Linking words are essential for your writing to be natural and clear.

Linking devices vary in three ways:

1. Position in the text.
Some linking words normally form a link between clauses WITHIN a sentence. It is bad
style to start a sentence with these words:
and

but

so

because

then

until

such as

Another type of linking device is used to form a link BETWEEN sentences. These words
must start with a capital letter and are usually immediately followed by a comma:
Furthermore,
In conclusion,

Moreover,

However,

Nevertheless,

Therefore,

Most linking words, however, can either start a sentence or form a link between sentences.
The choice is up to the writer.
2.

The function of linking words

Linking devices are neither nouns, nor verbs. They provide a text with cohesion and
illustrate how the parts of the text relate to each other. Here are some of the functions
which linking words provide.
Adding extra information to the main point, contrasting ideas, expressing cause and effect,
showing exactly when something happened (narrating), expressing purpose (why?) and
opinion, listing examples, making conclusions and giving emphasis.
3.

Grammatical differences

Some linking words must be followed by a clause (Subject + Verb + Object).

E.g..

while

why

because

although so

whereas when

Other linking words should be followed by a noun phrase (Linking word + (the) +
Noun/Pronoun or gerund)
E.g..

because of

despite

during

in spite of

The majority of linking devices can be followed by either a noun phrase or a clause.
Here is a list of the principal linking words in English, their function and if their position is
usually fixed.

Adding and

Contrasting

*and
as well as
besides
Moreover,
Furthermore,
What is more,
In addition,
not only .... but also
another point is that

*but
However,
Although
despite
In spite of
Nevertheless,
On the contrary,
on the one hand
on the other hand,
whereas
while
but while
In contrast,
Neither...nor

relative clauses
who
where
that
,which
whose
to whom
when
what
why

Narration
First (of all)
At first
At the beginning
In the beginning
then
next
Before
After
After that
afterwards
When
While
during
Soon
prior to
Giving examples
for example,
for instance,
For one thing,
this includes
such as e.g.. (for example)
i.e. (that is)

* Avoid starting a sentence with these words.

immediately
Once
Suddenly
As soon as
on
No sooner....than
Hardly...when
Finally
Eventually
At the end
In the end
At last
To begin with,
until
Summing up /
concluding
All in all
overall
generally
In conclusion,
on the whole
in the main
To sum up,

Expressing cause /
reason
Because
as
since
This is why
because of
Due to
Owing to
For this reason,
Expressing effect / result
*so
so....that
such a...that
Therefore
Thus
Consequently,
As a result,
too...for/to
not enough...for/to
Expressing purpose
to
so as to
in order that
so that
for (Non-specific)
Expressing opinion
I would say that
In my opinion,
I think (that)
I believe (that)
Personally
Apparently,
Emphasis
especially
particularly
Naturally,
exactly because
above all
Whatever
Whenever
too / enough
The more ....

The linking words beginning with a capital letter often start a sentence, For those without,
position in a sentence is optional.
Linking words - Difficult cases
So
AVOID STARTING A SENTENCE WITH THIS WORD!
'So' can be used in two ways:
1.

To show RESULT.

E.g.. It was raining, so we decided not to go to the beach.

NOTE! 'because' shows the REASON. The above sentence could be expressed like this:
E.g..

We decided not to go to the beach because it was raining.

NOTE! To show a REASON LINK BETWEEN SENTENCES use 'Therefore,'.

2.

So & such used for EMPHASIS.

When used for emphasis, 'So' must be followed by either an adjective or an adverb and
must be linked to an explanation CLAUSE.
E.g..

It was so hot that we decided not to go to the beach.

OR We decided not to go to the beach because it was so hot.

NOTE! 'such' is used in the same way, but must be followed by a NOUN or
ADJECTIVE+NOUN.
E.g..

It was such a hot day that we decided not to go to the beach.

OR We decided not to go to the beach because it was such a hot day.

NOTE! When there is no explanation clause, use 'VERY', unless referring to a present
situation.
E.g..

It was very hot yesterday, wasn't it?

It's so nice to see you again!

Enough and too

'enough' goes AFTER ADJECTIVES & ADVERBS but BEFORE NOUNS.
E.g.. You won't pass the exam if you don't work hard enough.
OR He didn't get the job because he didn't have enough experience.
'enough' can also be used alone.
E.g.. I'll lend you some money if you haven't got enough.

'too' means 'more than necessary' and comes BEFORE ADJECTIVES & ADVERBS ONLY.
E.g..

The coffee was too hot to drink.

But and However,

'but' is used to CONTRAST clauses WITHIN A SENTENCE.
E.g..

I like going to the beach, but I never go at midday.

'However,' has the same function, but is used to show CONTRAST BETWEEN
SENTENCES.
E.g..

I've always enjoyed going to the beach. However, I never go there at midday.

