DOWNHOLE MOTORS

There are several milestones in the progress of rock-cutting machines. Cable

tool was an eariy means of cutting a hole in rock using impacts by repeated
dropping of a heavy hammer attached to a cable. The disadvantage of cable
tool drilling was the limited number of blows possible, the slow rate of penetration (ROP), and the weak cable link. The rotary type of drilling methods,
which resulted in continuous rock-bit interaction, gradually replaced cable
tool drilling. Weight on the bit (WOB) was increased by increasing driilcollars above the bit.
Gradually, turbine downhole motors came into use. The use of downhole
turbines was limited as the high rotational speed reduced the life of the drillbit. Many turbines were used in the former Soviet Union and 80% of the
Russian wells are drilled by turbines. There was some interest in turbine
drilling in Europe and one of the leading manufacturers of turbines is SII
Neyrfor. In the United States in 1873, a single-stage turbine was developed,
but there is no record of field tests. The multistage turbine was first field
tested in California in 1926. However, turbines had little impact in the U.S.
market and Field trials were abandoned around 1950.
Because of the drawbacks of turbines, positive displacement motors
(PDMs) came widely into use. The first commercial PDM was introduced in
the 1950s. In the 1960s the PDM did find application in directional drilling
with a bent sub for kick-off operations. The design capability of the PDMs to
have variable rotating speed and torque made the tool popular with operators. Even though the PDM has inherent disadvantages, the economics and
the flexibility in operating conditions outweigh the disadvantages.
Electric downhole motors were also widely used in the former Soviet
Union. Some initiatives were taken by the United States Department of
Energy to develop ultra-high-speed downhole motors to provide high bit
rotary speeds. High-speed electric motors require power cable provided from
the surface to the downhole motor. Other types of downhole motors were
tested and some of them are discussed briefiy in the respective topics.
273

274

CHAPTER S

This chapter describes percussion hammers, positive displacement

motors (PDMs), turbines, electric downhole motors (EDM), and miscellaneous downhole motors (MDM).

DWNHOLE PERCUSSION HAMMERS

The word "percussion" here means impact or collision or vibratory shock.
The principle of using the energy generated by impact loads to cut rocks
caught the eyes ofthe researchers for drilling early in the 1950s. This principle is used in percussion drills,'''"' which are also called by several other
names, such as downhole hammer, percussion hammer, percussive drill,
down-the-hole hammer, etc. Numerous patents have been obtained throughout the world, ranging from small modifications to major changes to the regular hammer drill. Bit bearings and bit tooth should be designed to be
compatible with the hammer to withstand the blows ofthe repeated hammering action. The cutting action of the bit connected to the hammer is entirely
different from that in conventional rotary drilling. The cutter should be
designed to efficiently transmit the energy into the rock formation so that it
breaks as the bit advances.

Types of Percussive Drilling

Broadly the percussive method can be classified under three categories based
on the impact types used: *'"'**
1. Chum drilling
2. Downhole hammer drilling
3. Hammer drilling
Churn Drilling
In this method of drilling, the drillbit is fixed to a connecting rod acting as a
piston element, which causes the drillbit to reciprocate within the hole like a
chum, striking the hole bottom at the end of its down stroke. The bit hangs
oi bottom for at least part of the stroke.
Downhole Hammer Drilling
In this type of drilling the bit is kept in intimate contact with the hole bottom. Tbe impact energy is passed from a reciprocating piston to the rock via

Downhole Motors

275

a Stress wave traveling through the bit assembly. This allows maintaining a
combination of higher WOB and variable rotary RPM in conjunction with
percussive action of the hammer.
Hammer Drilling
This method is strictly performed above the ground. The impacts are produced above the ground and transmitted to the rock through a bit and connecting rod. This technique is inefficient as compared to the other two
methods as it requires a long connecting rod, which is not very effective in
transmitting the impact energy to the bit.
General Operating Principle
The simple percussive hammer consists of
Top sub compatible for drillcollar connection
Outer hammer casethe housing
Drive sub
The drive sub carries the anvil to which the bit can be connected. The
piston moves up and down inside the hammer case. The drilling fluid enters
the tool and the pressure exerts an upward force at the bottom of the piston
and a downward force at the top of the piston. Since the upward force is
greater than the downward force due to the larger bottom face area, the piston moves upward. Upward movement of the piston results in the closure of
an upper finger valve and the opening of a lower finger valve. This allows
relief of the fluid trapped in-between them. Now the only force acting is the
fluid pressure at the top of the piston, which forces the piston to move down
and strike against the anvil. The anvil passes the blow to the bit and further
to the formation in the form of stress waves for fracturing the rock. The
anvil moves down a distance equal to the distance that the bit penetrates
into the formation. The cycle repeats resulting in repeated blows to the bit.
The work done by the bit is directly proportional to the pressure acting on
the piston, area of the piston, stroke length, and the number of blows of the
piston. Even though there are different varieties of downhole hammers, the
basic principle involved is the same: moving a piston to strike an anvil,
resulting in a hammering action to the bit, which is further transmitted to
the formation. The different tools apply different methods to accomplish the
hammering action.

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CHAPTER 5

The operating principle of the downhole hammer is physically explained

by Figure 5.1. The operating fluid enters the top of the cylinder and pushes
the piston downward. The two operational parts of the drill that determine
the output of the tool are the cylinder and piston. The output depends on the
working face area of the piston, piston stroke length, and the weight of
the piston.
The work done by a percussion hammer can be derived from basic principles as follows:
Force acting on the piston

= Ap x Ap lb

Work done

= Force x Distance
= Ap X

ft-lb

Woik

Work per minute

Blows
X

Blow
Number of blows per minute = n^,

min

Work per minute

x i' x

= Ap x

(5.1)

From this simple equation, it can be inferred that the work done per
minute is directly proportional to the pressure acting on the piston, Ap, area
of the piston, Ap, stroke length, f, and the number of blows of the piston, n^.

W- Weight or the phtton

A - Areaof the working Tace of the pistwn
L - Stroke of the pblon
P - Pressure acting on the piston fare
P
A

FIGURE 5.1 Operating principle of percussion drilling.

Downhole Motors

277

Advantages
In some hard formations, where normal drilling rate slows down, percussion drilling was able to achieve higher rate of penetration because
of the high dynamic axial load.
Due to low static weight on bit, complex bottomhole assemblies are
not required to control deviation for straight hole drilling.
Equipment and the commercially-available bits are most of the time
compatible for percussion drilling.
Due to hammering action, large cuttings may be generated, allowing a
better geological study.
Proved to be effective in air/gas drilling.
On account of the high-impact energy, the hole deviation was less than
in conventional rotary drilling.
Disadvantages
The transfer of stress wave energy to the formation results in severe
vibration transmitted to the drill string. The vibration is more pronounced when the tool is drilling at shallow depth.
When drilling through the shale section, the percussive hammering
action disturbs the shale resulting in a wellbore stability problem.
The hole becomes tapered resulting in additional reaming of the hole.
The reaming with hammering may result in collapse of wellbore.
No extensive modeling or rigorous simulation studies are available for
percussive drilling.
Specific Energy
This is an important parameter to predict the performance and evaluate the
efficiency of the bit or the drilling tool under use. Specific energy (EJ is a
measure of the energy required to cut and remove a unit volume of earth formation and is given by:
E. =

'^"'"g^ ' " P " '

= r ^
Volume removed

(5.2)

278

CHAPTER 5

where E| = power input

_

= rate of volume removal

Specific energy is also defined as the energy required to create a new

surface area. The creation of a new surface area or new volume depends on
the type of breaking mechanism used. Application of different mechanisms
results in different specific energy for the same bit and same type of formation. Experiments showed that hammering and slow compression showed
two different numerical values of specific energy for the same rock type.
This gives a clear insight into the relationship between the mode of rock
breakage and new surface area formed.
Specific energy varies with the type of drilling mechanism used and
the method applied. Methods of drilling can be classified as percussive
(churn, hammer, downhole hammer) and rotary (rotary, downhole motors,
turbines, etc.).
The work done in breaking the rock and disintegrating a length of L and
force F applied is given by W = JQ FdR.
In rotary drilling work is done both by the thrust and the torque.
The work done by the axial thrust force = FdR
where R = ROP, rate of penetration, in./niin
The work done by torque = 27iNT
where N = rotary speed, in rev/min
T = torque, ft-lbf

Volume of rock removed V = ^

4
where D,, = diameter of the bit
4(Fdu + 2JCNT)
Specific energy E, = ^^
The specific energy'"*' can be split into two components and expressed using
weight on bit (F = WOB) as below:

E = E +E

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279

where A = area drilled =

4
E^a = Specific energy due to axial thrust component
E,r = specific energy due to rotary component

The following is the empirical equation*'^* for predicting rate of penetration for percussion drilling:

ROP =
where C
P
HN
SHN
a, b

=
=
=
=
=

CP"

r
(HN X SHN)

(5.4)

constant
operating pressure
rock impact hardness number
shore hardness
empirical indices

Operation Sequence
Figure 5.2 shows the schematic of a simple percussive hammer,''"' which consists of a top sub compatible for drillcollar connection, an outer hammer case,
and a drive sub. The drive sub carries the anvil to which the bit can be attached.
Inside the hammer case the piston moves up and down. The other small parts
like spacer and spring have the usual functions, which need no explanation.
Figure 5.3a shows the hanging position and the fluid is bypassed through
the path as shown by the arrows. The fluid enters the tool and the pressure
exerts an upward force at the bottom of the piston and a downward force at
the top ofthe piston. The upward force is greater than the downward force
due to a larger bottom area, and this causes the piston to move upward.
Upward movement of the piston results in the closure of the upper finger
valve and opening of the lower finger valve. Tbis allows relief of the fluid
trapped in between. Now the only force acting is the fluid pressure acting at
the top ofthe piston, which forces the piston to move down and strike against
the anvil; this operation is shown in Figure 5.3b.
Piston striking at the top of the anvil passes the blow to the bit and to the
formation in the form of stress waves for fracturing the rock. The anvil moves
down a distance equal to the distance (Figure 5.3c) that the bit penetrates
into the formation. The cycle repeats resulting in repeated blows to the bit.

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CHAPTER 5

housing

valve

hammcr
Spring mandrel

hammer
return spring

hammer

anvil

FIGURE 5.2 Percussion hammeroperating parts.,201

Energy Transfer in Percussion Drilling

GENERAL THEORY. In percussive drilling a hammer moves up and down striking an anvil. Each time the hammer strikes the anvil, elastic waves are generated and propagate in both directions in the anvil. The wave traveling
toward the rock bit is converted to energy for drilling ahead.'^" The hammerkinetic energy is basically converted to anvil stress wave energy, part of

Downhole Motors

281

(20)

FIGURE 5.3 Percussion hammeroperating position.

which is further converted to useful work. The remaining portion is converted back to kinetic energy causing rebound of the hammer and vibration.
Tbe following calculations evaluate the efficiency that can be achieved
in percussive drilling and also show what are the various parameters that
affect the efficiency of conversion of the stress wave energy into work done
by the bit in digging the hole.

