _ .. 'f' .. 0.3

- - - - - - 'f' '" 0.4

. . . . . . 't' '" 0.6

--'1'-0.8
.-------. 't' 1.0

C ,0"
.91

+ (67.289/e5.0301Jl),

for 0.2 ~ 'P ~ 1.0.

(6)
The relationship in Eq. 6 is valid for irregularly shaped particles in
either Newtonian or non-Newtonian fluids and for NRe from 0.001
50
30

Pp = 2.696 g/cm'
P, c 1.678 g/cm 3
Non-Newtonian Fluids
R3 = 1.007

10

. ................................... (3)

A smooth sphere has a 'P value of 1. Most drill cuttings, sand particles, and other frequently occurring irregular particles have a 'P

= 1.250 ................................... (5)

en

(.)

Rs

1.678

R,oo = 14.2 (H-B only)

Newtonian Fluid
R3
1.007

Rs

= 2.014

:>.

'g

~
Cl

.
E

0.5

Q)

CJ)

0.3

--. . . ..
_._.- - - _.
- - - - - _.

~
(.) ,0>

0.1

,a'

Power Law
Bingham-Plastic
Casson
Herschel-Bulkley
Newtonian

0.05
0.03
0.03 0.05
1a'" al,;.3-'-'....I..I..Lill,al-:'2;-'--LLll.w,oL:.,...J....W-U.illL,...J....LLll.1Jl,a1:-,...J....J....I..I..L.w,0>L.:-'-I...J..J..W.I,o"l;;-'...w..w.uI,a"
Particle Reynolds Number

Fig. 7-Relationships between CD and NRe'

SPE Drilling & Completion, December 1994

0.1

0.3

0.5

Particle Diameter, em
Fig. 8-Settling velocity of irregularly shaped particles in fluids
of various models.

283

50
1.0 , - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,

30

- - - Power-Law
. . . .. Bingham-Plastic
_._.- Casson

0.5

- - - _. Herschel-Bulkley
- - - - - _. Newtonian

0.3

Pp
PI

10

....

Non-New1onian Fluids

C\l

R3

..c

R6

1.007
1.678
R100 = 14.2 (H-B only)

Q)

(/)

0>

c:

R3

R6

(f)

=
=

Newtonian Fluid

'E
Q)

0.1

= 2.696 g/cm3
= 1.678 g/cm 3

=
=

Power-Law
. . . Bingham-Plastic
_.- Casson

.:...:.

:~.:....: .

Herschel-Bulkley
- - - Newtonian

0.05

0.03

1.007
2.014

1
0.03 0.05

L-_'---'-'-'-.w...L...W.._-'----'--'-..J-L.L.I....I-'-_-'---'-J..-l

0.1

0.3 0.5

30 50

10

0.1

0.3

0.5

Particle Diameter, cm

Shear Rate, s-l

Fig. 10-Settling shear rate vs. particle size relationship of examples in Fig. 8.

Fig. 9-Effective viscosity of fluids used in Fig. 8.

to 10,000. The trend of the curves ofEq. 6 (Fig. 7) is identical to that

of Wasp et al. ll and most ofthe experimental data fall within 25%
of the values calculated with Eq. 6.
For frequently occurring irregular particles (\11 =0.8), Eq. 6 can
be simplified:
CD =

(30.0/N Re )

1.250.......................... (7)

The form of Eq. 7 is identical to that proposed by Whittaker. 12 The

laminar portion of the drag coefficient in Eqs. 6 and is slightly higher
than the classic Stoke's law, where CD = 24.0INRe-

that in the previous correlation, an empirical equation is used to express the effective viscosity as a function of the plastic viscosity of
Bingham-plastic fluid and annular velocity. In this work, the effective viscosity will be evaluated at the settling shear rate.
For those interested only in the settling velocity in the turbulentslip regime, settling velocity can be obtained by substituting the turbulent-slip drag coefficient of Eq. 4 in Eq. I:

(v s), = 4.410 e25151J1

j d[ (Pp/Pj) -

I].

