Hard Turning and Grinding

Chapter 2

CHAPTER 2
HARD TURNING AND GRINDING
2.1 Hard Turning
Hard turning is defined as the process of single point cutting of part pieces that have
hardness values over 45 HRc. It is similar to turning operation but the only difference is that the
hardened work piece is used here.

Figure 2.1 Hard Turning

Hard turning operation can be capable of producing surface finish equivalent as that of
grinding operation. So it can be used as an alternative for grinding operation which reduces the
cost, manufacturing cycles and improves the quality of the product. In terms of performance a
typical a hard turned part which is processed on a correctly configured machine, can have
surface finishes below .0003 mm, roundness values of .00025 mm and size control as good as .
005 mm.
The range of hard turned applications will vary based upon the part requirements, tolerance
levels, surface finish and very importantly the machine tool.

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2.2 Requirements for Hard Turning

Stability in many different forms is a key success factor in Hard Part Turning (HPT). Not
only machine stability, but also rigidity and thermal stability are vital components in producing an
accurate, high-quality finished part. High machine rigidity and stability will minimize the impact of
variable cutting force on the surface profile produced. This results in a better process capability.
Guiding accuracy and positioning accuracy of the carriage are also important criteria to consider
when choosing machines for HPT. The better the stability of overall machine concept, the closer
the tolerances will be able to keep. Heat generated at any place in the machine effects the
tolerance of the work-piece, so it must be controlled accurately. Removing heat by cooling the
spindle or transporting it away in heat-containing chips will pay dividends in better tolerances.

2.2.1 Work-piece clamping

As the ability to accurately rotate the work-piece is vital for achieving close dimensional
tolerances. Work-piece clamping has an important role to play in machine set-up. Thin-walled
components especially place very stringent requirements on clamping. So one has to make sure
in employing wide clamping jaws as they offer many benefits compared to ordinary three-point
jaws

Figure 2.2 Work piece clamping

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2.2.2 Part Rigidity

As a guideline, a length-to-diameter ratio of up to 2:1 is normally acceptable for workpieces supported on one end only. With additional tailstock support, this ratio can be extended.
Aligning headstock and tailstock properly also promotes maximum rigidity and good conical
point contact, both of which contribute to a first class finished product.

Figure 2.3 Part rigidity

2.2.3 Cutting tool materials

The classes of cutting tool materials currently in use for machining operation are high
speed tool steel, cobalt-base alloys, cemented carbides, ceramic, polycrystalline cubic boron
nitride and polycrystalline diamond. Different machining applications require different cutting tool
materials.
The Ideal cutting tool material should have all of the following characteristics:
1. Harder than the work it is cutting
2. High temperature stability
3. Resists wear and thermal shock
4. Impact resistant
5. Chemically inert to the work material and cutting fluid
High quality hard turning applications do require a properly configured machine tool and the
appropriate tooling. For many applications, CBN tooling will be the most dominant choice. CBN
tools are widely used for both continuous and interrupted hard turning applications as they
deliver exceptional cutting performance with low wear. However, because of CBN's high cost alternative cutting tools or inserts can be used i.e., Cermets and Ceramic.

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Figure 2.4 CBN insert

2.3 Grinding Operation

2.3.1 Types of Grinding Operations
The different types of grinding operations are as follows
Surface Grinding
Surface grinding uses a rotating abrasive wheel to smooth the flat surface of metallic or
nonmetallic materials to give them a more refined look or to attain a desired surface for a
functional purpose. The tolerances that are normally achieved with grinding are five micron
meter for flat material and eight micron meter for parallel surface.
The surface grinder is composed of an abrasive wheel, a work holding device known as
a chuck and a reciprocating table.
Typical work piece materials include cast iron and minor steel. These two materials do
not tend to clog the grinding wheel while being processed. Other materials are aluminum,
stainless steel, brass and some plastics.