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CHAPTER 5

EXPONENTIAL-TYPE STRESS WAVEFORM. To obtain a realistic incident stress

waveform, the equation is defined as:*^^'

a. = a.
where O|
On,
t
n

=
=
=
=

(5.5)

incident stress
maximum stress
time
index

The incident stress waveforms shown in Figure 5.4 are plotted for various values of n and = 1/t. From the figure it can be inferred that for n = 0,
the stress rise is very fast reaching maximum instantaneously at t = 0 and
slowly decaying thereafter, which can be considered an extreme case. When
n =1, the rise time is faster than the decay time; and when n = 2, the rise time
is slower than the decay time. As the value of n is further increased, the rise
time to reach maximum stress is further delayed and at a certain stage the

1.20 t

0.80

0.40

0.00
0.00

4.00

8.00

FIGURE 5.4 Incidental wave form (exponential type).

12.00

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283

stress waveform assumes a bell shape, which can be considered as another

extreme case. In reality, when the hammer strikes the anvil, the stress reaches
a maximum in a short time and then decays slowly, so n = 1 approximates
the usual stress waveform expected in percussion drilling.
The instantaneous force between the rock and the bit is
F=A(G-1-O I+ r

W'OJ

where G^ = refiected stress

Fo = 0 because at t = 0, F = 0
and the instantaneous velocity of the bit into the formation is
"J

dt

pc

I .

/c

l*^i ~ ^ r I '^ ^ o

^\

{->')

where Vo = 0 because at t = 0, dy/dt = 0

g = acceleration due to gravity
p = density of the material
Equations 5.6 and 5.7 can be combined as follows:
^y - ^ -^ I ' I . -^
dt
pc

(5.8)

where A = cross-sectional area

Using Eq. 5.5 and defining = l/x, the index of fiow time, the governing equation''" is derived:
Hv

O"

y0

I in

+
Ky = o, e'
dt
Ape
pc
yn )

t\

p.y;

To obtain a general solution Eq. 5.9 is normalized by defining the following dimensionless variables:
The dimensionless time, t^, is
t, = S^
Ape
and dimensionless distance, y^, is

(5.10)

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CHAPTER 5

The normalized equation is

(5.12)
The solution of this normalized dimensionless equation is

"

(5.13)

n"(n +

The solution for the exponential waveform is shown in Figure 5.5.

EFFICIENCY OF THE SYSTEM. The efficiency is defined as the ratio of energy
output to the energy input. The energy input is in the form of the stress wave
and is given by:'"'""'
dt

(5.14)

aeo

0.20

000
0.00

FIGURE 5.5 Efficiency of energy transfer to the

fonnation (exponential waveform).

16.00

Downhole Motors

285

This equation gives

E -

loiY

2n!e 2n

(5.15)

The energy output is the energy used in breaking the rock and is the area
under the force-displacement graph, and is
Kv

(5.16)

io = JKydy = ^
Hence, the efficiency is

(5.17)
Substituting Eqs. 5.15 and 5.16 in Eq. 5.17 yields
(5.18)
This equation can be written
I

n+ l ,

ll

2'"'''

(5.19)

where

4kg

pAc

RECTANGULAR INCIDENT STRESS WAVES. Consider a simple case of rectangular

pulse with a maximum amplitude ofCT^,for a duration of nt where n = 0, 1,
2 . . . Mathematically it can be represented

a, =

0 < t < nT
t > 0,T > nx

(5.20)

The waveform is graphically shown in Figure 5.6 for different values of

n = 0, 1 , 2 . . .

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CHAPTER 5

1.20

=3
^

0.80

-4

n=2

-1

n 1

1m

0-0

e
0.40

aoo

0.00

1.00

2.00
t

3.00

4.00

Incident Stress Waveform, (square - tau=0.5)

FIGURE 5.6 Incidental waveform (rectangular type).

Using the rectangular wave condition as shown in Figure 5.6, Eq. 5.5 is
written as'^'"^^*;
^ +
Ky
dt Ape
dt

<n
pc
0 < t.

Ape

(5.21)

Equation 5.20 is normalized using the dimensionless variables as before

and becomes
dy

dy
dt.

=1

0 < td <

=0

0<

(5.22)

Downhole Motors

287

The general solution for Eq. 5.21 is

y, -

O < t, < n

y, = O

(5.23)

O < td

Substituting the respective energy input and output values and simplifying, the efficiency is
^

o < td < n

(5.24)

0<

The variation of efficiency with n is shown in Figure 5.7.

On comparing the different incident stress waveforms, it can be inferred
that the energy transfer to the rock depends on the type of waveform. The
efficiency of the energy transfer to the formation is higher in the case of the

0.60

0.40

r' /
1=01

aoo

1.00

1
3.00

.
4.00

td
veisis kJ(squae wjxjbm)

FIGURE 5.7 Efficiency of energy transfer to the

formation (rectangular waveform).

288

CHAPTER 5

exponential type of waveform compared to that in the case of the rectangular

type of waveform. The ideal waveform would have an initially*^^' exponentially increasing amplitude and then an exponentially decreasing amplitude.
As the type of waveform greatly influences the efficiency of the system, due
care should be taken to select the ideal waveform to simulate the energy
transfer that suits the practical percussion hammer operation.

POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT MOTORS (PDM)

Rene Moineau is a French engineer who first invented'^"^' and obtained several modified patents for a rotary-type pump between 1930 and 1948. The
pumps he developed were extensively used in WWII planes as superchargers. Centuries before, Archimedes invented the screw pump, which consisted
of a spiral shaft that when turned by hand lifted water from a lake. Moineau
basically developed further the Archimedean screw pump idea. The first commercial PDM was introduced to the petroleum industry in the late 1950s. Its
use increased in the late 1960s for directional drilling application. However,
its use has accelerated greatly with present-day coiled tubing drilling.
A Moineau-type motor'"' basically consists of a stator housing and a
shaft enclosed in a casing. The center shaft has a wavy-shaped cross section
and each wave corresponds to a lobe. The housing contained in a casing
accommodates the wavy-shaped rotor, whose cross section is also wave
shaped, but the number of lobes is one more than in the shaft. When the shaft
is inserted in the housing, the difference in their respective pitches creates a
series of cavities. Drilling fluid travels in a helical path between the shaft
and the housing. In this process the drilling fluid displaces the shaft, forcing
it to rotate clockwise as the mud continues to flow through the helical path.
The geometrical description of the housing and shaft are more elaborately
discussed in the later part of this chapter. Moineau's pump principle is applied
in reverse to rotate the shaft by pumping fluid. This resulted in the positive
displacement motor, commonly known as PDM.
Positive displacement motors operate on all types of fluid. PDM converts hydraulic energy to mechanical energy using the rotor/stator pair. The
output of the motor is transferred to bit rotation through a transmission consisting of hearings, universal joint, and an output shaft. Eccentric rotation of
the shaft is converted to concentric rotation by means of a double-tilted universal joint. The universal joint is connected to a drive shaft, which rotates
within the bearing assembly.

Downhole Motors

289

PDM Operating Parts

A simple positive displacement motor is shown in Figure 5.8. The main parts
include bypass valve or dump valve, rotor and stator housing, universal joint
assembly, and bearing and rotating assembly.
Bypass or Dump Valve

This valve consists of radial ports. The ports are closed by pressure when
the fluid circulation is established, resulting in actuation of a sliding sleeve,
and opened when the pressure is released. A spring forces back the sliding
sleeve when the circulation is stopped allowing the ports to open. The valve
prevents the rotation ofthe motor while tripping, and the valve serves to
drain the mud while tripping out and fill while running into the hole. Figure 5.9a shows the open condition and Figure 5.9b shows the closed condition of the ports.

FIGURE 5.8 Major components of the positive

displacement motor.

i
r

1
l.

liP
fr- r

li

Bit

290

CHAPTER 5

Fluid Flow

Fluid Flow

Seals

Port Open

Sleeve

Sieev/

Downward Stroke

FIGURE 5.9 Dump valve: (a) open position; (b) closed position.

Rotor, Stator, and Housing

Figure 5.10 shows a schematic of the vertical cross section of a single-lobed
positive displacement motor, and Figure 5.11 shows the horizontal cross section of a single-lobe rotor and stator for the rotor.
When the rotor is inside the stator, a series of cavities are formed between
them. The fluid enters under pressure through the cavity and the rotor gives
way and allows the fluid to pass by rotating. The continuous flow of fluid
makes its way between stator and rotor causing the rotor to rotate.
UNIVERSAL JOINT. Eccentric rotation of the rotor is converted to concentric
rotation by the use of a universal joint or a flexible joint, as shown in Figure 5.8.
BEARING ASSEMBLY AND DRIVE SHAFT. The axial load is transmitted to the bit
through the thrust-bearing assembly. The drive shaft rotation is made smooth
by radial bearings. The bearing assembly is considered to be the most critical
part of the PDM. At each run the bearing assembly is checked at the surface
before running into the hole.
The following simple procedure is followed to check the condition of
the bearing assembly:

Downhole Motors

291

> Rolnr

FIGURE 5.10
housing.

Vertical cross section of a rotor, stator, and

ublicr Elcmcni

ine of Housing
<"nitre line of shaft

FIGURE 5.11 Horizontal cross section of a rotor, stator, and housing.

1. Lift the mud motor and hang it in the elevator.

2. Measure the gap between the bearing assembly as shown on the left
side of Figure 5.12.
3. Rest the mud motor by the side of the rotary table.
4. Measure tbe new gap as shown on the right side of Figure 5.12.
5. Check whether the gap is within limits specified by the manufacturer.

292

CHAPTER 5

Bearing A^embty gap

>i

Hanging Position

Resting on Rotary Table

FIGURE 5.12 Bearing assembly check.

Rotor Catching Mechanism and Assembly

Some motors such as Navi-Drill are equipped with a rotor holding mechanism to secure the rotor, rotor assembly, and housing assembly in case of
failure during back-off or twist-off. The assembly consists of a rotor equipped
with a retaining rod and retaining disc fitted at the top and a stop ring fitted
in the housing, as shown in Figure 5.13. In case of failure, the assembly is
held at the top of the stop ring. The diameter of the rod and inside diameter
of the stop rings depend on the eccentricity of the rotor and hence on the lobe
configuration of the motor.
Advantages of PDM
Proven technology with performance reliability and predictability.
Track record goes back about 30 years.

Downhole Motors

Rom Nu/Jtle

293

FIGURE 5.13 Rotor catching

mechanism.

Retaining disk
Rolor Cmching stop plaic

power Mx'ii

Several prominent manufacturers with several options.