(11)

And for frequently occurring irregular particles,

Settling Velocity Correlations

Derivation of Settling Velocity Correlations. A settling velocity

correlation is obtained by introducing the definitions of the drag coefficient and NRe, Eqs. I and 2, respectively, into the drag coefficient
correlation, Eq. 6, and rearranging:

v~ + 4.458e 5030IJl ( :;Jvs -

19.44ge50301J1

d(~ - I )

= O.

....................... (8)

For frequently occurring irregular particles, Eq. 8 can be simplified to

v;

+ 240.0 ( ~J vs

1046.878

d( ~; - I) = O.

.....

(9)

The value of settling velocity can be solved from Eq. 9 by a quadratic formula and choosing the positive root of Vs:

1+ 00727d(~ -1)(~:)' - 1]
...................... (10)

Note that Eq. 10 has the same parameters and form as Chien'sl settling velocity equation except for the numerical coefficients. The
difference in the numerical coefficients is because the derivation of
the earlier equation essentially is based on Richards'2 data and the
parameters involved are in customary units. Another difference is
284

Effective Fluid Viscosities. In determining the settling velocity of

drilling particles, Moore7 and Walker and Mayes 3 proposed use of
an effective viscosity equal to that which resulted in the frictional
pressure loss in the annular flow. Their effective viscosity is at a
shear rate equal to eight times the annular velocity divided by the
hydraulic diameter of the annulus. Chien I suggested use of either
the plastic viscosity or an effective viscosity at a shear rate equal to
annular velocity divided by the nominal particle diameter. In this paper, an effective viscosity at a shear rate equal to the settling shear
rate is used. This settling shear rate can be calculated according to

Ys

= vs/d. ..................................... (13)

As discussed earlier, the settling shear rate of the laminar-slip regime, where fluid viscosity has a dominant role, ranges from 0.1 to
50 seconds-I and is usually < 25 seconds-I. Therefore, fluid rheological data also should be measured in the same shear-rate range.
The effective viscosity at various shear rates will depend on the
constitutive equation of the fluid, or the relationship between the
shear stress and shear rate of the fluid. For Newtonian fluids, viscosity is independent of shear rate and the effective viscosity is the same
as the dynamic viscosity; i.e.,
fl.e

fl.N

.........................

(14)

For non-Newtonian fluids, the effective viscosity depends on the

shear rate. Eqs. 15 through 18 are used to determine the effective
viscosities for four popular models of non-Newtonian fluids: Bingham-plastic, power-law, Casson, and Herschel-Bulkley.
SPE Drilling & Completion, December 1994

The first three non-Newtonian fluid models are two-parameter

models that require two sets of shear-stress/shear-rate data to determine their rheological parameters. The Herschel-Bulkley model is
a three-parameter model that requires three sets of shear-stress vs.
shear-rate data to determine its parameters. The Appendix describes
the use measurements from a Fann viscometer to determine the rheological parameters of these four fluids. Similar procedures can be
used with any other appropriate viscometer.

50
Pp = 2.696 g/cm3
I
0.155 Pa'si

30

0.737
10
~

>.

'" '"

.- .-

..- .-

,,"

,,"

/
/
I
I

'0

I
/

/
/

C>

t:

0.5

Q)

I
/

C/)

0.3

P, = 1.198g/cm3

I
I

P,

I
I
I

0.1

1.678 g/cm3

Pf = 2.157 g/cm 3

I
I

0.05
0.03 0.05

L-~~~~L-

__~~~~~~LLU-____~~

0.1

0.3

0.5

Particle Diameter, em

Effect of Particle, Fluid, and Operating Parameters

on Settling Velocity

Fig. 11-Effect of fluid density on settling velocity.

Bingham-Plastic Model.

(asd/vs) + f.lB

f.le =

(15)

Power-Law Model.
f.le

= l(vs/dr

(16)

Casson Model.
f.le

....................

[(/0;;/ jvs/d) + ~r

(17)

Herschel-Bulkley Model.
f.le =

(atfl/v s) + [1(vs/d)fH-l . ....................

