SECTION 5 Advanced Opamp Circuits

SECTION5:
ADVANCEDOPAMPCIRCUITS
MAE3055 MechetronicsII
Introduction
K.Webb
MoreOpampCircuits
3
Opampcircuitscanbebroadlygroupedintotwocategories:linear
circuitsandnonlinear circuits.
Inthefirstsectionofnotes,welookedatlinear opampcircuits
thoseemployingnegativefeedbacktoprovidelinearamplification
ofaninputsignal.
Inthissectionofnotes,wewilltakealookatacoupleofexamples
ofnonlinearopampcircuits thosethatemploypositivefeedback
(ornofeedback)toproduceoutputsthatswitchbetweenthe
positiveandnegativelimits.
Thefirstandmostimportantofthesearecomparators.
Wewillalsolookatafewothertypesofopampcircuits:
K.Webb
Activefilters
Instrumentationamplifiers
Comparators
K.Webb
OpenLoopOpampBehavior
5
Inthefirstsectionofnotes,welookedatopampamplifiercircuits
Closedloopconfiguration
Negativefeedback
Outputremainswithintheopamps linearoutputrange
Wellnowtakealookatwhathappenswhenyouuseanopamp
openloop withoutfeedback orwithpositivefeedback
Idealopamphasinfinitegain,soforanynonzerodifferentialinput
voltage,theoutputwanttobeV
CantgotoV limits,orsaturates,somewherenearthesupply
voltages
K.Webb
Saturationvoltageisnotatthesupplyvoltages,butforsimplicityinthisset
ofnotes,welltypicallyassumethattheopampoutputcanswingbetween
thepositiveandnegativesupplyvoltages
Opampswhoseoutputscanswingalltheway(almost)tothesuppliesare
calledrailtorail opamps
Gainissohigh(ideally,infinite)thatoutputwillalwaysbesaturated
highorlow
Comparators
6
Inanopenloopconfiguration,theoutputofanopampisdeterminedbytherelative
valueofthetwoinputs.
V+,V
Vid
Vo
V+ <V
< 0V
V+ >V
> 0V
+V
Thedifferentialopampinputisthedifferencebetweenthevoltageatthetwoinput
terminals:
V V V
id
If V V , then Vid 0V , and
Vo V
If V V , then Vid 0V , and
Vo V
Theopampcompares thetwoinputvoltagesandgeneratesanoutputbasedon
whichinputishigher itisactingasacomparator.
K.Webb
Comparators
7
Theoutputofacomparatorswitchesbetweentwostates theupperandlower
outputlimits dependingontherelativevaluesoftheinputvoltages:
ComparatorInputs
ComparatorOutputs
K.Webb
Comparators ExampleUses
8
Comparatorsareusedtocompare onevoltagewithanother.
Forexample,thermostat,usedtoturnaheatingsystemonandoff:
Invertinginputconnectedtoatemperaturesensor
Noninvertinginputconnectedtoavariablereferencevoltagedeterminedby
thetemperaturesetpoint
Outputishighwhentheroom
temperatureisbelowthe
setpoint temperature
Outputislowwhenroom
temperatureisabovethe
setpoint temperature
Anotherexampleoftheuseofacomparatorisamotionsensinglight:
Oneinputcomesfromamotionsensoroutput(analogvoltage)
Otherinputisathresholdvoltagesetbythesensitivitysetting
Wantlighttoturnonforpeople,cars,notinsects,birds
K.Webb
ComparatorsandNoise
9
Considerthefollowingcomparatorcircuit:
Invertinginput(V)isdrivenbya
noiseless,1KHzsinusoidalsignal
Noninvertinginput(V+),thethreshold
voltage,isconnectedtoground(0V)
Output,Vo,switchesasexpected
Wheninputishigherthanthe
thresholdvoltage(V >V+),outputis
low,Vo=12V,andviceversa
K.Webb
Zoomedinviewofasinglethreshold
crossing
Vo switchescleanlyatthepointwhere
theinputcrossesthreshold
ComparatorsandNoise
10
Samecircuitandsourceasbefore
Now,theinputsignaliscorruptedby
noise
Thisisamorerealisticscenario thereis
always noise
Inputtraceisvisiblyfatter noisier
Outputedgeslookfattertoo
Somethingishappeningattheoutput
transitions takeacloserlook
K.Webb
Zoomingin,noiseoninputisvisible
Noisyinputtransitionsbackandforth
acrossthethreshold
Vo switchesateachthresholdcrossing
Hysteresis SchmittTrigger
11
Thiscomparatorcircuitusesfeedbacktogenerate
hysteresis aphenomenainwhichthecharacteristics
ofasystemaredependentonitspreviousstates.