Rugged design.
Air/gas may be used as a power fluid.
Uniform discharge. Negligible fluid pulsation to interfere with MWD
instrumentation.
Output torque and rotational speed are directly proportional to pump
pressure and fiowrate, respectively.
Eigure 5.14 shows the performance characteristic curves of a PDM.
Experience has shown that mud density has little effect on the performance
of the motor. Rather, torque and horsepower are directly proportional to the
pressure drop across the motor. As shown in the figure, speed is directly proportional to flowrate, and remains constant as torque increases. The efficiency increases with pressure differential until it reaches a maximum value
at the design operation conditions and then starts decreasing.
Disadvantages of PDM

Stalling: Motor stalling occurs when the torque required at the bit
exceeds the output torque of the motor. This is immediately reflected
as a rapid standpipe pressure increase. Stalling causes shaft/housing
damage if it is not corrected immediately. More details about stalling
can be found later in this section.

294

CHAPTER 5

Hofsepower

FIGURE 5.14 PDM performance

characteristic curves.

Speed

/
/

""^.^^ Torque

Efficiency^

X
u

/ /

RPM

LU

Pressure Drop

Bypass valve clogging: After running in to the bottom, the bypass valve
fails to operate, resulting in diversion of fluid power to the weep slots.
To correct the defect the string has to be pulled up resulting in loss of
rig time.
Reaming: Whenever the hole needs reaming, the use of PDM is difficult. The string gets stalled and stuck in an undergaged hole.
Lubrication: Drilling fluid must have lubricating properties to prevent
accelerated stator wear. Stator wear is a function of fluid cleanliness
and lubricity. When air/gas is used as the pumping fluid, lubricating
fluid added to prevent stator damage may cause undesirable materials
to stick to the walls of the borehole, resulting in fonnation damage.
Downhole motors still have short life expectancies and make the system
less efficient.'^*'' Improved power capability and greater reliability of PDMs
is necessary to make the whole system cost effective.

Basic Geometrical Calculations

The calculations of the volumetric displacement for a multilobe motor can
be given in the generalized form as
^c

' =(AJ

Ph

n = 1,3,...

where P^ = pitch of the housing

(5.25)

Downhole Motors

295

To proceed further it is necessary to derive a general formula for the

cross section of the multilobe motor. Because these cross sections are formed
by a family of curves, it is easy to generalize by considering the pitch circles
or diameters of the housing and shaft as shown in Figures 5.15 and 5.16.
The cross-sectional area between the housing and shaft can be approximated as:
A, -

-t-

(5.26)

- r,)

where r^ = radius of the housing pitch circle

r, = radiusof the shaft pitch circle
Because

-t-e ) =

^(d,-e)

(5.27)

.
, ^
,
d,
.
On usmg the fact that ^ = l = n-M
d
A, =

(5.28)

Outer Casing thickness h

FIGURE 5.15 Cross section of two-lobe power section.

296

CHAPTER 5

eisstomerc minor thickness ti

Sha

jter Casing thickness

FIGURE 5.16 Cross section of three-lobe power section.

To have a general expression for a multilobe motor, the eccentricity can

be replaced with either shait pitch circle or housing pitch circle.
e = d,

(1-0

(5.29)

Volume of the cavity is

(5.30)
For practical use, it will be worthwhile to express the cross-sectional
area in terms of either the housing diameter or the shaft diameter instead of
tbe respective pitch circles.
Let,
D|, = diameter of the housing
D, = diameter of the shaft
Diameter of the bousing can be expressed as

D. = a + 2e

(5.31)

Downhole Motors

297

But diameter of tbe shaft is

D, = d, -H 2e
D, = 2ne + 2e = 2e(n -i- I).

(5.32)

So, diameter of the housing is

Dh = 2ne -i- 2e + 2e = 2e(n + 2)

(5.33)

Substituting the value of e from Eq. 5.32 into Eq. 5.28 yields

A, = 0.79|i^Dj

(5.34)

(2-0'
Defining outside diameter of the motor as:
D. = D, + t,

(5.35)

wbere t, = 2(t| + t,)

t, = thickness of the elastomer of the housing
ti = metal thickness of the housing casing
In terms of diameter of the motor the cross-sectional area is
/. _

.2\

A. = 0 . 7 9 )
^(D,,-t,)'
(2-i)

(5.36)

where D,,, = D, + t,

EXAMPLE 5.1
Calculate the eccentricity and diameter of motor for the following motor
configuration:
Configuration = 1:2
Diameter of shaft = 3 in.
SOLUTION:
From Eq. 5.32,
D, = 2e(n + 1),
where n = 1
e = -^ = 0.75 in.
2x2

298

CHAPTER 5

Diameterof the housing = 5.5 in.

Outside diameter of the motor can be approximated using the following
relation:
D = Du + 2e
D^ ~ 6 in.
VOLUME GENERATED BETWEEN HOUSING AND SHAFT. With the a b o v e d e v e l o p m e n t
of generalized cross-sectional area of the multilobe motor, the volume generated by the cavities of the multilobe motor can be derived for an ideal leakfree motor. For a leak-free motor, the volume generated by the geometrical
features of the motor is
V = A, X p,

(5.37)

where p^ = pitch of the housing

n = number of windings of the shaft
Using Eq. 5.36, volume for the multilobe motor is
V=

0.79-^^

rPh(D-t,f

5 38)

1 2
where i = winding ratio of the motor, i = ~, - , . . .
SEALING AND SEALING LINES. The sealing is one of the important characteristics of any positive displacement motor. To ensure ideal operation of the
motor without any leakage, sealing and the seal lines formed need to be
known and understood fully.
The leakage loss is a loss of capacity through the running clearances
between the shaft element and the housing element. Figure 5.17 shows the
elevation and lateral view of the power section at four different positions
when the shaft is not rotating.
The chief characteristics of the positive displacement motor are delivering a perfectly smooth uniform flow and the possibility of providing a number of seal lines. The seal lines vary according to the number of windings in
the motor. The motor consists of two portions of surfaces, one from the housing and the other from the shaft. The surface stretches from one side of the
housing to the other and one cavity to the other. Continuity is ensured by the
contact along the seal lines and the housing gets divided into two portions.

Downhole Motors

299

FIGURE 5.17 Horizontal cross section of two-lobe power section.

Rotation of the shaft results in virtual deformation of the surface, decreasing
the cavity on one side and increasing the cavity on the other side resulting in
a motoring action. This can be considered as a positive displacement motor
of infinite stroke length as explained earlier in the volume traced by the cavities. Due to hypocycloidal motion ofthe shaft, the sealing line is helical
instead of purely axial, and this helical sealing line affects the sealing ofthe
cavities as well as the motoring action.
Figure 5.18 shows the successive position of one pitch length of housing
and two pitch lengths of shaft, which is cut into 13 cross sections.
To understand the sealing action between the housing and the shaft, you
must fully understand the different positions of the housing and shaft. The
corresponding transverse sections ofthe power section are specifically shown

300

CHAPTER 5

FIGURE 5.18 Horizontal view of two-lobe power section.

using asterisks. The sectional views at different cross sections are shown,
and the corresponding designated cross sections are marked in Figures 5.19
and 5.20.
To visualize and have a solid understanding of the cavity it is necessary
to have different views of the motor. Figure 5.21 shows the progression of
the cavities and the procession of the shaft/housing cross section at different
positions along the axis of the power section of the motor.

FIGURE 5.19 Sectional view of vertical cross section (sections 1-7).

FIGURE 5.20 Sectional view of vertical cross section (sections 7-13).

Downhole Motors

301

FIGURE 5.21 Isometric view of housing and shaft.

Figure 5.22 shows the vertical cutaway view of the cavities in the longitudinal cross section along the motor axis for a two-lobe motor and a threelobe motor. The cavities can be seen at two different shaft positions in both
the figures.

Torque and Flowrate

The mechanical horsepower developed by the motor can be calculated from
the product of torque and angular velocity:

= f N

(5.39)

Hydraulic horsepower for an incompressible fluid is

HHP =

1,714
where Ap^, = pressure drop across the motor, psi
Q = fiowrate, gal/min

(5.40)

302

CHAPTER 5

FIGURE 5.22 Cutaway view of housing/shaft two-lobe, three-lobe power section.

To carry out the calculations for a multilobe motor it is required to express

various parameters in terms of either winding number or winding ratio.
The flowrate required to rotate the shaft at N rpm for a multilobe motor is
Q =

(5.41

Using the above relations, the hydraulic horsepower for a multilobe

motor can be expressed
HHP=

(2-i)-

(5.42)

The overall efficiency of the motor is defined by:

_ useful power at the bit
^ ~
HHP

(5.43)

303

Downhole Motors

Substituting the value of HHP, the relation for torque can be obtained as:
T = 0.01 Api

l+i

(5.44)

(2-if

This equation enables calculation of the torque developing capability of a

multilobe motor.

EXAMPLE 5.2

The following data pertain to a PDM of configuration 7:8. Diameter of

the motor is 6.75 in. Pitch of the housing is 24 in. Pressure drop across
the motor is 350 psi. Estimate the torque and speed when the flowrate is
400 gpm. Assume an efficiency of 70%.
SOLUTION:

i = winding ratio of the motor = 0.875

Torque is calculated as:
T = 0.01x350x0.875

1.875

X 3 6 x 2 4 x 0 . 7 = 2,744 ft-lbf

(2-0.875)'
Rotational speed of the motor can be calculated using the relation
Q

N=
0.79

(2-0=

So,

N=

400x230.98x1.125'
= 104 tpm
0.79x0.875x1.875x24x36

STALL PRESSURE. Stalling is one of the disadvantages of the PDM. This condition occurs when output torque of the motor is less than the required torque
at the bit. When stalling occurs, there will be a sharp increase in the standpipe pressure, and the pressure remains the same even if additional weight
on bit is applied. Usually, the standpipe pressure will increase sharply and
stabilizes at a lower pressure but higher than the operating pressure. When
the motor stalls, fluid bypasses between the housing elastomer and the shaft

304

CHAPTER 5

without doing any work. The reactive torque at stall condition is signiflcant
and will be at a maximum. Once stalling is noticed, the string should be corrected immediately by pulling the string off bottom and circulation stopped
to prevent elastomer/shaft damage. Stalling pressure can be calculated using
the approximate relationship:
P,p = (1.70 ~ 2)p_

(5.45a)

where Ap^^ = maximum pressure drop across motor, psi

Figure 5.23 shows the change in pressure that can be observed in the
standpipe gage during the off-bottom, on-bottom, and drilling off and stall
condition of the motor.
Operating stall efficiency, Ti^, is a useful parameter to estimate the motor
stall condition and is defined as the ratio of the operating torque to the
stall torque:
T

n = ;p

(5.45b)

where T^, = actual torque measured at the stall condition

EXAMPLE 5.3

Calculate the stall pressure for the following operating and geometrical
conditions of a PDM.
Configuration = 1:2
Diameter of the motor = 8.25 in.
Speed and torque ofthe motor = 340 rpm, 1,900 ft-lbf, respectively, at
a flowrate of 600 gpm
Assume an efficiency of 80%.
SOLUTION:
i = winding ratio of the motor = 0.5
Using the flowrate relationship, the pitch of the motor can be calculated to be:
Q
P

600x230.98x1.5^

i(l + i)

0.79 X 0.5 X 1.5 X 64 X 340

^ .
= 24 m.