Settling Velocity Solution Methods.The settling velocity for a prescribed particle and fluid can be solved by use of the appropriate effective viscosity equation and Eq. 8 or 9. As described previously,
a Newtonian fluid is one whose viscosity is independent of the shear
rate; therefore, its dynamic viscosity can be used readily as the effective viscosity to solve the settling velocity.
Although the effective viscosity is a function of the settling velocity for Bingham-plastic fluids, the settling velocity correlation can
be grouped to become a quadratic equation of Vs.
For the other three types of non-Newtonian fluids, their effective
viscosity may be such that the settling velocity correlation is no
longer a quadratic equation. Either a trial-and error or a numerical
iterative method, such as Newton-Raphson method,13 can be used.
Such a method can also be used to solve settling velocity for any
type of fluid, Newtonian or non-Newtonian. Only the positive root
of the solutions should be chosen as the practical solution.

(18)

Particle-Diameter Effect. Fig. 8 shows examples of the effect of

particle diameter on the settling velocity. Particle density is 2.696
g/cm 3 and fluid density is 1.678 g/cm3 . All non-Newtonian fluids
in the examples are assumed to have the same Fann viscometer measurements at 3 and 6 rev/min (R3 = 1.007, R6 = 1.678). The Herschel-Bulkley fluid has an additional measurement at 100 rev/min
(RIOO= 14.213). The Newtonian fluid has a viscosity based on
R3 = 1.007 and R6 = 2.014. Because all non-Newtonian fluids in the
examples have identical rheological measurements (shear stresses)
at 5.11 and 10.22 seconds-I, their effective viscosities close to these
shear rates are approximately equal to one another (Fig. 9). Thus,
for a given particle size, the settling velocities are also very close
among various models. Beyond these shearrates, effective viscosity
and therefore settling velocity differ in the laminar-slip regime.

50 ~------------------------------30

Pp
PI
i

=
=
=

g/cm3

2.696
1.678 g/cm3
0.737

/
/

'"
'" '"

50

r------------------------------.

30

i = 0.537

i
i

10
~

::E'u
o

I
I
I

I
/

/
/

EQ)

en

I
I

0.5

I
I

0.3
/
I

0.1

I
I

::E'u
o

/
/
/
/

/
/

/
I
I
I
I

0.5

Pa'si

... I = 0.155
- - I = 0.309 Pa'si
- - I = 0.619 Pa'si

0.05 L..-L...L....L....I.A...L.l..-_--'----'----'---'--.J.....J...u..J._ _'----'---'--'

0.03 0.05 0.1
0.3 0.5
3
5

Particle Diameter, em
Fig. 12-Effect of Ivalue of power-law fluid on settling velocity.
SPE Drilling & Completion, December 1994

I
I
I

0.3

I
I

~
en

'" '"

Ol
C

/
/

/
I
I

Ol

~ #/'

E
u

10

I
/

. ',..

0.737
0.937

0.1

I
I

.' I
. I
. I
I

. I
I

Pp = 2.696 g!cm3
PI
1.678 g/cm3
= 0.155 Pa's i

0.05 L-L......L....l....L.J...U_ _ _ _-'-----'----'-.l....I...J.....J...I..l-_--'-__L......l....J

0.03 0.05
0.1
0.3 0.5
3
5

Particle Diameter, em
Fig. 13-Effect of ivalue of power-law fluid on settling velocity.

285

1.0

50~============~------~~
aBC 0.172Pa
30
aBc 0.344 Pa
aBc 0.688 Pa

---

i = 0.537
- - i = 0.737
.... i = 0.937

0.5
0.3

""

"' "'

(/)

ill

"' "

c..

" "'

""

:>.

'0
0
u
(/)

:>

(/)
-...