Lookclosely notanoninvertingamplifier
feedbackispositive
Thresholdvoltage,V+,isnolongerconstant
dependentontheoutputvoltage: V V R2
o
R1 R2
Theoutputcanassumeoneoftwostates,
+12Vor12V,sothethresholdvoltagewillbe:
V 12V
Vhyst
R2
2
R1 R2
Iftheinputislow,theoutputwillbehigh,andthethresholdvoltagewillbea
(relativelysmall,typically)positivevalue:V+ =+Vhyst/2
Astheinputrisesandtransitionsthroughthethresholdvoltage,+Vhyst/2,the
outputwillswitchto12V,andthethresholdvoltagewillmoveawayfromthe
risinginputsignal toVhyst/2.theoppositeoccursfornegativeinputtransitions.
Themagnitudeof+Vhyst/2willdeterminethecomparatorssensitivitytonoise.
K.Webb
ComparatorsandNoise Hysteresis
12
Nowweveaddedhysteresistodesensitizethe
comparatortothenoiseontheinputsignal
Acomparatorwithhysteresisiscalleda
Schmitttrigger
R1andR2selectedtoprovideadequate
hysteresisfortheamountofnoisepresent
Inputisstillnoisy
Outputedgesnowlookcleaner
ThresholdvoltageswitcheswithVo
K.Webb
Single,cleanoutputtransition
Thresholdvoltageswitchesbetween
Vhyst/2 movesawayfromnoisyinput
13
Hysteresisismeasuredas
thefullpeaktopeak
swingofthethreshold
voltage
Vhyst 400mV
Hysteresisistwicethe
magnitudeofthe
feedbacksignal:
Vhyst 2 Vomax
K.Webb
R2
R1 R2
14
K.Webb
Vhyst =400mV
Vin increasing
Vin decreasing
AnotherwaytoquantifyhysteresisistoperformabidirectionalDCsweepofthe
input lowtohigh,thenhightolow whilemonitoringtheoutput:
Outputtracesadifferent
path,dependentupon
directionofVin increasing
ordecreasing
Thresholdvoltagedepends
onhistoryofVin
Thresholdvoltagesindicated
byverticalportionsoftheVo
trace
Hysteresisgivenby
differencebetweentwo
thresholdlevels
ComparatorwithAdjustableHysteresis
15
Ifthelevelofnoiseattheinputtoacomparatorisnotknownaheadoftime,
amountofhysteresiscanbemadeadjustablebyincludingapotentiometer
(variableresistor)inthefeedbackpath.
Magnitudeofthefeedbacksignal portionoftheoutputthatisfedback isvaried
byvaryingtheresistanceofthepotentiometer
Vhyst 2 Vomax
R2
R1 R2
R2 isadjustablebetween0 and
somemaximumvalue,Rmax.
WhenR2 =0:
Vhyst 2 Vomax
0
0
R1 0
WhenR2 =Rmax:
Vhyst 2 Vomax
K.Webb
Rmax
R1 Rmax
SchmittTrigger Example
16
Considerthefollowingscenario:
Youhaveatestengineinstrumentedandrunningonadynamometerinthelab.
Youwanttogenerateasignalthatwillilluminateawarninglight(LED)ifthe
enginetemperatureexceedssomeupperlimit.
YouhaveanRTD(resistivetemperaturedetectororresistivethermaldevice)
installedtomeasurecoolanttemperature.
TheRTDisbiasedsuchthata0Voutputcorrespondstothethreshold
temperaturewewishtodetect.
NoiseontheRTDsignalisapproximately100mVpp
Anopampisavailableforuseasacomparator
Opampsuppliesare5V
Opampoutputssaturateat+VCC 500mVandVCC +500mV
Maximumopampoutputcurrentisonly10mA
Whenon,theLEDsinks9mA
K.Webb
17
DesignaSchmitttriggertosatisfythecriteriaonthepreviousslide.Theentirecircuit
isshownbelow.
WhentheRTDoutputexceeds0VtheSchmitttriggeroutputwillgolowand
theLEDwillbebiasedwith9mAandwillilluminate
NotethattheRTDitselfisjustaresistor;itsbiasnetworkisnotshown.
Currentflowingthroughthehysteresisfeedbacknetworkmustbelimitedto
1mA
K.Webb
18
DesignaSchmitttriggertosatisfythecriteriaonthepreviousslide.
Requiredhysteresisvalueisatleast thepeaktopeaknoisevalue.Wellset
hysteresistobe150mV:
Vhyst 2 Vomax
R2
150mV
R1 R2
Theoutputsaturatesat4.5V,so
R2
150mV
16.67 103 R2 16.95 103 R1

R1 R2 2 4.5V
Opampoutputcurrent,excludingLEDbiascurrent,willbe
Io
4.5
1mA R1 R2 4.5 K
R1 R2
Choosingastandardresistorvalueof5.1K forR1,wecanthencalculateR2:
R2 16.95 103 R1 16.95 103 5.1K 86.4
K.Webb
19
Choosingthenearest(larger,soasnottodecreasehysteresisvalue)standard
resistorvalueforR2 gives:
R1 5.1K ,
R2 91
Recalculatingtheexpectedhysteresis:
Vhyst 2 Vomax
R2
91
2 4.5V
157 mV
5.1K 91
R1 R2
Andcheckingthatthecurrentthroughthefeedbacknetworkdoesnotexceed1mA:
Io
Vomax
R1 R2
4.5V
867 A 1mA
5191
TheresultingSchmitttriggercircuit:
K.Webb
20
K.Webb
OpampRelaxationOscillator
Oscillators
21
Oscillatorsarecircuitsorcomponentsthatprovideanoutputvoltagethat
oscillatesatacertain(possiblyadjustable)frequency
Oscillatingoutputmaybesinusoidal orsomethingapproximating
sinusoidal oritmaybeasquarewave
Crystaloscillatorsareusedforhighperformanceapplications(e.g.clock
onthemotherboardinyourPC,oscillatorinmobilephonetransceiver,
etc.)