Downhole Motors

305

Bnlliim

Drilled Off

Molor Stall

FIGURE 5.23 Standpipe gage pressure changes due to motor operation.

Pressure drop across the motor is

1,900

0.01x0.5

1.5

= 460 psi
X 64 X 24 X 0.8

(2-0.5)'

Approximate stall pressure is 810 psi.

LEAKAGE ANO LEAKAGE LOSSES. Leakage is an important factor in the study of
the performance characteristics of positive displacement motors. The quantity of drilling fluid passed through the motor from inlet to the outlet due to
geometrical features is the theoretical or ideal discharge, Q,. Because of the
pressure differential between the cavities, a certain quantity of liquid Q,
flows between the cavities through the small clearance between the shaft and

306

CHAPTER 5

housing as shown in Figure 5.24. So, the effective speed of the motor is less
than the calculated theoretical value. Also due to the change in configuration
at the motor inlet there will be a loss Q,, called inlet losses. The net flowrate
is the sum of the theoretical flow, the leakage due to the pressure differential
between the cavities and the inlet losses. So the net flowrate is
Qnet = Q, + Q. + Q

(3.46)

where Q, = geometrical or theoretical displacement per minute

Q, = leakage between the running clearance between the seals
Qi = inlet losses that can be neglected
,
The volumetric efficiency of the motor is the ratio of the actual flowrate
to the theoretical owrate and is
Q,

(5.47)

Q.
It is very interesting to study the behavior of the seal lines at various
positions. The seal lines or leakage lines are helical. The length of the seal
lines varies for different winding ratios of the motor. The number of seal
lines has a direct relationship with the motor performance.

f)
FIGURE 5.24 Leakage losses.

Downhole Motors

307

Bearing Thrust
rhe bearing section of the motor is a critical part in the motor assembly, which
transmits the drilling thrust and rotational power to the drillbit. The endurance
of the thrust bearing has a significant implication on the life of the motor
besides the power section. Therefore, tbe thrust on the bearing of the motor is
an important consideration and constraint in the optimal operation of the
motor, and also dictates the optimal selection of WOB and speed of the motor.
Generally, it gives one of the best criteria to be optimized not only to have
better operating conditions of the motor, but also for the system as a whole.'"'
Figures 5.25 and 5.26 illustrate the forces acting on the bearing section.
The axial thrust on the bearings is composed of the following four
components:
Hydraulic thrust created by the pressure drop acting on the crosssectional area (hydraulic thrustF^,yJ.

power wcuon

Weighiofrod

pressure dnp acrcsx the motor

iranstniMKin section

T Weigtii of transmission shaft

bearing tedian

, pressure dTop across Ihe bit

FIGURE 5.25 Forces acting on the PDM bearing section

with roller-cone bits.

308

CHAPTER 5

power tedien

We^of

pressure drop acrtss the molor

f Wdgbl of Imtimisiion

ihali

bearing acclion

prcnurc drop acn>!i ihc Ni

Puillp-iilT liini;

FIGURE 5.26 Forces acting on the bearing section with

diamond bits.
Hydraulic thrust created due to the pressure drop across the bit
(hydraulic thrustF^yd^,).
Thrust due to the radial force {mechanical thrustFn,^^) Self-weight of the shaft and the U-joint (weight thrustF^^,).
The hydraulic thrusts can be approximated by
F,,,, - Ap,,, X A,

(5.48)

F,,db = Ap, X A,

(5.49)

Fhyd = Ap,n X A, X Ap, X A,

(5.50)

Unbalance exists because the center of mass of the shaft does not coincide with the axis of the rotation. The unbalanced force is more pronounced

Downhole Motors

309

al the lower pair motor compared to the higher pair motor due to the larger
eccentricity. The unbalance is measured in terms of an equivalent mass of
the shaft with the eccentricity ofthe shaft.
This unbalanced force has two components, axial F^ and tangential F^.
The axial component tends to impart thrust on the top bearings in addition to
the HT and WT.
The tangential force is given by'^^'
F, = 47i-A,p,^,n,N^e

(5.51)

The axial component can be calculated from tbe following equation considering Figure 5.25:
(5.52)

I Ph }
Substituting Eq. 5.51 in Eq. 5.52:
F, = 8.9xlO-^A,p,l,n,N^e-

(5.53)

Ph

The thrust due to weight of the rotating elements including transmission

parts is
F^ = ( A , ^ , n , p , - F W J B F
where BF =

I-

(5.54)

I PrJ
where p^ = mud density
p^ = rotor density
4 = length of the rotor
The net axial thrust on the bearing can be given as:
F
' net

- P

+. F

* hyd ^

+ F

* mech ^

' wt

F.,, = (Ap + Ape,)A, + 8.9 x 10-^A/,n,ep,N'5iL

-H(A,^,n,p, + W , ) B F - WOB
where WOB = weight on bit

(5.55)

I " '"'i

310

CHAPTER 5

The pressure drop across the bit can be given as:

Substituting Eqs. 5.47 and 5.56 in Eq. 5.55, the net thrust on the bearing
is modified to:

9xlO^'AAn,ep,N^
Ph

,l,n,Pr + W ) B F - WOB

KKi
y

(2-if

(5.57)

Kb = formation hardness, teeth, bearing, and mud coefficient

In addition, the flowrate can be given by the following equation'^**' in
terms of the configuration and power section dimensions as:
Q = K,iDp,N

(5.58)

where K. = 0.0034(2-i)=

Optimization with PDM

Often, downhole motor pressure-loss calculations are not explicitly included
in the overall hydraulic optimization and bit nozzle selection with the available pump power. To improve the optimization and make the system more
effective, hydraulic optimization should be done considering various motor
and drilling parameters. The key to an improved drilling system is a unified
system approach that encompasses motor and bit. Inclusion of the motor not
only enables calculation of the optimal flowrate and optimal horsepower of
the motor as a function of motor configuration, but also enables selection of
the correct motor configuration.
The determination of the proper jet nozzle size is important because significant increases in penetration rate can be achieved through proper choice

Downhole Motors

311

of nozzle sizes. Often, jet nozzle optimization is carried out assuming pressure drop across the motor, irrespective of the weight on bit. For true optimization of jet-bit hydraulics an accurate downhole motor model must be
incorporated including motor configuration, dimensions, weight on bit, etc.
Current well planning practice for bit hydraulic design quantifies the selection of optimum flowrate and corresponding optimum nozzle flow area using
bit hydraulic horsepower, jet impact force, and jet nozzle velocity. The optimization methodology presented below involves the selection of bit nozzle
sizes that will cause one of the following parameters to be a maximum: bit
hydraulic horsepower, bit jet impact force, or rate of penetration.
Optimization Methodology
In drilling operations, the total pump pressure needed is equal to the sum of
the frictional pressure losses in the surface equipment, frictional pressure
losses in the drillstring and collars, pressure loss in the downhole motor,
pressure loss due to the acceleration of drilling fluid through the jet-bit nozzles, and the frictional pressure losses in tbe annulus. In the 1950s, it was
pointed out that the effectiveness of the jet bits could be improved by increasing the hydraulic power of the mud pumps. Shortly after that, several authors
pointed out that, due to the frictional pressure loss in the system, bit horsepower is more important than pump horsepower.
Furthermore, for the true maximization of the bit hydraulic horsepower,'^^' the motor horsepower needs to be taken as a separate important
parameter, as the pressure drop across the motor is a strong ftinction of motor
configuration and the applied weight on bit. The differential pressure across
the motor is directly proportional to the weight applied to the bit. The relationship between the pressure drop across the motor in terms of the WOB
can be given as:

^ fwOB-D^,"!
Apm = Kn;

where

K,,Ki

(5.59)

and K; = i

{2-i

.\2

The hydraulic horsepower available at the bit is

,5.60)

312

CHAPTER S

Appgr includes the losses in the drillstring, annulus, and surface lines. The
relationship between the pressure drop, App^^, and flowrate for turbulent flow
may be satisfactorily represented by a power law equation as follows:
App^ = KQ'

(5.61)

Here K is a constant and s is an index representing the degree of turbulence in the circulating system. The coefficients K and s are found by conducting a rig pump test with tbe bit off bottom. A minimum of two circulation
flowrates and standpipe pressure are required for the estimation of the coefficients. For nonsealed bearings a small percentage of circulating fluid is
passed through the mechanical seal to act as coolant and lubricant for the
bearing assembly. So, the bit flowrate may not be the same as the pump circulation flowrate. To account for other split flows in downhole components
the generalized equations to calculate the K and s for multiple flow paths are
given by the following equations:

("P^-yP-).

,5.62)

and
K=
where R^^ = bypass flow ratio or the ratio of the diverted flow in the downhole tools to the total pump flow
The flowrate and total flow area of the nozzles are selected to use the
available pump pressure fully (i.e., for the given solution, the sum of the parasitic losses, pressure drop across the motor, and the pressure drop over the
bit equals the maximum pump pressure). This means that after the true optimum flowrate is determined, it can be increased slightly if more pump pressure is available. In a similar manner, as derived in Azar and Samuel,'"^^ the
relation for the flowrate for the optimum horsepower is given by

= ^P^~ - ^Pn. f
K(+1)

(5.63,

Downhole Motors

313

and the flowrate for optimum impact force is given by

[ 2Ap,,, - Ap,
K(s + 2) J

(5.64)

The average rate of penetration as a function of weight on bit and bit

rotational speed is
(5.65)
The power required for drilling can be given by the following empirical
relationship:^^'^'*
HP, = K,WOB^ND^

(5.66)

Equations 5.64 and 5.65 are based on the assumptions that the formation
is macroscopically homogeneous, hole cleaning is adequate, and the hole
drilled is vertical. Using these equations, the optimum flowrate can be calculated that will maximize the rate of penetration with the available pump pressure and pump power.

EXAMPLE 5.4
The following numerical example illustrates the calculations of the optimal drilling parameters.
16-in. casing depth = 1,000 ft

Openhole depth = 6,450 ft

Bit diameter = 6X in.

DrillcoUar length = 400 ft

Mud weight = 9.5 ppg

Rheology model = Power law

Weight on bi = 6,000 lbf

Maximum pump power = 1,500 hp

The following parameters are assumed for the calculations:

a, = 1.25

a^ = 0.75

Kb = 4 X 10"'

Kf = llOfph

Dt, = 614 in.

Ap,t^i = 550 psi

Motor details are

Configuration, i = 1/2
Overall length = 30 ft

314

CHAPTER 5

Diameter of the housing = 5.5 in.