Although, though, even though & In spite of / despite,

'Although' must join two clauses, but it's position can change. It can either start a sentence
or come in the middle.
E.g..
OR

Although it rained a lot, we enjoyed the holiday.

We enjoyed the holiday although it rained a lot.

In spoken English 'though' can be used instead of 'although' when it is used for the second
clause.
E.g..

"I didn't get the job though I had all the necessary qualifications."

'though' can also come at the end of a sentence.

E.g..

"The house isn't very nice. I like the garden though."

'Even though' is a stronger form of 'although'.

E.g..

Even though I was really tired, I couldn't sleep.

'In spite of' or 'Despite' must be followed by a NOUN, PRONOUN (this, that, what etc.) or
~ING.
E.g..
OR

In spite of the rain, we went to the beach.

We went to the beach in spite of the rain.

It is common to use the expression 'In spite of the fact (that)....' or 'Despite the fact
(that)....'
E.g..
She's quite fit in spite of the fact that she smokes 40 cigarettes a day.

Linking words of time - Still, yet and already

'Still' tells us that an action is continuing, or hasn't happened yet. It has positive, negative
and question forms.
E.g..
or
or

It's 10 o'clock and John's still in bed.

She said that she would be here an hour ago and she still hasn't come.
Are you still living in London?

'yet' asks if something has happened, or to say that something hasn't happened. It is
mainly used in NEGATIVES & QUESTIONS and comes at the end of a sentence. 'Yet' is
usually used with the present perfect tense.
E.g..
He hasn't finished the report yet.
OR
Is dinner ready yet?
'Already' is used to say that something happened before expected, it usually comes in
middle position, but can also come in final position. 'Already' is not used in negatives and
in British English is only used in questions to show considerable surprise.
E.g..
I'll tell her that dinner is ready.
She already knows.
Have you finished already?! I thought it would take you longer!
In order to understand this type of linking word, you must be clear about the concepts of 'a
point in time' and 'a period of time'. A point in time is the answer to a 'when' question, and a
period of time is the answer to a 'how long' question.
E.g..
Points of time = 6pm, Wednesday, she arrived, summer, 1999, Christmas, five
minutes ago.
Periods of time = 3 seconds, 4 days, ages, 100 years, the Christmas holiday, five
minutes.
During and while
Both 'during' and 'while' tell us WHEN something happened. The difference between them
is that 'during' is followed by a noun phrase (no verb), and 'while' is followed by a clause
(subject + verb + object).
E.g..

When did you go to Barcelona?

I went there during my holiday in Europe.

OR
I went there while I was on holiday in Europe.
'By' means 'at some time before' and tells us when something happens. It is followed by a
point in time and can be used for both past and future time.
E.g..

This report must be finished by 6pm.

'By the time' has the same meaning but is followed by a clause. It is common with perfect
tenses.

E.g..

By the time we get there the party will have finished.

For, since and until

These words all tell us how long something happens. 'For' focuses on duration and can be
used in most tenses. It is followed by a period of time.
'Since' is only used with perfect tenses and must be followed by a point in time.
E.g..
OR

They stayed in Barcelona for two weeks.

They've been in Barcelona since last Friday. = They are still in Barcelona now.

'Until' also tells us how long something happens, but the focus is on the end of the action
or situation. It is followed by a point in time.
E.g..

They stayed in Barcelona until last Friday. = They left Barcelona last Friday.

Not....any more/longer and no longer

These expressions tell us that a situation has changed. 'not....any more/longer' go at the
end of a sentence and 'no longer' is used in the middle of a sentence.
E.g..

Mr. Jones doesn't work here any longer. OR

She no longer works here.

As & like
'As' and 'like' can be used in COMPARISONS.
However, 'As' MUST BE FOLLOWED BY A CLAUSE, and 'like' MUST BE FOLLOWED BY
A NOUN.
E.g..
OR

He worked for the company, as his father had done before him.
She acts like a child sometimes.

'As' can also be followed by a preposition

E.g.. In 1998, as in 1997, inflation in Brazil fell steadily.
'(not) as....as ' + ADJECTIVE or ADVERB shows EQUALITY or INEQUALITY.
E.g..
She isn't as tall as her father was.
Rio as it is in So Paulo.

OR

The traffic can be as bad in

'As' can be used to state the ROLE, JOB or FUNCTION of a person or thing.
E.g..
We all worked together as a team.
Human Resources Department.
OR
attract attention.

OR

She worked as a manager in the

He used his handkerchief as a flag to

'As' can be used in the same way as 'because'; however, it gives less emphasis than
'because'.

E.g..
OR

As the weather was so bad, we didn't go to the beach.

I bought her some flowers as she had been so kind to me.

'As' tells us that actions occur at the same time.

E.g..

As the door opened, she saw him standing by the wall.