LowperformanceapplicationsmayuseoscillatorICs,suchasthe555
timerIC
Canalsobuildanoscillatorusinganopamp possiblyusefulinsome
circumstances mostlyjustaninterestingcircuitthatwillaidinyou
understandingofopamps,feedback,stepresponseofRCcircuits,andthe
basicprinciplesbehindthefunctioningofmanytypesofoscillators
K.Webb
22
Thefollowingcircuitiscalledarelaxationoscillator relaxation becauseits

oscillationisduetothecharginganddischargingofacapacitor.
Thisisafairlytrickycircuittoanalyze.Letsbeginbynotingafewimportant
propertiesandcharacteristicsofthecircuit:
ThereispositivefeedbackprovidedbyR1 andR2,so
wellassumetheoutputisalwayssaturatedatV
ThereisalsoanegativefeedbackpathfromVo toV
Thevoltageatthenoninvertinginputisafunctionof
theoutputvoltage.Itstheoutputvoltagescaledby
thegainofthefeedbacknetwork.
Thevoltageattheinvertinginputisthevoltageacross
acapacitor.Itwantstochargeuptothelevelofthe
outputvoltage
IfV <V+,thentheoutputwillbehigh,Vo =+V
IfV >V+,thentheoutputwillbelow,Vo =V
K.Webb
23
Toanalyzethebehaviorofthecircuit,letusbeginwiththeassumptionthatthe
outputwillswitchbackandforthbetweenV(itisanoscillator,afterall).Well
assumeanoutputstateandworkourwaythroughthedifferentcircuitnodes:
Assumethatatt=0theoutputhasjustswitchedfrom
low,V,tohigh,+V
WhenVo waslow,thevoltageatthenoninverting
R2
inputwas:
V
V V
R1 R2
ThetransitionmusthaveoccurredbecauseV
transitionedfrombeinghigherthantolowerthanV+.
So,attheswitchinginstant:
V V
AssoonasVo switchesfromlowtohigh,thecapacitor
voltage,V,beginstochargetoward +V,and:
V V
K.Webb
24
AstheoutputswitchesbackandforthbetweenV,twothingshappen
Thenoninvertinginput,V+,switchesbetweenV
Thecapacitorvoltageattheinvertinginputchargesanddischargesbetween
VataratedeterminedbytheRCtimeconstantofthenegativefeedback
network
OutputswitchingoccurseachtimeV reachesV
EachtimeVoswitches,V ischarging/dischargingtowardV
K.Webb
OpampOscillator fosc
25
Bynowitshouldbeclearthatthefrequencyofoscillationwillberelatedtotherate
atwhichthecapacitorchargesanddischargesbetweentheswitchingpointsatV.
Wewillnowcalculatethefrequencyofoscillationtofindthatitisafunctionofboth
theRCtimeconstantofthenegativefeedbacknetworkandthegainofthepositive
feedbacknetwork,.
Againassumethatatt=0,Vo switchesfromVto+V.
RecallthatthestepresponseofafirstorderRCcircuit
t
isgivenby:
RC
V
t VF VI VF e
Att=0,V= V,andV thenbeginschargingtoward

+V,so:
V V , V V
I
Thechargingofthecapacitorfort>0isthengivenby:
V t V V V e
K.Webb
t
RC
V V 1 e
t
RC
26
T/2
Thecapacitorvoltageneverreachesitsdestinationof+V,becauseonceitreaches
+Vtheoutputswitchesagain,andthecapacitorbeginsdischarging
Thecapacitorvoltagereaches+Vatt=T/2,whereTistheperiodofoscillation.So,
T
V V V V 1 e 2 RC
2
T
K.Webb
27
T/2
Solvingfortheperiodofoscillation,T:
1
1 2 TRC
e
ln
1
1
1
T
T
2
RC
ln
2 RC
Thefrequencyofoscillation,fosc,is:
f osc
K.Webb
1
2 RC ln
1
28
K.Webb
OpampIntegratorsand
Differentiators
IntegratorsandDifferentiators
29
Opampscanbeusedtobuildcircuitsthatperform
manydifferentmathematicaloperations hence
thenameoperationalamplifiers
Wevealreadyseenopampscanbeusedtoadd
andsubtractelectricalsignals
Theycanalsobeusedtoperformintegration and
differentiationofelectricalsignals
Especiallyimportantwhenbuildingfeedbackcontrol
systems theverycommonproportionalintegral
derivative(PID)controllercanbeimplementedwitha
simpleopampcircuit
K.Webb
OpampIntegrator
30
Analyzetheopampintegrator:
Thereisnegativefeedbackaroundthe
opamp,sowecanassumethattheinput
terminalvoltagesareequal:
V V 0V
Thecurrentthroughtheresistoris:
v (t )
i (t ) i
R
Theopamphasinfiniteinputimpedance,sonocurrentflowsintotheinverting
terminal,andallofthecurrentthroughtheresistorflowsontothecapacitor.