Diameterof the shaft = 2.43 in.
Pitch of the motor = 35.75 in.
Efficiency = 70%
Maximum horsepower = 40 hp
SOLUTION:

K =

K.K
x^b
KyKi

where K, = 5,252;

= 0.01 ; Kb = 4 X 10"'

and

= 0.333

So, pressure drop coefficient,

Kj = 63.08

Equation 5.59 can be used to calculate the pressure drop across the motor
for various weights on bit. The pressure drop calculated for a weight on bit
of 6,000 M i s
6.37 "

Figure 5.27 shows the plot of power per area through the bit for a range
of flowrates, various total flow areas (TFA), and weight on bit for a 1:2 motor
configuration. The following steps can be used to determine the TFA and
pump rate required to maximize bit power per area.
1. From the plot determine the pump rate (X axis) corresponding to the
maximum power per area (left-side Y axis). If the pumps used are not
capable of producing this pump rate, use the maximum pump rate
that the pumps can produce.
2. Determine the TFA (right-side Y axis) that corresponds to the pump
rate determined in Step 1.

Downhole Motors

315

2
3
1.8
O kips 1.6
1.4
1.2
1
No Mo w
0.6
0.4

100

200

300

400
500
Flowrate (gpm)

600

700

O
800

FIGURE 5.27 Hydraulic horsepower/in.^ (HSI) versus flowrate.

Further, in a similar fashion, calculations can be repeated for different

configurations of the motor, if the operating characteristics dictate a lower bit
rotational speed and higher operating torque. The pump rate begins at zero
and increases until the flowrate results in parasitic pressure losses equal to
100% of the total system pressure loss. (Essentially, this case results in zero
pressure loss at the bit and the motor.) It can also been seen that as the weight
on bit increases, the flowrate at which the maximum power per area of the bit
shifts to the left and the corresponding total flow area required also increases.
From the foregoing calculations it can be clearly seen that the sizing of
the nozzles without the inclusion of the weight on bit might result in lower
power per area. So an operating window of weight on bit needs to be selected
to estimate the total flow area to achieve the maximum power per area.
Figure 5.28 can be used to determine the impact force of the fluid through
the bit for a range of flowrates, weight on bit, and varied total flow area
(TFA). The following steps can be used to determine the TFA, and pump rate
required to maximize the impact force at the bit.
1. From the plot determine the pump rate (X axis) corresponding to the
maximum impact force (left-side Y axis). If the pumps used are not

316

CHAPTER 5

100

200

300

400
500 600
Flow Rate(gpm)

700

800

FIGURE 5.28 Impact force versus flowrate.

capable of producing this pump rate, use the maximum pump rate
that the pumps can produce.
2. Determine the TFA (right-side Y axis) that corresponds to the pump
rate determined in Step 1.
The behavior observed in power per area is also observed in the maximum impact force calculations. Noninclusion of weight on bit in the analysis not only results in lower impact force but also results in improper sizing
of the nozzles.
Figure 5.29 shows the plot of ROP for various weights on bit. Also, this
plot shows the ROP for various configurations of the motor. It can be seen
that maximum rate of penetration decreases with the increase in the number
of lobes of the motor, and the occurrence of the maximum ROP is achieved
with increased weight on bit for higher conflgurations of the motor.
In addition, it is evident from Eq. 5.65 that the calculations strongly
depend on the drilling parameter exponents, which in turn rely on the formation characteristics under consideration.
Noninclusion of weight on bit in the analysis causes an overestimation
of the nozzle sizing to achieve any of the criteria discussed above. Also,
according to computations, the sizing of the nozzles is dependent on the con-

Downhole Motors

10

20

30

40

50
60
WOB (Ibf)

70

80

90

317

100

FIGURE 5.29 ROP versus WOB.

flguration of the motor in use. The rate of penetration prediction is restricted

to vertical wells. The sensitivity of the results suggests caution should be
used when making predictions involving maximum rate of penetration as the
bearing load may restrict applying the desired weight on bit.
Rotor Nozzle
The shaft of tbe motor is hollow to allow the fluid to pass through passage
inside the shaft by fltting a nozzle at the top of the sbaft, which aids running
the motor at lower speed at high flowrate. Tbe nozzle can be changed according to the amount of the flow to be bypassed or split. If bypass is not required,
the passage can be plugged with a blind plug. When the minimum flowrate
to clean the hole calls for additional flowrate, the fluid can be bypassed through
the rotor nozzle without doing any work, and the rest of the fluid passes
through tbe power section. This feature is useful wbere large hole-size drilling
such as spudding, hole-opening, and underreaming need high flowrates while
the motor operates at low speed. During the stall condition, more flowrate
will be bypassed through the rotor nozzle resulting in reduced leakage of circulating fluid through the deformed lobes of stator and rotor. When the motor
is not fltted with a nozzle all tbe hydraulic energy becomes available to power

318

CHAPTER 5

the motor. PDM with rotor nozzle can be run into the hole without dump valve,
and with this option the fluid gets drained automatically thereby preventing
wet trip-out. It also helps to reduce the swab and surge pressures.
Rotor Nozzle Sizing
Sizing of the rotor nozzle is important, and the correct nozzle size should be
selected to ensure that the desired power is available throughout the run and
at the same time minimum flowrate required to clean the hole is maintained.
The following simple steps'^'' help to size the nozzle effectively:
1. Establish the differential pressure range based on the expected weight
on bit range.
2. Calculate the range of operating flowrates, Qp. required for the run.
3. Estimate the minimum flowrate required for hole cleaning, Q.
4. If the operating flowrate is less than the minimum flowrate for holecleaning, calculate the additional flowrate, Q,, that will be bypassed
through the rotor nozzle.
5. Size the nozzle using the equation:
^2
8.311x10' x Q ; x p ,
A^r =
^2 , " ^^
Cd X Ap^

where Q,
Ap,n
p^
Qrn
A,

=
=
=
=
=

(5.67)

discharge coefficient
pressure drop across the motor, psi
density of the circulating fluid, ppg
bypass flowrate through the rotor nozzle, gpm
area of the rotor nozzle, in.^

The proper nozzle size can be calculated by rearranging Eq. 5.67.

Rotor nozzle is often expressed in ^ in. For example, if the
rotor nozzle is specifled as "14," the rotor nozzle has a diameter of
% in.
6. Check that the diameter of the nozzle is sufficiently smaller than the
shaft diameter.

EXAMPLE 5.5

A well is planned to be drilled with an 8.5-in. class I - l - l bit, while

torque and rpm expected are 3.(iOO ft-lbf and 300 rpm, respectively. The
mud weight required is 10 ppg. Determine the size of the rotor nozzle for
the following conditions:

Downhole Motors

319

Minimum flowrate required for hole cleaning = 475 gpm.

Motor Data: Conflguration = 2:3
Diameterof the motor = 6.75 in.
Pitchof the bousing = 23 in.
SOLUTION:
Diameter of the housing is assumed to be 6 in.
Pressure drop expected across the motor power section is
3,000
0.01x0.66

1.666
i2

(2-0.666)'

= 836 psi
X 23 X 36 X 0.7

Operating flowrate required:

_ 300 X 0.79 X 0.666 x 1.666 x 23 x 36
= 530 gpm
' ~
230.98x1.333'
Because this flowrate is higher than the minimum required flowrate of
475 gpm, there is no necessity to flt a rotor nozzle.

EXAMPLE 5.6
Compute the rotor nozzle size required to drill a 12J^-in. hole with a bit
torque of 4,000 ft-lbf and 90 rpm. The mud weight required is 10 ppg.
Minimum flowrate required for hole-cleaning is 900 gpm.
Motor Data:
Motor configuration = 6:7
Diameter of the motor = 8 in.
Length of the motor = 16.8 ft
Number of stages = 5.3
Assume an efficiency of 70%.
SOLUTION:
length of power section
16.8 x 12
;
= r r = JO in.
number of stages
5.3
Diameter ofthe housing is assumed to be 7 in.

Pitch of the housing: ph =

320

CHAPTER 5

Pressure drop expected across the motor power section is

4,000

= 252 psi

1.857142

0.01x0.857142

X 38 X 49 X 0.7

v2

(2-0.857142)

Flowrate required:
_ 90 X 0.79 X 0.857142 x 1.857142 x 38 x 49
"' ~

230.98x1.14286'

Because the operating flowrate is less than the minimum flowrate, the
additional flowrate that needs to be bypassed is
Qm = Qmm " Qop = 900 - 698 = 202 gpm
Bypassed flowrate =

202
698

Assuming a discharge coefficient of 0.95, the area of the rotor nozzle

can be computed as below:
|8.311xl0^x202x9.5^
0.95' X 252
Rotor nozzle diameter = d^ = V 4 x 0.37637/71 = 0.692 in. Nozzle size is
expressed in / in. and the closest rotor nozzle that can be selected is
22 (0.49 X 32 22).

Square Motor
Square downhole motor design is a variation of the typical PDM with modified body design. However, the operating principle is the same. A square
motor and a BHA with a square motor are shown in Figure 5.30. Other attachments, such as a dump sub and thruster, can be used with this type of motor
to enhance the performance of the motor. Field tests indicate improved directional characteristics and reduced drag in tangent sections.

DOWNHOLE TURBINES
Before directional drilling was successfully established, testing and use of
downhole turbines, commonly known as turbodrills, came into play. Turbines

Downhole Motors

321

II

3 or 6-Point
SUnl Rpiim

Pawfv StKtlini

FkMiSub
FIMI Sub

(if rnfuirMt)

Stabrco
Square
Motor

Suunrp
Mh>r

IllHItJllg

Hixifing

lili

Modified
Nt-8il

FIGURE 5.30 Square motor and associated BHAs.

(Courtesy: NQL-Stabeco.)

have been widely used by the Russian drilling industry to avoid drillstring rotation.

Operating Principle
Tbe turbine motor"^^"**" has a series of rotors and stators connected to a shaft.
Each rotor-stator pair is called a stage. As the drilling fluid is pumped through
the turbine, the stators deflect the fluid (air. mud, foam, etc.) against the
rotors, forcing the rotor to rotate the drive shaft to wbich it is connected. This
in turn rotates the bit, which is connected to the lower end of the shaft. Each
stage contributes to the total torque and power developed by the turbine.

322

CHAPTER 5

FIGURE 5.31 Turbodrill performance

characteristic curves.
'

Figure 5.31 shows the perfonnance characteristic curves of a turbodrill.

Unlike the PDM, the turbine's torque is inversely proportional to speed, with
its maximum value at zero speed (stall point) decreasing to zero at runaway
speed (no WOB). Power is zero at stall point, rises to a maximum at design
operating speed (half the runaway speed), and decreases back to zero at runaway speed. The motor speed is independent of mud density and depends
only on the flowrate. The pressure drop remains almost constant at diftereni
speeds.
Turbine Operating Parts
The main parts of a turbine motor, shown in Figure 5.32, are
1. Bypass or dump valve
2. Rotor and stator housing
3. Bearing and rotating assembly

FIGURE 5.32 Turbine and it parts. (Courtesy: Smith International, Inc.)