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Figure 2.5 Surface Grinding

Cylindrical Grinding
Cylindrical grinding is the process of removing materials from the cylindrical surfaces of
the work piece. The work piece is mounted and rotated by a work piece holder called as
grinding dog or center driver. Both the tool and the work piece are rotated by separate motors
and at different speeds. The axes of rotation tool can be adjusted to produce a variety of
shapes.
A cylindrical grinder has a grinding wheel, two centers that hold the work piece, and a
chuck, grinding dog or other mechanism to drive the machine. Most cylindrical grinding
machines include a swivel to allow for the forming of tapered pieces. The wheel and work piece
move parallel to one another in both the radial and longitudinal directions. The abrasive wheel
can have many shapes. Standard disk shaped wheels can be used to create a tapered or
straight work piece geometry while formed wheels are used to create a shaped work piece. The
process using a formed wheel creates less vibration than using a regular disk shaped wheel.
Surface finish can range from 50m to 3m. The five types of cylindrical grinding are outside
diameter grinding, inside diameter grinding, plunge grinding, creep feed grinding and center less
grinding.

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Figure 2.6 Cylindrical Grinding

2.3.2 Grinding Wheel

Grinding wheel consists of hard abrasive grains called grits which perform the cutting or
material removal, held in the bonding matrix. A grinding wheel commonly identified by the type
of the abrasive material used. The conventional wheels include aluminum oxide and silicon
carbide wheels while diamond and CBN (cubic boron nitride) wheels fall in the category of super
abrasive wheel. The characteristics of a grinding wheel are
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Types of abrasive
Grain size
Type of bond
Wheel grade
Wheel structure

1) Type of abrasives
Corundum, emery and diamond are the most commonly used natural abrasives. Wheels
made of emery and corundum lack uniform properties. Grinding performance of such wheels is
affected because of the presence of impurities and so they are not used as such. Hence the
natural abrasives are replaced by manufactured abrasives. Manufactured abrasives have well
defined and controlled properties of roughness and hardness. Commonly used manufactured
abrasives are aluminum oxide, silicon carbide, diamond and cubic boron nitride.
Aluminum oxide
Aluminum oxide wheels are extensively used for grinding steels, ferrous alloys and other
high tensile materials. The raw material for the production of aluminum oxide is bauxite, which is
reduced metallurgical in an electric furnace to produce the abrasive. Its properties vary
depending upon the amount of impurities present. For example, a small amount of chronic oxide
improves the toughness of the abrasives. Pure aluminum is quite friable and it is used where

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sharp cutting points are to be maintained continuously through the fracture of individual grits. It
is mainly used in dry grinding of heat sensitive steels.
Silicon carbide
Silicon carbide wheels are used for grinding non-ferrous metals, non-metallic elements
and cast irons. It is also used for grinding hard and dense materials where high finish is
required. The raw materials for silicon carbide are mainly silicon dioxide and petroleum coke or
anthracite. Pure silicon carbide of green variety is more friable than the grey or black type.
Diamond
Synthetic diamonds are used to a large extent for grinding cemented carbides, ceramics
and glass. With the development of special surface coatings and controlled crystal
configurations, the use of diamond has been extended to ductile materials including steels. It is
inert to all forms of chemical attack. It has good thermal stability because of its high thermal
conductivity. It has very high melting point which results in very little reduction in its mechanical
strength.
Cubic boron nitride
Like diamonds, cubic boron nitride is produced under conditions of high pressures and
temperatures at which the hexagonal structures changes into the cubic structure. This is the
second hardest known substance. It has high strength, as there are no simple planes of sliding
in its structure. It has a high thermal stability and is inert to chemical action. They are used in
grinding hardened and difficult-to-grind steels. They have a long life and high grinding ratio,
nearly hundred times that of the conventional abrasives. They produce high quality of surface,
since the temperature produced during grinding with this abrasive is much lower than with
wheels of conventional abrasives.
2) Grain size
The grain size influences the stock removal rate and the generated surface finish. The grain
size may be broadly classified as very coarse, coarse, medium, fine and very fine. Generally,
coarser grits are used for heavy material removal where surface finish is not critical. Finer grains
are used when the material to be removed is very less and the finish is more important. Medium
sizes are used in operations which require both material removal and finish. While selecting the
grain size, penetration and the chipping of the wheel must be considered
3) Wheel grade.
Grade is frequently referred as the hardness of the wheel. The abrasive grains in the
grinding wheel are bound together by the bonding agent. The grains break off owing to
increased cutting forces. The force which holds the grains in place denotes the hardness of the
wheel. It is dependent on the kind of bond, structure of the wheel and grinding ratio. Greater the
bond content, stronger is the bond material and harder is the wheel. The hardness of grinding

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wheels have been classified as very soft, soft, medium, hard and very hard and denoted by
letters from A-Z.
Very soft