Theoutputvoltage,Vo,isthevoltageacrossthecapacitor:
vo (t )
1 t
1 t vi ( )
1 t
i
(
)
d
d
vi ( ) d
C 0
C 0 R
RC 0
Theoutputisthe(invertedandscaled)
integral oftheinput:
K.Webb
1 t
vo (t )
vi ( ) d
RC 0
OpampIntegrator
31
Wehavejustanalyzedtheopampintegratorcircuitin
thetimedomain.Itisalsopossibletoanalyzethe
circuitinthefrequencydomain:
Thiscircuitlooksalotlikethesimpleinverting
opampwelookedatinaprevioussectionofnotes.
Itcanbetreatedassuch: vo
Z2
vi
Z1
NowinsteadofbothZ1 andZ2 beingresistive,Z2 iscapacitive:

Z1 R , Z 2
1
jC
Thefrequencyresponsefunctionofthecircuitis:
1
Z
j
1
jC
H 2
90
Z1
R
RC RC
Acoupleofthingstonotice:1) thephaseisalways90,and2) gaindecreaseswith

frequency andisinfiniteatDC! Mightthisposeaproblem?
K.Webb
OpampIntegrator Example
32
Theintegratorcircuittotherighthasthefollowing
freq.responsefunction:
j
10 103
H
RC
90
anditsBodeplotis:
20dB/dec
K.Webb
Thegainoftheintegratorcircuit
decreaseswithincreasing
frequency.
GainisinfiniteatDC capacitor
lookslikeanopencircuit(infinite
impedance)atDC.
Phaseisalways90.Thinkof
integratingacosine resultisa
sine:a90 phaseshift,plusthe
inversiongives+90.
33
NowthatweveseentheBodeplotfortheintegrator,
letstakealookatitstimedomainresponsefora
coupleofdifferentinputsignals.First,a1KHzsinusoid:
t
1 t
3
v
dt
10
10
i
0 cos 2 1KHz t dt
RC 0
10 103
vo
sin 2 1KHz t 1.59sin 2 1KHz t
2 1KHz
vo
K.Webb
34
Next,letstakealookattheintegratorsresponsetoa
DC(f=0Hz)input.Wellassumethattheinputis
switchedonatt=0,sothisisreallythecircuitsstep
response.
fort0: vi (t ) 1V u (t ) and
i (t )
vi (t )
1V
1mA
R
1K
Aconstantcurrentflowsontothecapacitor,andtheoutputisthe(negativeofthe)
I t
1mA
voltageacrossthecapacitor:
vo (t ) vc (t )
t 10 103 t
C
0.1 F
Theoutputincreaseslinearlywithtime! Thisintegratorcircuitwillquicklysaturateif
aDCvoltageisappliedtotheinput.Thisiswhatwewouldexpectfromacircuitwith
infinitegainatDC.Thismaybeaproblem:
SaywewantacircuitthatbehavesasanintegratorforsignalsintheKHzregion
Ifthesignalshaveany DCoffset(oriftheopampisnotideal,andhasanonzero
offsetvoltage morelater)theoutputwillsaturate.
Fortunately,thereisasolution
K.Webb
ABetterOpampIntegrator
35
Mainproblemwiththeidealintegratorcircuitisthe
veryhigh(infinite)DCgain
ThecircuitisessentiallyoperatingopenloopforDC
thereisnoDCfeedback
Addaresistorinparallelwiththeintegratingcapacitor
DCgainislimitedtoRf/R
Stillbehavesasanintegratorathigherfrequencies
Treatthecircuitasasimpleinvertingamplifiertodeterminethefrequencyresponse:
Rf
H
Z2
Z1
where
Z1 R
and
Thefreq.responsefunctionis:
H
K.Webb
Z2
Rf
jC
1
j R f C 1
Rf
jC
Rf
1
R j R f C 1
ABetterOpampIntegrator
36
Amplifier
fc=159Hz
K.Webb
Integrator
AtDC(=0),thecapacitoris
anopencircuit,andthegain
issetbythetworesistors
As,thegain0
At=1/(RfC),thegainis3dB
Thisisalowpassfilter!
Aninvertingamplifierfor
frequenciesbelowfc.
Anintegratorforfrequencies
wellabovefc.