Downhole Motors

323

Bypass or Dump Vaive

The bypass valve consists of radial ports. The ports are closed by pressure
when the fluid circulation is established, resulting in actuation of a sliding
sleeve. The ports get opened when the pressure is released, as a spring forces
back the sliding sleeve when the circulation is stopped. The valve prevents
the rotation of the motor while tripping. Also, the valve serves to drain the
mud while tripping out and fill up while running into the hole. The valve
is similar to one shown in Figure 5.9, which shows the valve in open and
closed conditions.
Rotor and Stator Housing
The driving fluid enters the turbine and is deflected by the stator toward the
rotor, which forces the rotor to tum in the clockwise direction. The continuous flow of fluid between stator and rotor causes the rotor to rotate. Figure 5.33 shows a turbine stator and rotor.
Bearing and Rotating Assembly
The axial load is transmitted to the bit through the thrust bearing assembly.
The drive shaft rotation is made smooth and centralized by radial bearings.
This part is considered to be the most critical part of the turbine motor, and
Figure 5.34 shows a typical bearing assembly.
Advantages of the Turbine
High rotary torque is developed at the bit where actually required. So,
no flexible joint is required as in the case of PDM.
Turbine produces high rotational speed with low weight on bit.
Due to the high rotational speed, high penetration rates can be achieved
with PDC diamond bits.
Allows fluid circulation regardless of motor hp or torque produced or
even in stalled condition.
Disadvantages of the Turbine
Clogging: After running in to the bottom, the bypass valve sometimes
fails to operate resulting in diversion of fluid power to the weep
slots. To correct the defect the string must be pulled out. Clogging also

324

CHAPTER S

FIGURE 5.33 Turbine stator and

rotor. {Courtesy: Smith International.
Inc.)

FIGURE 5.34 Turbine bearini

assembly. (Courtesy: Smith
International, Inc.)

occurs in the turbine itself. Because the clearance between the statoi
and rotor is very small, solid particles in the mud clog the turbines,
causing seizure.
Reaming: The use of turbines makes hole reaming (whenever required)
difficult due to high rotation ofthe bit (runaway speed). The string
gets stalled and stuck in undergaged holes.
Bit selection: High rotational speed ofthe turbine restricts the type ol
bits to be used. Tricone roller bit bearing life is drastically reduced by
high rotational speed.
LCM circulation: Downhole turbines are sensitive to fouling agents in
the circulating fluid. So, loss circulation materials cannot be circulated
through the turbines.
Bearings: Another common problem faced by the turbine is bearing
failure, which forces the operator to pull the string.
Stages: It is necessary to use many stages in the motor to obtain the
needed power making the turbine long and less efficient.

Downhole Motors

325

Efficiency: Efficiency decreases drastically (compared to PDM) when

operating at off-design conditions.
Performance: Difficult to assess the downhole performance while
drilling.
Hydraulic Turbine

In a hydraulic turbine the working fluid is assumed to be incompressible and

he main performance parameters are torque and rotary speed. The torque
developed by a turbodrill can be calculated from the following modified
Ruler equation:'^"
T = 27rQp^r'n,NTi

(5.68)

where r\ =
Q
Pm
r"
n^
N
r|i,

=
=
=
=
=

flowrate, gpm
mud weight, ppg
square of mean blade radius, in.^
number of turbine stages
rotation speed of turbine, rpm
hydraulic efficiency

Stall Torque and Runaway Speed

Stall torque is the maximum torque needed to stop the turbine shaft from
rotating and occurs at zero rpm.
Runaway speed or no load speed is the rotational speed of the turbine
when there is no torque or resistance to the fluid flow through the turbine. It
occurs at maximum speed.
Stall torque and runaway speed are related by
T = T,-T,~
where 0) = angular velocity
(Of = angular velocity at runaway speed
Because co =

60

(5.69)
where N^ = runaway speed, rpm

326

CHAPTER 5

The mechanical horsepower developed by the turbine can be calculated

from the product of torque and angular velocity:
MHP =

(5.70)

5501,60 J
which can be further written as:

550
or, in terms of torque:

550

l,60J

(5.71)

Stall torque of a turbine can be given by the following equation:

T, = 8.6595 X 10^= tan,n,p,QTi,
27th
where ^
ri|
h
n^

=
=
=
=

exit angle,
mechanical efficiency
height of the vane, in.
number of stages

lio = "Hm X Tlvol

Tlo = overall efficiency

T)^ = volumetric efflciency
Runaway speed of the turbine can be calculated from

N, ^18.38

'^r;

(5.73)

7chr
From Eqs. 5.72 and 5.73 it can be seen that torque, horsepower, and pressure differential across the turbine are dependent upon density and flowrate
and can be written as:
Pressure drop,
^ = -

and AD, = Apf x c.

Downhole Motors

327

Torque,
= ^

[Q.j

T,

and T; = T^f X Cf

Horsepower,

= ^ l and HP^^HP, xc,

HPa I Q J
where Cf = mud correction factor defined as the ratio of the new mud weight
to the reference mud weight
These relationships are helpful to estimate the required performance parameters of the turbine for other than the reference flowrate and mud density.

EXAMPLE 5.7
Calculate the flowrate required and the output of a turbine to produce a
torque of 2,000 ft-lbf operating at 500 rpm for a turbine pressure drop of 800
psi. Assume an efficiency of 70%.
SOLUTION:
QAp

1,714

MHP = ^ ^ 1 x 5 0 0 = 190 hp
550 l,60j
^
.

MHP

using the equation r\ =

QAp
1,714
^
MHP
190x1,714 ^^
Q - ~
= 509 gpm
"
*
"
0.8x800
1,714

EXAMPLE 5.8
Calculate the pressure drop, maximum horsepower, and stall torque of a
lurbine with the following data:
Outsidediameterof the turbine = 6K in.

328

CHAPTER S

Number of stages = 200

Flowrate = 300 gpm
Mud weight = 9 ppg and 12 ppg
Performance characteristics of the motor with reference flowrate of 300 gpm
and 9 ppg mud are given in Figure 5.35.
SOLUTION:
For mud weight 9 ppg:
Pressure drop: From the graph the pressure drop for 300 gpm is
755 psi.
Maximum horsepower: From the graph it can be seen that maximum
horsepower is 90.
Because the torque at optimum speed is one half of the stall torque, the
stall torque is - 2 x torque at 300 gpm.
From the chart it can be seen that the torque at 300 gpm is 820 ft-lbf.
Hence, stall torque = 1,640 ft-lbf
For mud weight 12 ppg:
Pressure drop for new mud density can be calculated using the
relationship.
35oq

100

150

200

250

300

350
400
Flowrate (gpm)

450

FIGURE 5.35 Performance characteristics for Example 5.8.

500

550

600

Downhole Motors

329

So pressure drop for the case of 12 ppg mud is

Ap = 755x = 1,006 psi
F

Maximum horsepower is
HP = 9 0 x = 120hp
9
Stall torque is
T, = 1,640 x = 2,187 ft-lb

Pneumatic Turbine
Turbines consist of stages, and each stage is composed of a stator and a rotor.
The stator is an array of chokes used to direct jets of high-speed air into the
rotor. The jets of air are diverted by the rotor, producing a turning force, or
torque. The maximum torque is produced when the rotor is still, and the
torque decreases linearly with rotor speed, because the velocity ofthe air jets
relative to the rotor also decreases with rotor speed. When the rotor tip is
moving at the air speed, there is no force, and the turbine is said to be at the
no-load speed.
The pneumatic turbine-powered drilling engine is an impulse-type turbine. In ideal impulse-type turbines there is no expansion in the flow through
the stator. The entire pressure drop occurs in the rotor, which acts as a stationary nozzle. The pressure remains constant through the blade while the
kinetic energy decreases. It is desirable to have subsonic flow at the nozzle
outlet so that pressure surges can be felt at the surface. However, if the
required power implies supersonic velocities, then a converging-diverging
nozzle is required. Therefore, nozzle diameter and nozzle velocity should be
determined, once again, taking torque and flowrate as design criteria.
One of the advantages of the pneumatic turbine over the hydraulic turbine is that the required horsepower can be produced using one or two stages
only. The main disadvantage is that this is done through a gear reducer,
which increases the complexity of its design, manufacturing, and operation. The gear reducer ratio needed depends on the characteristics of the

330

CHAPTER S

motor, and should therefore be determined for each configuration (air and
motor properties).
,
The following are the main equations used to model the performance of
the motor:
VN = 109.45V(T| + 460X1 - PR^'^^")

(5.74)

where PR = pressure ratio

(5.75)

^sonic ^ Pthioal

(5.76)

TC X d

5,252 HP

Positive Displacement Motors (PDM) versus Turbodrills

The critical parameter in the performance of a PDM is the pressure drop
across the motor, while for a turbine it is the speed.^^^' This is due to the fundamental principle of operation of each motor. PDMs operate on the Moineau
principle, in which torque is produced from the pressure differential. The
turbodrill works according to a hydrodynamic principle, in which power is
produced from the energy transfer between the moving fluid and the vanes
inside the motor. The flowrate in a PDM must be zero if the bit does not
move. Contrarily, in the turbine tbe fluid can always be circulated.
The main disadvantage that drillers find in turbodrills (compared to PDMs)
is the bit problems caused by the high rotational speed at which they operate.
However, there is little evidence of studies of the effect of the number of stages
on efficiency and power with several drilling fluids. Theoretically, by decreasing the whirl angle in the vanes of the rotor and increasing the number of stages,
the speed should decrease while maintaining a constant torque. The effect that
this has on the efficiency should then be studied. If speed could be reduced
enough to eliminate bit problems and still be higher than that of a PDM, then
the turbodrills would have higher rates of penetration.

Downhole Motors

331

The operational advantage of a PDM over a turbodrill is that the PDMs

efficiency is less affected when operating at off-design conditions. As seen
in Figures 5.14 and 5.30, the efficiency curve of a PDM is flatter than that of
the turbine.
Regarding positive displacement motors, while a lot of varieties are available in the market, there are still inherent problems associated with tbe performance of the tool with coiled tubing drilling. While some simulation and
performance characteristics studies have been done for turbines, there is no
evidence of simulation studies done or mathematical models available to
address the behavior and performance of the positive displacement motor.
The force of tbe air jets can be quite high, as high velocities are easy to
achieve. At a pressure ratio across tbe stator of about two to one, the air velocity will be sonic (1,100 ft/s). Even higher velocities can be reached in supersonic nozzles, but such designs are tricky, due to the shocks that may occur
as the pressure and flowrate vary.
The added advantage of the turbine is that it is open to flowit will pass
air at tbe same rate regardless of rotor speed. This advantage is balanced by
the tendency to run at high speeds. High air speeds are required to get high
torques at small sizes and low flowrates, and as a result, such units naturally
tend to run at high speeds.