".." ,.
"' "'

0.1

U
~

"' "'

;6

"' "'

~
" "'

Cl

" "'

.5

"" "'

0.03
2.696

"' "'

UJ

E
u

EQ)

"' "

C/)

" "'

0.5
0.3

"'

" "'
0.1

g/cm3

0.3 0.5

. I
I
I

2.696 g/cm3
0.0671 Pa's
PI = 1.678 g/cm3
Pp

~B =

0.155 Pa'si

0.05 L....L.....I...J....L...U..l.---L--'---'--'-'--..J...J.....LJ...JL...-_-'---'----'--'
0.1
0.3 0.5
3
5
0.03 0.05

0.01
0.1

I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
J
J
J
J

PI = 1.678 g/cm 3
=

./
../ /

'0

0.05

Pp

10

Shear Rate,

10

30 50

Particle Diameter, em

5. 1

Fig. 14-Effect of Ivalue of power-law fluid on the effective viscosity of fluid examples in Fig. 13.

Fig. 15-Effect of yield stress of Bingham-plastic fluid on settling velocity.

Fig. 10 shows settling shear rate as a function of particle diameter

for the examples in Fig. 8. All data have a settling shear rate ranging
from 1 to 22 seconds-I. At settling shear rates > 11 seconds-I, the
settling starts to become transitional slip where the fluid rheology
has a smaller effect on settling velocity. Because all the fluids have
the same density, they have almost the identical settling velocity in
the transitional- and turbulent-slip regimes.

porting particles at a high yield stress. Hopkins'9 experimental data

showed that the settling velocity of a given particle will readily be
reduced to zero when the yield stress increases to a certain value.
This study is able to verify this trend analytically.
Fig. 16 shows that an increase in plastic viscosity of a Binghamplastic fluid for a given yield stress reduces the settling velocity.
This is similar to the settling in Newtonian fluids where an increase
in fluid viscosity reduces the settling velocity. Not much change occurs in the settling velocity in turbulent-slip regime because viscosity does not have a major role there.

Fluid Density Effects. Fig. 11 shows examples of the effect of fluid

density on settling velocity. All fluids in the example are power-law
fluids with the same rheological property at 5.11 to 10.22 seconds- I
shear rate range (i.e., R3 = 1.007 and R6 = 1.678) but different densities (1.198, 1.678 and 2.157 g/cm 3 ). An increase in fluid density increases the buoyancy force and thus reduces the settling velocity.
Rheological Property Effects. Examples illustrated here are for a
power-law and a Bingham-plastic model. Similar analyses can be
made for other models. Figs. 12 shows that an increase in I at a
constant value of i increases the effective viscosity for a given shear
rate and therefore decreases the settling velocity. Fig. 13 shows the
effect of an increase in the i value for a given I value. Fig. 14 shows
the effective viscosities of the power-law fluids used in the examples. For shear rates > 1 second-I, the effective viscosity will decrease with an increase in i value, but for shear rates < 1 second-I,
the effective viscosity will increase. All settling velocities in Fig. 13
have a settling shear rate > 1 second-I; therefore, the settling velocity decreases as the value of i increases.
Figs. IS and 16 show the effects of yield stress and plastic viscosity, respectively, on settling velocity in a Bingham-plastic-model.
The yield stress of a Bingham-plastic fluid can be considered as the
fluid strength that is capable of supporting a certain particle weight
or size. If the yield stress is high enough, the settling velocity can be
reduced readily to a very small value. The OR = 0.688 Pa curve in
Fig. 15 shows that the fluid is capable of supporting any particle
< 0.15 cm in diameter. Rheologically, when yield stress is high, the
effective viscosity could become so large (Fig. 17) that it could reduce the settling velocity to a very small value.
Other fluid models that have a yield stress, such as the Casson and
Herschel-Bulkley models, will have the same characteristics of sup-