'As' is often used in these common expressions:

As hard as, as soon as, as long as, as well as, as far as, as good as.
E.g..
He can stay here as far as I'm concerned.
come home early.

You can go as long as you

'As' is also the preposition used after these verbs:

Regarded as
see sth. as
be thought of as
Be looked on
as.
Giving examples
For example
Namely
For instance
The most common way of giving examples is by using for example or for instance.
Namely refers to something by name.
"There are two problems: namely, the expense and the time."
Adding information
And
Too
In addition to
In addition
Furthermore
Besides
As well as
Moreover
Also
Apart from
Ideas are often linked by and. In a list, you put a comma between each item, but not
before and.
"We discussed training, education and the budget."
Also is used to add an extra idea or emphasis. "We also spoke about marketing."
You can use also with not only to give emphasis.
"We are concerned not only by the costs, but also by the competition."
We don't usually start a sentence with also. If you want to start a sentence with a phrase
that means also, you can use In addition, or In addition to this
As well as can be used at the beginning or the middle of a sentence.
"As well as the costs, we are concerned by the competition."
"We are interested in costs as well as the competition."
Too goes either at the end of the sentence, or after the subject and means as well.
"They were concerned too."
"I, too, was concerned."
Apart from and besides are often used to mean as well as, or in addition to.
"Apart from Rover, we are the largest sports car manufacturer."
"Besides Rover, we are the largest sports car manufacturer."
Moreover and furthermore add extra information to the point you are making.
"Marketing plans give us an idea of the potential market. Moreover, they tell us about the
competition."

Summarising
In short
In brief
In summary

To summarise
In a nutshell

To conclude
In conclusion

We normally use these words at the beginning of the sentence to give a summary of what
we have said or written.
Sequencing ideas
The former, the latter
The first point is
Lastly
Firstly, secondly, finally
The following
The former and the latter are useful when you want to refer to one of two points.
"Marketing and finance are both covered in the course. The former is studied in the first
term and the latter is studied in the final term."
Firstly, secondly, finally (or lastly) are useful ways to list ideas.
It's rare to use "fourthly", or "fifthly". Instead, try the first point, the second point, the
third point and so on.
The following is a good way of starting a list.
"The following people have been chosen to go on the training course: N Peters, C Jones
and A Owen."
Giving a reason
Due to / due to the fact that
Because of
Owing to / owing to the fact that
Since
Because
As
Due to and owing to must be followed by a noun.
"Due to the rise in oil prices, the inflation rate rose by 1.25%."
"Owing to the demand, we are unable to supply all items within 2 weeks."
If you want to follow these words with a clause (a subject, verb and object), you must
follow the words with the fact that.
"Due to the fact that oil prices have risen, the inflation rate has gone up by 1%25."
"Owing to the fact that the workers have gone on strike, the company has been unable to
fulfil all its orders."
Because / because of
Because of is followed by a noun.
"Because of bad weather, the football match was postponed."
Because can be used at the beginning or in the middle of a sentence. For example,
"Because it was raining, the match was postponed."
"We believe in incentive schemes, because we want our employees to be more
productive."
Since / as
Since and as mean because.
"Since the company is expanding, we need to hire more staff."
"As the company is expanding, we need to hire more staff."
Giving a result
Therefore
This means that
So
As a result
Consequently
Therefore, so, consequently and as a result are all used in a similar way.

"The company are expanding. Therefore / So / Consequently / As a result, they are taking
on extra staff."
So is more informal.
Contrasting ideas
But
Nonetheless
However
While
Although / even though
Whereas
Despite / despite the fact that
Unlike
In spite of / in spite of the fact that
In theory in practice
Nevertheless

But is more informal than however. It is not normally used at the beginning of a sentence.
"He works hard, but he doesn't earn much."
"He works hard. However, he doesn't earn much."
Although, despite and in spite of introduce an idea of contrast. With these words, you
must have two halves of a sentence.
"Although it was cold, she went out in shorts."
"In spite of the cold, she went out in shorts."
Despite and in spite of are used in the same way as due to and owing to. They must be
followed by a noun. If you want to follow them with a noun and a verb, you must use the
fact that.
"Despite the fact that the company was doing badly, they took on extra employees."
Nevertheless and nonetheless mean in spite of that or anyway.
"The sea was cold, but he went swimming nevertheless." (In spite of the fact that it was
cold.)
"The company is doing well. Nonetheless, they aren't going to expand this year."
While, whereas and unlike are used to show how two things are different from each
other.
"While my sister has blue eyes, mine are brown."
"Taxes have gone up, whereas social security contributions have gone down."
"Unlike in the UK, the USA has cheap petrol."
In theory in practice show an unexpected result.
"In theory, teachers should prepare for lessons, but in practice, they often don't have
enough time."