Fluid Volume Requirements

Air drilling engines are generally designed to run based on the cleaning volume, that is, the fluid volume that is required to remove the drilled cuttings
from the hole. All techniques*"*'^"" for selecting volume requirements in air
and gas drilling require both the specification of a cleaning criterion and a
method for evaluating whether that criterion is met.
Hole-cleaning criteria fall into three categories: gas energy, cuttings terminal velocity, and minimum bottomhole pressure. There is no universally
accepted approach to designing volume requirements either in vertical or
deviated air drilling. What works well in one area may prove a poor choice
in another.

Bit Torque Requirements

The drilling engine must supply the torque necessary to rotate the bit under
the imposed weight on bit and overcome the internal drag of the engine, all
from the air required for hole-cleaning. Thus, it is necessary to first calculate

332

CHAPTER S

the required bit torque at operating conditions and from that estimate the maximum required turbine torque. Given the required turbine torque and the turbine rotor diameter, it is then possible to estimate the number of turbine
rotor/stator stages that will be required to extract that torque from the airflow.
Three methods for estimating the bit torque required for drilling are given
below. A simple integration indicates that for a flat-faced drag bit the torque
should be
^
l,000|ixWOBxDb
T=
^-z
^
5O

(5.79)

Smith Tool*^*" has published a horsepower model for roller cone bits that
can be converted to a torque model:
T = (5,250)F,fWOB'

-'DJ-^

(5.80)

and Warren*^^'"*^* has developed the following relationship;

C1-HC2.

(5.8IJ

where WOB =
Db =
|X =
F^r =

weight on bit, 1,000 Ib

bit diameter, in.
bit to formation friction factor
formation constant (1.4 x 10"^ for the softest formation and
highest torque)
rate of penetration (ft/hr)
tooth wear function (<1)
bit speed, rpm
constant (3.79 for the case cited in Ref. 45)
constant (19.17 for the case cited in Ref. 45)

R
f
N
C|
Cj

=
=
=
=
=

Turbine Selection
A turbine motor develops maximum torque at zero rotary speed, and the
torque decreases linearly with increasing speed, as:
(5.82)
A turbine generates maximum power at about one half the no-load speed
(N = / . N _ ) .

Downhole Motors

333

The lock-rotor torque can be calculated from:

^ 2rhvrcos(a)
""
g
where m = the weight flowrate of air, lb/s
V = the air velocity, ft/s
r = the rotor radius, ft, in all cases 4 in. less than the tool outer
diameter
a = the attack angle of the air jet (30 in this study)
g = the acceleration due to gravity, 32.2 ft/s^

Bearing Thrust
The basic components of the thrust on the bearing of the turbine are the same
as in the case of the PDM as described below.
The net axial thrust on the bearings due to weight on bit and hydraulic
thrust can be estimated as follows:
Hydraulic thrust created by the pressure drop acting on the crosssectional area (hydraulic thrustF,,^jJ.
Hydraulic thrust created due to the pressure drop across the bit
(hydraulic thrustFi,^,^^,).
Self-weight of the shaft (weight thrustF^^,,).
Weight on bit.
The hydraulic thrust'^*' can be approximately obtained from Eqs. 5.48
:ind 5.49 as follows:

r ^ | ( ? f )
where D^ =
Dj =
Di =
Apn, =

(5.84)

rotor diameter
stator inside diameter
rotor body (hub) diameter
pressure drop across the motor
TC 2D; X D^

The thrust due to weight of the rotor is obtained from Eq. 5.86:
Fw, = 1 - w,

(5.86)

334

CHAPTER 5

where p
p,
w^
D3

=
=
=
=

mud density
rotor density
weight of the rotor
hub extended portion diameter (usually D3 > D2)

The net axial thrust on the bearing is

(5.87)
The pressure drop across the bit is

ELECTRODRIU MOTOR (EDM)

I

The history of the electrodrill dates back to 1891 .****' Russians developed and
field-tested three noteworthy electrodrills. The first too! called the Arutunoff
electrodrill carried an electric motor, which was used to drive the bit through
a gear reduction system. The tool was lowered into the hole with the wire
line, which supplied the povyer. The second tool resembled the above pipeless tool, but had the capability to rotate the upper part of the tool. The third
version was a modified tool, which was attached to the bottom of the pipe
and run with cables and cable connectors. All these tools had the disadvantage of high rotational speed compared to rotary drilling.
The electrodrill downhole motor built and tested by General Electric in
1976 is based on standard submersible pump motors. They use a retrievable
power cable and a telemetry system, which makes downhole measurements
of various drilling and safety parameters, and transmits them to the surface.
The two systems built had 60-hp and 285-hp electric motors located directly
above the bit. The latter motor was designed for deep (> 10,000 ft) directional drilling. These motors were IVz in. in diameter and were designed to
work witb bits between 8/2 in. and 10 in. rotating at around 3,500 rpm.
Drilling rates of 10 to over 60 ft/hr were achieved with a maximum WOB
of 10,000 lb. The maximum surface mud pressure was 450 psi and 8(X) psi.
The larger motor works with 1,220 v at the surface and 30 amps of idle cur-

Downhole Motors

335

rent. The smaller motor works with 1,230 v at the surface and 11 amps of
idle current. The surface power equipment consists of a three-phase power
transformer and power controls. The testing proved that the electrodrill concept may be feasible, but was abandoned in 1980 by General Electric due to
economical problems.
A feasibility study on "Electric Drilling Motor for Coiled Tubing" was
completed by Coiled Tubing Engineering Services (CTES)''*^' for the Gas
Research Industry (GRI). The purpose of the study was to compare PDMs
with electric motors. Based on General Electric's electrodrill and the USSR's
(now CIS) electric-drilling concepts, CTES presented a conceptual design.
The motor is based on an electrical submersible pump motor with minor
modifications. One of the differences with the previous designs is that the
mudflow path is around the motor instead of through it. The motor may be
operated at variable speeds by varying the frequency of the power supply.
The performance parameters of the electric motor are frequency, horsepower,
torque, and speed. These are related in the perfonnance characteristic curves
shown in Figure 5.36.
According to the conceptual design performed by CTES, motor systems
of 4K in. and larger outside diameters are technically feasible. These motors
would run at speeds of 1,200 to 3,600 rpm by varying the frequency from
20 to 60 Hz. This may create a need for a gearbox, similar to the pneumatic

Horsepower
F = Frequency >^.K

F -->'-^'''"7/
*1
// //
/
/

/
/

\
^

'^
\

\
\

\
\
\

\
\

\
\
\

v\\
\\\ \
\\

\
1
\
\
\

FIGURE 5.36 Electrodrill perfonnance characteristic curves.

\ t
\*
\>
\i

336

CHAPTER 5

turbine. The maximum power output is close to 80 hp with output torque as

high as 160 ft-lbf. Slimmer motors may be possible if the horsepower requirements are lowered. A 10-hp motor could be as small as 1.688 in. in diameter
and 11.6 ft long.
Recently, XL Technology Limited of London developed a drilling system coupling electric downhole motor'^'" with coiled tubing. The system
used a submersible electric motor along with near-bit downhole sensors and
drilled 600 m of cement. The field tests indicated that signiflcant potential
advantages are possible using EDM. The specifications call for a 3%-in. OD
assembly to enable the use of 3 /:-in. bit. The project is at the initial stage
of development.
Listed in the Table 5.1 are the specifications of the electric motors used
in the former Soviet
'*^'

MISCELLANEOUS DOWNHOLE MOTORS (MOM)

Other types of positive displacement motors such as vane, piston, and gear
pumps have been proposed for downhole drilling motors. Researchers have
also proposed other new concepts of downhole motors''''^^'" to overcome the
problems posed by the conventional downhole motors. A downhole motor
consisting of a double shaft assembled in line was prototyped. The shafts are
coupled by a flexible coupling. They can be connected with either electric
motor or fluid turbine. This provides a flexibility of operation in directional
drilling. There is no evidence of field testing of tbis type of motor. A patent'*'^'
was obtained for a fluid pressure, peristaltic downhole motor. It consists of a
shaft, housing, and a few rollers so as to form deformable working chambers. The drilling fluid entering the chambers on the trailing side of the rollers
causes the rotor to rotate. In this case too there is no evidence of field testing
reports. Figure 5.37 shows a cross section of one such motor.
A combustion type of downhole drilling motor'*^"" was proposed that conveys the fuel and oxygen to the bottom through umbilical chords.
Combustion, occurring in different chambers of the apparatus, causes the
piston in the corresponding chambers to move back and forth. The motion of
the piston can be used to actuate a drillbit resulting in a percussive type of
action. A few promising downhole drilling motor designs'*^''^'' under the
hydraulic category were proposed, and a few other patents were obtained. It
has a rotor mounted concentrically inside a stator with three sets of slots with
cylindrical liners. When the rotor turns in the clockwise direction, one set ot
retracted rollers clear the deflector cams and exert a turning moment on the

Downhole Motors

o ^

'S . 2
s cS

e
"

3
E

u-i
"^

o
in

'

(N

13 n
c 3
C 2^

1^

^5
^m

o
(N

00

- H

o
m
>n

OO

^ j

in

00

00

ro

(N

"^

LH

O
f ^

ro
~

(N
^

ro

O
ro

(N

ro

^b

O
O

o
o
ro

OO

oo

iN

r-

>n

(M

(N

in

in

(N

O
v^

r.

ro

(N
(N

.-^

!^
o "t.

_ ?a.
p

Rate
Out!

hole

o
o

(N

(N

'S"

m
ON

in

in
(N

in

r-

r^

Q
O
r-i

oo

OO

^
-

<n

<n

sO

r-

(N
ON

2'
o

a
{J

^ C
J " ^

n
o

ro

O
ro

(N

m
(N

(N

"n

u-,
oo
~~

~~

m
"n

(N

v:
C

ific

b.

Il

ea s

(N

(N

ON
(N

a.

lABL

(N

<N

m
00

O
"^

5
OH

LLJ

(N

-g

00

00

"n

oo
u-i
00

oo

ci
ON
rj

a.

a.

oo

00

ci

(N
ro

0.
oo

>n
r*^

a.

oo
<n
oo

Q.