OpampDifferentiator
37
Analyzetheopampdifferentiator:
Thereisnegativefeedbackaroundthe
opamp,sowecanassumethattheinput
terminalvoltagesareequal:
V V 0V
Thecurrentthroughthecapacitoris:
dv
i (t ) C i
dt
Nocurrentflowsintotheinvertingterminal,andallofthecurrentthroughthe
capacitorflowsthroughthefeedbackresistor.
Theoutputvoltage,Vo,isthevoltageacrossthefeedbackresistor:
vo (t ) i (t ) R RC
dvi
dt
Theoutputisthe(invertedandscaled)
derivativeoftheinput:
K.Webb
dvi
vo (t ) RC
dt
OpampDifferentiator
38
Wehavejustanalyzedtheopampdifferentiator
circuitinthetimedomain.Itisalsopossibleto
analyzethecircuitinthefrequencydomain:
Again,treatitasasimpleinvertingamplifier:
vo
Z
2
vi
Z1
NowinsteadofbothZ1 andZ2 beingresistive,Z1 iscapacitive:

Z1
1
, Z2 R
jC
Thefrequencyresponsefunctionofthecircuitis:
H
Z2
R
j RC RC 90
1
Z1
jC
Acoupleofthingstonotice:1) thephaseisalways90,and2) gainincreaseswith

frequency andiszeroatDC finitegainforfinitefrequencies good.
K.Webb
OpampDifferentiator Example
39
Theintegratorcircuittotherighthasthefollowing
freq.resp.function:
H j RC 100 106 90
anditsBodeplotis:
+20dB/dec
K.Webb
Thegainofthedifferentiator
circuitincreaseswithincreasing
frequency.
GainiszeroatDC capacitor
lookslikeanopencircuit(infinite
impedance)atDC.
Phaseisalways90.Thinkof
differentiatingasine resultisa
cosine:a+90 phaseshift,plus
theinversiongives90.
OpampDifferentiator Example
40
NowthatweveseentheBodeplotforthe
differentiator,letstakealookatitstimedomain
responsetoa1KHzsinusoidalinputsignal:
dvi
6 d
cos 2 1KHz t
100 10
vo RC
dt
dt
vo 100 106 2 1KHz sin 2 1KHz t 0.628cos 2 1KHz t 90
K.Webb
41
K.Webb
OpampActiveFilters
ActiveFilters
42
Inaprevioussectionofnoteswelookedatfirst and
secondorderpassivefiltersofdifferentvarieties
Passive,becausetheycontainedonlypassivecomponents
resistors,capacitors,andinductors
Itisalsopossibletoconstructfiltersusingopamp
circuits wecalltheseactivefilters
Activefiltershaveseveraladvantagesoverpassive
filters:
CanbuildhighQfilterswithoutinductors
Lowoutputimpedance
Easilyadjustable fc,Q
Filtercanprovidepositive(>0dB)gain
K.Webb
FirstOrderLowPassFilter
43
Wevealreadyseenthatafirstorderlowpassresponse
canbeobtainedbyaddingafeedbackresistortoan
opampintegratorcircuit:
Rf
1
R j R f C 1
Thecornerfrequencyis:
1
fc
2 R f C
Magnituderesponsetothe
rightisforRf =R.Response
wouldshiftupordownby
Rf
20 log
R
K.Webb
FirstOrderHighPassFilter
44
Justastheintegratorwastransformedintoalow
passfilterwiththeadditionofasingleresistor,a
differentiatorcircuitcanbesimilarlytransformed
toahighpassfilter.
Onceagainwelldeterminethiscircuitsfrequency
responsebytreatingitasaninvertingamplifier:
Z2
where
Z1
Thefreq.responseis:
H
Z1 R1
H
withcorner(3dB)frequency:
fc
K.Webb
1
2 R1C
1
jC
and
Z 2 R2
j R2C
j R1C 1
andpassbandgain:
H c
R2
R1
HigherOrderActiveFilters
45
Higherorderactivefilterscanbeconstructedina
coupleofdifferentways:
Cancreatehigherorderbandpass/stopfilters
similarly:
Cascadingfirstorderactivefilters
Usingsecondorderactivefilterstages(nexttopic)
Cascadingsecond andfirstorderstages
Cascadefirstorderhigh/lowpassfilters
Useand/orcascadesecondorderbandpass/stopstages
Therearemanydifferentsecondorderactivefilter
topologies.Welllookatoneofthemorepopular
ones:theSallenKeytopology.
K.Webb
SallenKeyFilter GeneralizedForm
46
TheSallenKeyfiltertopologycanbeusedto
constructlowpassandhighpassfilters,aswell
bandpass,andnotchfilterswithslight
modificationstothetopology(additionofafew
morecomponents).
Wellfirsttakealookatthefilterinitsmost
generalizedform,thenconsiderthespecificlow
passandhighpassfilterforms.
Typeoffilterdependsonthelocationof
components resistorsandcapacitors.
K.Webb
SallenKeyFilter GeneralizedForm
47
Toderivethefrequencyresponse
functionforthiscircuit,performanodal
analysis,applyingKCLatnodesvf andV+,
andapplythefactthatavirtualshort
existsbetweenV+ andV.