A, B, C, D, E, F, G

Soft

H, I, J, K

Medium

L, M, N, O

Hard

P, Q, R, S

Very hard

T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z

4) Wheel structure
The wheel structure denotes the density or openness of the abrasive grain spacing. The
abrasive grains and the bond do not occupy the entire volume of the grinding wheel. There are
pores in between the abrasive grains and the binding agent. Depending upon the structure, the
grinding wheels are classified as compact, semi-contact and porous groups. Open structured
wheels, in which there are fewer grains per unit volume, are used for high stock removal. Close
or dense structured wheels are used for producing high quality surface finish. The structured is
represented by numbers ranging from 0 to 15. The lower numbers indicate a dense structure
and higher numbers an open structure.
5) Type of bond
Bond is the type of material used for cementing together the abrasive grains. When the
abrasive particles become dull, they lose their grinding ability and the bonding material breaks
away. This leads to the fracture of the grains or release of the grains from the wheel, thereby
producing new grains. The different types of bond materials are as follows.
Vitrified bond
The majority of the wheels used in engineering are of vitrified bond. Vitrified bond consists of
clay and feldspar or other fluxes. Vitrified bond is suitable for high stock removal even at dry
condition because they can withstand high temperatures. Since they are baked at high
temperatures, they are not affected by the heat generated during the process. It can also be
safely used in wet grinding. It cannot be used where mechanical impact or thermal variations
are likely to occur. This bond is also not recommended for very high speed grinding because of
possible breakage of the bond under centrifugal force.
Silicate bond
This bond has silicate of soda as an important ingredient. It is used to a limited extent in
operations where the heat generated by grinding is to be kept to a minimum. It is less sensitive

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to shock and side loads than vitrified bond wheels. It is affected by dampness and alkaline
solutions.
Resin bond
Conventional abrasive resin bonded wheels are widely used for heavy duty grinding
because of their ability to withstand shock load. This bond is also known for its vibration
absorbing characteristics and finds its use with diamond and cubic boron nitride in grinding of
cemented carbide and steel respectively. Resin bond is not recommended with alkaline grinding
fluid for a possible chemical attack leading to bond weakening. Fiberglass reinforced resin bond
is used with cut off wheels which requires added strength under high speed operation.
Rubber bond
Rubber bond is made using natural or synthetic rubber in bonding material. Because of
its high strength and elasticity, it is used for cutting-off wheels grinding saws and regulating
wheels in center less grinding. It is used for obtaining finish on rolls. They generate more heat
on the job than vitrified bond wheels. If it is stored for a long time, the strength of the bond
decreases. They are affected by alkaline solutions and dampness.
Shellac bond
Shellac bond produces less temperature in grinding than vitrified bond wheels. This type
of bond is used to obtain fine finish on rolls, for cutlery grinding and for machining of stones,
ceramics, etc. They are easy to manufacture.
Metal bond
Metal bond is extensively used with super abrasive wheels. Extremely high toughness of
metal bonded wheels makes these very effective in those applications where form accuracy as
well as large stock removal is desired.

2.3.3 Selection of Grinding wheel

Selection of grinding wheel means selections of composition of the grinding wheel and
this depends upon the following factors:
1. Physical and chemical characteristics of the work material.
2. Grinding conditions
3. Type of grinding (stock removal grinding or form finish grinding)

2.4 Advantages over Grinding

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As a single-point contact method, HPT Surface generation can easily accomplish

complex contours without need for the costly form wheels that multi-point contact grinding
requires. Similarly, HPT permits machining of multiple operations with just one set-up. The result
is excellent positional accuracy, reduced part handling and less risk of part damage. The
environment also benefits from HPT as the technique eliminates grind waste and does not
require coolant. All in all, HPT reduces machine tool costs and gives better production control,
quicker throughput and higher quality. Add these plus points together and the cost-savings
brought about by switching to HPT are considered.

2.4.1 Coolant- optional in Hard Turning

Continuous cut HPT without cooling is the ideal situation, and is entirely feasible. Both
CBN and ceramic Inserts tolerate high cutting temperatures, which eliminate the cost and bother
of handling coolants, and allow easy and cost-effective chip removal. Some applications may
nevertheless require coolant, e.g. to control the thermal stability of the work-piece. In Such
cases ensure a continuous flow of coolant throughout the entire turning operation.

Figure 2.7 Optional in Hard turning

2.4.2 Cost estimation comparison

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Figure 2.8 Cost comparison

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