286

Fluid Velocity Effects. Settling velocity refers to the motion of a

particle with respect to the fluid through which the particle is settling. If the fluid itself is in motion, such as annular velocity in a
drilling operation, the effect of such velocity on the settling process
can be manifested through the change in the settling shear rate. If the
particle is settling in a static fluid, the shear rate experienced by the
fluid is the settling shear rate, vs/d. If the fluid is moving against the
settling direction at a velocity equal to vs , the settling shear rate becomes twice that of settling in a static fluid. Thus, by introducing a
multiplier on the shear-rate term in the effective viscosity, one can
evaluate the effect of fluid velocity on the settling velocity. For fluid
models, such as Bingham-plastic or Casson, which have both sheardependent and -independent terms in the effective viscosity, the effect of fluid velocity on settling velocity also will depend on the relative magnitude of the rheological property in these two terms.
Fig. 18 shows a relatively small change in settling velocity as the
fluid velocity is changed in a power-law fluid. Several papers l4,15
have presented experimental data in agreement with this prediction.
It is the first time an analytical method is able to verify this effect.
Conclusions

1. New settling velocity correlations for irregularly shaped particles have been derived. These correlations consider size, surface
condition, and density of the particle and rheology, density, and velocity of the fluid; they cover all types of fluids and slip regimes and
NRe from 0.001 to 10,000.
2. An effective viscosity at a shear rate corresponding to the settling process is used to predict settling velocity. This shear rate,
which is equal to settling velocity divided by particle size, is defined
SPE Drilling & Completion, December 1994

50

r-------------------------------~

30
., ,

,,

"

10
~

.,'

'0

~;;'~'

,,1
, ,,
, ,
,

cp

ca

0..

:tE-

0>

C/)

'0

lis = 0.0336 Pa's

... Ils = 0.0672 Pa's
- - _. lis = 0.1007 Pa's

.~

EQ)

I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I

0.5

(/)

:>

Q)

0.3

,
," ,

u>

Pp = 2.696 g/cm 3
Pt = 1.678 g/cm3
as = 0.172 Pa

.,
0.1

0.5

,'

,,

as=
as=
as=

\
\
\
\

0.3

Pp

UJ

lis

\
\
\

0.05
0.03 0.05

0.1

0.3

0.5

Fig. 16-Effect of plastic viscosity of Bingham-plastic fluid on

settling velocity.

as settling shear rate. The settling shear rate of most settling processes in drilling and fracturing operations is in the 0.1 to 50 seconds-I range. To predict a settling velocity, rheological data should
be measured in a similar low-shear-rate range.
3. The mathematical form of the effective viscosity for Binghamplastic, power-law, Casson, and Herschel-Bulkley models of nonNewtonian fluids are presented.
4. For non-Newtonian fluids, the effective viscosity depends on
the settling velocity and a trial-and-error or a numerical iteration
method, such as the Newton-Raphson method, can be used to solve
for the settling velocity.
5. For Newtonian fluids, viscosity is independent of shear rate
and the settling velocity can be solved by a quadratic formula. Of
course, the trial-and-error and numerical iterative methods may also
be used to solve the settling velocity for Newtonian fluids.
6. In the turbulent-slip regime, the fluid rheology plays a minor
role and the settling velocity is essentially determined by the fluid
density and particle density and surface characteristics. Settling velocity correlations specifically for turbulent slip are proposed.

0.1

0.05

mt(iH- 2)/L2, Pa'slH

i = power-law index of power-law fluid,

dimensionless
iH = power index of Herschel-Bulkley model,
dimensionless
NRe = particle Reynolds number, dimensionless
R3,R6,R]()() = Fann viscometer reading at 3, 6, and 100 revlmin
Vs = settling velocity, Lit, crnls

0.0671 Pa's

Pf = 1.678 glcm3
"- ....

....

----

---

--~

0.1

0.3

0.5

Particle Diameter, em
Fig. 17-Effect of yield stress of Bingham-plastic fluid on effective viscosity.