Afterseveralpagesofreallyuglyalgebra,
theresultingfrequencyresponseis:
1
H
ZZ
Z
Z
Z
1 2 2 1 1 1
Z3 Z 4
Z4
Z4
Z3
where
Rf 1
Rf 1 Rf 2
isthegainofthenegativefeedbacknetwork.
K.Webb
SallenKeyLowPassFilter
48
ForalowpassfilterZ1 andZ2 areresistors,

andZ3 andZ4 arecapacitors.
Thegeneralizedfrequencyresponsefunction
thenbecomesalowpassfrequencyresponse:
H
1
R1 R2 jC1 jC2 R2 jC2 R1 jC2 1 R1 jC1
Puttingthisintostandardform
H
K.Webb
R1 R2C1C2
1
1 j 1
1
2
j
R
C
R
C
R
C
R1 R2C1C2
2 1
2 2
1 1
SallenKeyLowPassFilter
49
Thefrequencyresponseofanysecondorderlowpasssystemcanbewrittenina
K 02
generalizedformas:
H
0
Q
j 02
whereKistheDCgain ofthesystem.ComparingtheSallenKeyfrequencyresponse
tothegeneralfrequencyresponseprovidessomeinsightintothebehaviorofthis
activefiltercircuit.Afewthingstonote:
Theresonantfrequencyis:
Thequalityfactoris:
1
R1 R2C1C2
R1 R2C1C2
1
R2C2 R1C1
R1C1

TheDCgain is1/.Thiscanbeseenbyreplacingthefiltercapacitorswiththeir
DCequivalents(opencircuits) filterbecomesasimplenoninvertingamplifier.
K.Webb
SallenKeyLowPass Simplified
50
Thebandwidth(determinedbyo andQ)andtheQofthefiltercanbothbesetto
thedesiredvaluebyproperlyselectingcomponentvalues.Thereare,however,more
degreesoffreedomthanweneed,andthefrequencyresponsefunctionisabit
morecomplicatedthanwedlike.
Thecircuitanditsfrequencyresponsecanbesimplifiedbysettingthecomponent
valuesequal.Thecircuitanditsfrequencyresponsethenbecome: 1
H
RC
3 1
1
j
2
RC
RC
where
1
o
RC
and
1
3
Now,o andQaresimplyandindependentlydeterminedbyfourcomponentvalues.
K.Webb
SallenKeyLowPass Simplified
51
Thesimplifiedfiltersfrequencyresponsehasbeengivenintermsofthegainofthe
negativefeedbacknetwork,.ItcanalsobeexpressedintermsofthefiltersDC
gain,K,asisdoneinthetext,byrecognizingthat,foranidealopampK=1/.
K
H
RC
j
1
3 K
j
2
RC
RC
where
1
RC
and
1
3 K
Lookingatthingsthiswaybringsupanimportantpoint:theDCgainofthefilteris
dependentonthefiltersQvalue,andviceversa.IfaDCgaindifferentthanthat
givenbythedesiredQvalueisrequired,anadditionalgainstagemaybenecessary.
K.Webb
SallenKeyLowPass BodePlot
52
NotethatthefiltersDC
gainandQvalueare
dependentonone
another.
QvalueandDCgainare
bothsetbytheratioof
resistorsinthenegative
feedbacknetwork.
Qvalue(andDCgain)is
independentofo.
o issetbytheresistor
andcapacitorvalues.
Gainrollsoffat
40dB/dec
K.Webb
SallenKeyHighPassFilter
53
ASallenKeyhighpassfilterlooksverymuch
likethelowpassversion,butwiththe
positionoftheresistorsandcapacitors
swapped.
Againmakingthesimplificationthatthe
resistorandcapacitorvaluesareequal:
K j
H
3 K
1
2
2
RC
RC
2
where
K.Webb
1
RC
and
1
3 K
ThenaturalfrequencyandQvalueare
thesameasinthelowpasscase.
Notethatnow,aswedexpectfroma
highpassfilter,gaingoesto0atDC.
Kisstillthepassbandgain,butnowit
it thethe highfrequency(asopposed
toDC)gain.
SallenKeyHighPass BodePlot
54
NotethatthefiltersHF
gainandQvalueare
dependentonone
another.
QvalueandHFgainare
bothsetbytheratioof
resistorsinthenegative
feedbacknetwork.
Qvalue(andHFgain)is
independentofo.
o issetbytheresistor
andcapacitorvalues.
Gainrollsoffat
40dB/dec
K.Webb
SallenKeyFilter Stability
55
TheSallenKeyfilterisafeedbacksystem,andaswithallfeedbacksystems,
stability isaconcern.
Ithastwofeedbackpaths:apositivefeedback pathandanegativefeedbackpath
Negativefeedbackgenerallyhasa
stabilizing effect.
Positivefeedbackpath
Positivefeedback isdestabilizing.