00

oo

.1

ro

^^
CO

337

338

CHAPTER 5

Rollen

Deformable membrane

FIGURE 5.37 Vertical cross section of the peristaltic motor.

rotor. Although it had several advantages, such as lightweight, short length,

and long operating life, it could not be tested successfully in the fleld.
Equations for flowrate, Q, torque, T, and hydraulic horsepower of the
motor are given by'^''"^
Q = k,Nr,w,L
T = kjjr^w^LAp^

HHP = k3Nr,w,Lp,

(5.88)

where r = radiusof exposed roller section

w = width of the exposed roller section
L = tool length
A new concept of downhole motor called McDrill*^''^^^ was lab and field
tested. It has a stainless steel rotor and stator and is vertical, thereby avoiding the universal joint. Drilling fluid enters the annular space between the
stator and the rotor through a series of ports. The large roller vanes are forced
out of their recess in the housing walls to the rotor and form a seal line. The
differential pressure thus created causes a turning effort on the rotor. The
operating characteristics of this motor are basically the same as the Moineautype motor. McDrill motor requires a certain minimum flowrate for engaging the rollers to establish a positive sealing and to start rotating the rotor.

Downhole Motors

339

TABLE 5.2 Comparison of Operating and Profile Variables for MDMs(51)

FDM

IXirbine

Roller Vane

McDrill

Length

Medium

Long

Short

Short

Weight

Medium

Heavy

Light

Light

Rotation

Eccentric

Concentric

Concentric

Concentric

Hydraulic Efficiency

High

Low

High

High

Temperature Resistance

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Standpipe Pressure

Medium

High

Low

Medium

Maintenance

Shop

Shop

Rig Site

Rig Site

Additional Rowrate
Handling Capacity

Yes

Yes

No

No

Comparison of operating and profile variables for different MDMs for

the same tool diameter are given in Table 5.2.

SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS
5.1

The following data pertain to a motor of 3:4 configuration:

Diameter of the motor = 8 in.
Rotor diameter = 2.7 in.
Pressure drop across the motor = 500 psi
Assume a total efficiency of 80% and a volumetric efficiency of 90%
and calculate
a. Tbe torque developed by the motor.
b. Rotational speed for a flowrate of 500 gpm.
c. Power output of the motor.

5.2

Tbe following data pertain to a PDM of configuration 6:7:

Diameter of the motor = 6.75 in.
Pitch of the housing = 20 in.
Pressure drop across the motor = 300 psi
Estimate the torque and speed when the flowrate is 450 gpm. Assume
an efficiency of 80%.

340

5.3

CHAPTER 5

Using the data in Problem 5.2 obtain the following:

a. Plot the torque versus pressure drop from 0 to 800 psi with an increment of 100 psi.
b. Plot rotational speed of motor versus flowrate from 0 to 600 gpm
with an increment of 50 gpm.
c. Repeat a and b for various efficiencies from 70 to 100% with an
increment of 5%.

5.4

What is the torque for a 1:2 configuration motor with a rotor diameter
of 3 in., eccentricity 1 in., and a rotor pitch 12 in. operating at 450 psi ?

5.5

Compare the theoretical speed, torque, and horsepower of a 1 ;2 lobe

and a 3:4 lobe motor.

5.6

If a 12>i-in. bit requires a torque of 3,500 ft-lbf to drill a sandstone formation, what is the required pressure drop across a motor with the
dimensions given below?
Diameter = 8 in.
Configuration = 3:4
Shaft pitch = 40 in.
Eccentricity = 1.5 in.

5.7

Pitch and diameter of the housing are expressed in terms of the helix
angle. Derive the equation and calculate the torque of a motor using
the following data:
Diameter of the housing = 6 in.
Configuration = 4:8
Pressure drop across the motor = 400 psi
Helix angle = AT"
Efficiency = 80%

5.8

Select a suitable PDM for the following requirements:

Diameter of the hole to be drilled = 12!^ in.
Bit torque = 4,225 ft-lbf
Power output of the motor = 50 to 75 hp
Maximum differential pressure = 500 psi

5.9

Derive a condition to maximize torque,

T=

Downhole Motors

341

delivered by multilobe downhole motors with the constraint of fluid

velocity inside the multilobe motors given by

where D,,, P^, r), i, AP, N, and n denote the diameter, pitch, efficiency,
lobe ratio, pressure drop, rpm, and number of shaft lobes, respectively.
5.10 Compute the rotor nozzle size required to drill a 12%-in. hole with a bit
torque of 5,250 ft-lbf and rotating at 120 rpm. The mud weight required
is 10.2 ppg. Minimum flowrate required for hole-cleaning is 850 gpm.
Motor data:
Motor configuration = 5:6
Diameter of the motor = 8 in.
Length of the motor = 18 ft
Number of stages = 6
Assume an efficiency of 80%.
5.11 The performance curve for a 9X-in. hole motor is shown in Figure 5.38.
The performance curve is based on water at 70F. The motor details
are as follows: 6:7 lobe, 5.0 stage, length of the power section 20.61 ft,
maximum bit speed range 75-150 rpm, flow range 600-1,200 gpm. The
motor is used to drill a 20-in. hole with the minimum hole-cleaning

FIGURE 5.38 Performance curve for 95-in. hole motor.

342

CHAPTER 5

requirements of 1,500 gpm. Compute the rotor nozzle size. Mud density required for this phase is 8.7 ppg.
5.12 Using the data provided in Problem 5.11, compute the flowrate
bypassed through the rotor nozzle during the stalled condition. Assume
the stall torque to be 70% higher than the operating torque.
5.13 Calculate the flow bypassed and rpm of the motor when a rotor nozzle
of^Vii in. is installed in a 2.5-in. rotor of a 6!^-in., 3:4 lobe motor. The
bypassed flow ratio is 0.3. Pressure drop required during drilling is
500 psi. Mud density of the drilling fluid is 9 ppg. Torque developed is
2,500 ft-lbf.
5.14 Calculate the toque and horsepower of a roller vane motor with the following dimensions:
Radius of the exposed roller section = 2 in.
Width of the exposed roller section = 2 in.
Length of the tool = 1 ft
Bit torque = 4,225 ft-lbf
Power output of the motor = 50 to 75 hp
Maximum differential pressure = 500 psi
5.15 The following data relates to a turbine's performance characteristics
for a reference flowrate of 250 gpm:
Torque =1,350 ft-lb
Rotational speed = 250 rpm
Differential pressure = 800 psi
Power output = 150 hp
Calculate the torque, speed, differential pressure, and power output
of the motor when it is operating at 500 gpm with a mud density of
12 ppg.
5.16 Use the data from Example 5.14 to calculate the torque, power, and
differential pressure when the turbine is operated with 100 stages.
5.17 Consider a downhole motor system with a turbine and PDM connected
in tandem. Derive the equation for overall torque, output power, and
rotational speed of the system.
5.18 The following data pertain to a PDM of configuration 6:7:
Diameter of the motor = 6.75 in.
Pitch of the housing = 20 in.

Downhole Motors

343

Pressure drop across the motor = 300 psi

Estimate the torque and speed when the flowrate = 450 gpm
Assume an efllciency of 80%.
5.19 A turbine-generator-bit combination connected in tandem is used as
downhole drive mechanism to power the bit. Develop equations for
torque, pressure drop, and overall efficiency of the system.
5.20 Compute the volumetric efficiency, mechanical efficiency, and overall
efficiency of a 4% in., 4:5 configuration PDM whose performance curve
is shown in Figure 5.39. Pitch of the housing = 21 in. Eccentricity =
0.333 in. Pressure drop across the motor = 400 psi and flowrate = 200
gpm. For drilling certain sections of a 6-in. hole, the bit requires 200
rpm and 1,2(X) ft-lbf torque. To maintain proper hole-cleaning, a minimum requirement of 200 gpm is desired. Determine whether the above
motor can be used to drill. If not provide an alternate selection.

320

400

500

600

TOG

8S0

nnnin DUknMltl PSl

FIGURE 5.39 Performance curve for the 4:5 configuration motor.

344

CHAPTER 5

NOMENCLATURE
a, b
a,
SL2
A
A
A
Ar
Ap
Af
Ap
b
BF
C
Cj
C,
Db
D^
D^
D,
e
E
E
E^
f
F^f
Fhyd
F^
Fy
Fj
g
h
HT
HN
HP
HHP

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

empirical indices
WOB exponent
speed exponent
cross-sectional area
wave velocity
cross-sectional area of the cavity
area of the rotor nozzle
area of the piston
cross-sectional area of the shaft
effective pump-off area
bit
buoyancy factor
constant
discharge coefficient
mud correction factor
diameter of the bit
diameterof the housing
rotor diameter
diameter of the shaft
eccentricity of the motor
Young's modulus
energy input
specific energy
final condition
formation constant
hydraulic thrust
axial force
tangential force
side force
gravitational constant
height of the vane
hydraulic thrust
rock impact hardness number
horsepower, hp
hydraulic horsepower, hp
hydraulic horsepower at bit, hp
winding ratio/configuration

Downhole Motors

k| = housing/shaft wear coefficient

kj = material property coefficient
kl = housing, shaft, pitch wear coefficient
k^ = coefficient, 9.48
k, = coefficient, 1.8x10*
K = constant
Kh = formation hardness, teeth, bearing, mud coefficient
K, = formation drillability factor, ft/hr
K| = winding ratio coefficient
K, = winding ratio coefficient
Kr, = pressure drop coefficient
K, = constant (5,252)
K^ = constant, 0.01
K, = constant, 0.028
I' = stroke length
L = tool length
m = maximum
rii = mass flowrate. Ibm/sec
MHP = mechanical horsepower
n^ = number of blows per minute
n, = number of stages
N = rotary speed, rpm
Nr = runaway speed in rpm
NT = net thrust
ph = pitch of the housing
P, = pitch of the shaft
P^ = stall pressure
PR = pressure ratio
Q = flowrate
Q =
Qn, =
Qr =
Q, =
Q, =
r =
? =
r,^ =
ROP =
Rbp =

inlet losses that can be neglected

bypass flowrate through the rotor nozzle, gpm
reference flowrate
the leakage between the running clearance between the seals
geometrical or theoretical displacement per minute
clearance, ft
median blade radius
radiusof exposed roller section
rate of penetration
bypass flowrate

345

346

CHAPTER 5

S = turbulence coefficient
SHN = shore hardness
t = time
t| = thickness of the elastomer of the housing
tj = metal thickness of the housing casing
T = torque
Tas = actual torque measured at the stall condition
Tf = torque on the cutting face of the bit, ft-lbf
Tj = torque due to side force, ft-lbf
w = width of the exposed roller section
w^ = massof the U-joints in fluid, lb
w, = mass of the rotor in air, lb
Wp = pump-off force, lb
WOB = weight on bit, klb
Wfs = width of the exposed roller section
a = flow ratio
= index of flow time
e = exit angle,
p^ ~ mud weight, lbm/gal
Tl,r|o = overall efficiency
Tlh = hydraulic efficiency
T|n, = mechanical efficiency
Tls = operating stall efficiency
Tl^, = volumetric efficiency
|l = bit to formation friction factor
p = density, Ibm/ft^
Oj = incident stress
<y^ = maximum stress
Or = reflected stress
Aph = pressure drop across the bit, psi
Apm = pressure drop across motor, psi
Apmax - maximum pressure drop across motor, psi

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Downhole Motors

347

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