(vsh = settling velocity in the turbulent-slip regime, Lit,

y=
ys =
\II =
flB =
flc =
fle =
flN =

Nomenclature

Ap = surface area of particle, L2, cm2

As = surface area of a sphere of the same volume, L2,
cm2
CD = drag coefficient, dimensionless
(CDh = drag coefficient of turbulent-slip regime,
dimensionless
d = nominal or equivalent particle diameter, L, cm
I = consistency index of power-law model,
mt(i-2)/L2, Pa' si
IH = consistency index of Herschel-Bulkley model,

= 2.696 glcm3

L...J--'-~L..J...L_--l._L-....l-l-L..J....J....J....I...._--l._J........J....J

0.03 0.05

Pf'Pp =

SPE Drilling & Completion, December 1994

,,

Particle Diameter, em

0.172 Pa
0.344 Pa
0.688 Pa

r=
OB =

Oc =
0H =

crnls
shear rate, lit, second-I
settling shear rate, lit, second-I
sphericity of a particle as defined in Eq. 3,
dimensionless
plastic viscosity of Bingham-plastic model, mILt,
Pa's
plastic viscosity of Casson model, mILt, Pa' s
effective viscosity of non-Newtonian fluids, mILt,
Pa's
viscosity of Newtonian fluids, mILt, Pa' s
density of fluid and particle, respectively, mlL3,
glcm 3
shear stress, mlLt2, Pa
yield stress of Bingham Plastic model, mlLt2, Pa
yield stress of Casson model, rnI(Lt2), Pa
yield stress of Herschel-Bulkley model, mlLt 2, Pa

References
1. Chien, S.F.: "Annular Velocity for Rotary Drilling Operations," IntI. J.
Rock Meeh. Min. Sci. (1972) 9, 403.
2. Richards, R.H.: "Velocity of Galena and Quartz Falling in Water,"
Trans., AIME (1908) 38, 210.
3. Walker, R.E. and Mayes, T.M.: "Design of Muds for Carrying Capacity," JPT (July 1975) 893.
4. Novotny, E.1.: "Proppant Transport," paper SPE 6813 presented at the
1977 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Denver, Oct.
9-12.
5. Hannah, R.R. and Harrington, L.1.: "Measurement of Dynamic Proppant Fall Rates in Fracturing Gels Using a Concentric Cylinder Tester,"
JPT (May 1981) 909.
287

50
30

r---------------------------------,
.... Fluid Vel.
- - Fluid Vel.
- - - Fluid Vel.

o
0.8

10
~

u
~
'0

0.6

.~

C>

EQ)

0.4

0.5

CJ)

0.3

Pp = 2.696 g/cm3
Pf
I

0.1
0.05
0.03 0.05

0.1

0.3

1.678 g/cm3
0.155 Pa' Si
0.737

0.5

0.2

~~LL~

Particle Diameter, em

__~~~~__L-~-L~__L-~~

15

10

20

25

30

35

Fig. 18-Effect of fluid viscosity on settling velocity.

6. Hottovy, 1.D. and Sylvester, N.D.: "Drag Coefficients for Irregularly
Shaped Particles," Ind. Eng. Chern. Process. Des. Dev. (1979) 18, No.
3,433.
7. Moore, P.L.: Drilling Practices Manual, Penn Well Publishing Co., Tulsa (1974) 228 .
8. Zeidler, H.U.: "Fluid and Drilled Particle Dynamics Related to Drilling
Mud Carrying Capacity," PhD dissertation, U. of Tulsa, Tulsa (1974).
9. Hopkins, E.A.: "Factors Affecting Cuttings Removal During Rotary
Drilling," IPT(lune 1967) 807; Trans., AIME, 240.
10. Waddell, H.: "The Coefficient of Resistance as a Function of Reynolds
Number for Solids of Various Shapes," 1. Franklin Inst. (1934) 217, 459.
11. Wasp, E.1., Kenny, 1.P., and Gandhi, R.L.: "Solid Liquid Flow Slurry
Pipeline Transportation," Gulf Publishing Co., Houston (1979) 39.
12. Whittaker, A.: "Theory and Application of Drilling Fluid Hydraulics"
IntI. Human Resources Development Corp., Boston (1985) 122.
13. Hornbeck, R.W.: Numerical Methods, Quantum Publishers Inc., New
YQrk City (1975) 66.
14. Sifferrnan, T.R. et al.: "Drill-Cutting Transport in Full-Scale Vertical
Annuli," IPT(Nov. 1974) 1295.
15. Sample, K.1. and Bourgoyne, A.T.: "An Experimental Evaluation of
Correlations Used for Predicting Cutting Slip Velocity," paper SPE
6645 presented at the 1977 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Denver, Oct. 9-12.