Negativefeedbackpathgaindetermines
ratioofnegativetopositivefeedback.
As,negativefeedback,K,and
positivefeedback.
ThereisanupperlimitonK:whenK=3,Q=.Thisisthe
borderbetweenstability(netnegativefeedback)and
instability(netpositivefeedback).
Forstability:K3.
K.Webb
Negative
feedback
path
FilterFamilies
56
Higherorderfiltersofalltypes(i.e.LP,HP,BP,BR)canbedesignedtohave
frequencyresponsefunctionsthatfitintooneofseveralfamiliesof
filters.Forexample
Butterworth(introducedinthetext)
Chebyshev
Elliptic
Bessel
Eachfilterfamilyisdefinedbythenatureofthepolynomialinthe
denominatorofitsfrequencyresponse(itscharacteristicequation).
Equivalently,eachfilterisdefinedbytherelativelocationsinthecomplex
planeoftherootsofthedenominatorpolynomial(rootsofthe
characteristicequation systempoles)
K.Webb
Forexample,Butterworthpoleslieevenlyspacedonacircleinthelefthalfofthe
complexplane.
FilterFamilies FrequencyResponse
57
Eachfilterfamilyhas
advantagesanddisadvantages.
Butterworth:
Maximallyflatpassband
Slowrolloff
Chebyshev:
Steeperrolloff
Passbandripple
Elliptic:
Verysteeprolloff
Passbandripple
Stopbandripple
Aswithallengineeringdesign,
filterdesignisaboutmaking
tradeoffs.
K.Webb
FilterFamilies SystemPoles
58
Polelocationstellalotabout
thebehaviorofasystem.
Youlllearnmuchmoreabout
thisinfuturecourses.
Butterworth:
Polesareevenlyspaced
alongasemicircleinthe
lefthalfplane
Chebyshev:
Poleslieonasemiellipse
inthelefthalfplane
Rememberthesepoles arethe
rootsofthetransferfunctions
denominatorpolynomial(the
characteristicequation)
K.Webb
SallenKeyFilter Example
59
DesignaButterworth(maximallyflat)lowpass
activefiltertosatisfythefollowingspecifications:
Cornerfrequency:fc
=1MHz
Frequencyresponserolloff beyondfc:80dB/dec
Passband(DC)gain:12dB(4)
Rolloffspecof80dB/dec tellsusweneedafourth
orderfilter cascadetwoSallenKeystages
Addaconstantgainstageifnecessarytomeetgain
specification
K.Webb
60
ChooseRandCtogivethedesiredfc.
ArbitrarilychooseC=1nF:
fc
R
K.Webb
1
1
1MHz
2 RC 2 R 1nF
1
1
159
2 f c C 2 1MHz 1nF
Assuming1%resistors,choosethe
standardvalueresistorof158.
AllfourresistorslabeledR,andfour
capacitorslabeledC,willhavethesame
values:
C 1nF , R 158
61
Todeterminethegainrequiredforeach
stagetogiveaButterworthresponse,
consultTable14.1inthetext:
K1 1.152, K 2 2.235
Thesegainvalueswillbeachievedby
settingtheratiooffeedbackresistors.
K.Webb
ArbitrarilysetRf1 =5.11K.
R f 2 R f 1 K1 1 5.11K 0.152 777
R f 3 R f 1 K 2 1 5.11K 1.235 6.3K
Choosingstandard1%resistorvalues:
R f 1 787, R f 2 6.34 K
62
Thefinalcomponentvaluetodetermine
isRf4,whichischosentosatisfythe
overallgainspecification:
K1 K 2 K 3 1.152 2.235 K 3 4
Rf 1 Rf 4
4
K3
1.554
2.575
Rf 1
K.Webb
R f 4 R f 1 K 3 1 5.11K 0.554 2.83K
Choosingthecloseststandardvalued
1%resistor:
R f 4 2.8 K
63
Thecomplete4thorderSallenKeyButterworthlowpassfilter:
K.Webb
64
DCgainis12dB
fc =1MHz
Gainrolloffabovefc is
80dB/dec
Firststageisoverdamped
Secondstageisunderdamped
peaked
Thirdstageisconstantgain
Overallresponseistheproduct
oftheindividualresponseson
alinearscale
Overallresponseisthesum of
theindividualresponsesona
dB(log)scale
K.Webb
65
K.Webb
InstrumentationAmplifiers
SingleEndedMeasurement
66
Considerthefollowingscenario:
Yourerunninganexperimentinthelab,inwhichyou
aremeasuringthepressureinsideatube
Youareamplifyingthepressuresensoroutputbefore
measuringitwiththedataacq.System
Thesensorhasasignaloutputandagroundoutput
Thesensorisalongdistancefromthemeasurement
systemandisconnectedwithasinglelongwire
Thesensorisgroundedlocally
Alotofnoise(frompowerline,pumps,motors,lights,
etc.)couplesontothesignalwire,corruptingthe
measurement
K.Webb
SingleEndedMeasurement
67
Thissituationiswhatwecallasingleendedmeasurement:
Amplifierismeasuringandamplifyingthesinglevoltagesignalfromthesensor
referencedtotheamplifiersground.