Fig. A-l-iH value of Herschel-Bulkley fluid as a function of Fann

viscometer readings.

Bingham-Plastic Model. The shear-stress vs. shear-rate relationship of a Bingham-plastic fluid is

T

aB

The settling shear rate of a laminar slip is generally < 50 seconds-I

and in most cases < 25 seconds-I. Therefore, rheological measurement of the fluid involved in the settling process should be measured
with a viscometer at low shear rates. The examples given here use
a Fann viscometer (assuming a Fann Model 35A or better with a
standard bob and rotor). For Bingham-plastic, power-law, and Casson models, Fann data at 3 and 6 rev/min are used to calculate rheological parameters, and for the Herschel-Bulkley model, an additional measurement at 100 rev/min is needed. The Fann
measurements at 3, 6, and 100 rev/min are represented by R3, R6 and
RIOO, respectively. The settling shear rate can be calculated according to Eq. 13. Parameters used in the effective viscosity of the four
models follow.
288

flBi'.

. .............................

(A-I)

In a settling process, the effective viscosity at the settling shear rate is

fle

where

flB

+ (aBlY,)

flB =

, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (A-2)

0.1O(R6 - R3 )

and a B = 0.5.11(2R 3

.......................

(A-3)

R6)' ...................... (A-4)

Power-Law Model. The shear-stress vs. shear-rate relationship of

a power-law model is
T

1/. ...................................... (A-5)

Effective viscosity, in pascal seconds, at the settling shear rate is

Iy:-l, ................................... (A-6)

fle =

Appendix-Use of Fann Viscometer Measurements for

Calculating Rheological Parameters of Four Types of
Non-Newtonian Fluids

where I = 0.511[R 6 /(l0.2I2)i] ..................... (A-7)

and i = 3.32210g(R 6 /R 3 )

..

(A-S)

Casson Model. The shear-stress vs. shear-rate relationship of a Casson model is

T

(lac

+ ;;;;

fit .......................

(A-9)

The effective viscosity, in poise, at the settling shear rate is

fle =

[(JGc/ ffs) + ~r (A-lO)

where a c = 2.97S( [2R; -

fifr,) .................. (A-ll)

SPE Drilling & Completion, December 1994

and,uc =

0.583(;R;,-[R;f. .....................

(A-12)

Herschel-Bulkley Model. The shear-stress vs. shear-rate relationship of Herschel-Bulkley fluid is

l' =

a H + IHi/H. . ............................ (A-13)

The effective viscosity at the settling shear rate is

SI Metric Conversion Factors

cp x 1.0*
dyne/cm2 x 1.0
ft 3 x 2.831 685
gal x 3.785412
in. x2.54*
Ibm x 4.535 924
psi x 6.894 757
Conversion factor is exact.

where iH can be solved from

or read from Fig. A-I, where it is plotted as a function of

(RlOO - R3)/(R6 - R3). IH and aH values can be calculated from

E-03 =Pa's
E-Ol =Pa
E-02 =m3
E-03 =m 3
E+OO =cm
E-Ol =kg
E+OO =kPa
SPEDC

Sze-Foo Chien recently retired from Texaco Inc. in Houston,

where he was a research consultant in the E&P Technology
Dept. He had been with Texaco Research since 1961. His research focus was in fluid mechanics and heat transfer of multiphase and non-Newtonian fluids and recovery of unconventional energy resources. He is an honorary professor at the U. of
Petroleum (Shangdong, China). Chien holds a BS degree from
Natl. Taiwan U. and MS and PhD degrees from the U. of Minnesota, all in mechanical engineering.

The value of the fluid yielding stress is

Calculation of iH IH. and aH for a given set of R3. R6. and RlOO
values can be done in many ways; this Appendix represents only one
of the possibilities.

SPE Drilling & Completion. December 1994

289