Sensoroutputisreallydifferential voltagedifferencebetweensignalandground
terminals
Amplifierinputisreally
differentialalso voltage
differencebetweennon
invertingterminalandground
Twoproblems:
1) Groundsmaynotbeat
thesamepotential
2) Anynoisepickedupby
thesignalwiregets
Sensorgroundandamplifiergroundmaynot
amplifiedalongwiththe
beatthesamepotential(DCorAC)
signal
K.Webb
DifferentialMeasurement
68
Singleendedmeasurement:
Sensorandamplifier/measurementsystemaregrounded
separately
Single,longsignalwirerunstotheamplifier,pickingup
noise
Differentialmeasurement:
Sensorsignalandgroundterminalsbothwiredtoamplifier
input
Voltagedifferentialbetweensensoroutputterminalsis
amplified
Solvestwoproblems:
1) Bothwirespickupthesamenoise commonmodenoise
2) Groundpotentialdifferencesnolongeramplifiedwithsignal
K.Webb
Howdowedothis? Differentialamplifier
OpampDifferentialAmplifier
69
Thisopampdifferentialamplifierhastwoinputs.Wecanapplysuperpositionto
determinetheoutput.Lookslikeavoltagedivider
andanoninvertingamplifiertoinputv1:
vo v v1
1
R2
R R2
R
1
v1 2
R1 R2
R1
R1
Lookslikeaninvertingamplifiertov2:
vo v
2
R2
v2
R1
Theamplifieroutputis:
vo vo v vo v
1
R2
v1 v2
R1
Theoutputvoltageisthe(scaled)differencebetweenthetwoinputvoltages.
K.Webb
DifferentialandCommonModeInputs
70
Inputsignalstothedifferentialamplifier,v1 andv2,canbeexpressedintermsoftheir
differential andcommonmodecomponents.
Differentialcomponent isthedifference
betweenthetwoinputsignals:
vid v1 v2
Commonmodecomponent istheaverage
ofthetwoinputsignals:
vicm
v1 v2
Thinkofthecommonmodesignalasany
signalthatappearsequallyatbothinputs.
K.Webb
DifferentialandCommonModeGains
71
Foreachofthetwoinputcomponents differentialandcommonmode an
amplifierwill,ingeneral,havedifferentgainvalues.Thatis,itwillamplifydifferential
signalsandcommonmodesignalsbydifferentamounts.
Differentialgain:
Gainoftheamplifierwhendriven
byapurelydifferentialinputsignal.
vo
Ad
vid
Commonmodegain:
Gainoftheamplifierwhendriven
byacommonmodeinputsignal.
vo
Acm
vicm
K.Webb
CommonModeRejectionRatio
72
Theoutputoftheamplifieristhesumoftheinputcomponents,eachamplifiedby
theirrespectivegain:
vo vid Ad vicm Acm
Theratioofthedifferentialgaintothecommonmodegain(typicallyexpressedin
dB)iscalledthecommonmoderejectionratio(CMRR):
CMRR
Ad
Acm
or
Ad
CMRR 20 log
A
cm
Ideally,adifferentialamplifierwouldamplifyonlydifferentialinputsignals,andthe
commonmodegainwouldbezero.Inthatcase:
vo vid Ad
K.Webb
and
CMRR
OpampDifferentialAmplifier Ad &Acm
73
Fortheopampdifferentialamplifier,aslongastheratiooffeedbackresistorsis
equaltotheratioofvoltagedividerresistors(as
wevedefinedthemtobe)thenthecommonmode
gainoftheamplifieris: A 0
cm
Thedifferentialgainis:
R2
R1
Ad
Thecommonmoderejectionratiois:
CMRR
Inreality,anymismatchbetweenresistorratioswillresultinnonzerocommon
modegainandfiniteCMRR.
Anothersourceofnonzerocommonmodegainwouldbenonzero,and
mismatchedsourceimpedances.
Ifsourceresistancesaremismatchedbutarebothknownandstable(oftennotthe
case)thenwecouldcompensate forthembyadjustingtheamplifierresistors.
K.Webb
Acm MismatchedSourceResistances
74
Herethedifferentialamplifierisdrivenbytwosourceswithmismatchedsource
resistances,Rs1 andRs2 where
Rs1 Rs 2 R
Reanalyzethecircuit,makingthefollowing
substitutions:
R1' Rs 2 R1
R1' R Rs1 R1
and
Theoutputduetov1 is:
vo v
R2
R1' R2
R2
R1' R2
v1 '
v1 ' '
R1 R R2
R1'
R1 R1 R R2
Theoutputduetov2 is:
vo v
2
K.Webb
R2
v2
R1'
Acm MismatchedSourceResistances
75
Theoveralloutputis:
vo vo v vo v
1
R2
R1' R2
R
v1 ' '
v2 2'
R1 R1 R R2
R1
R2
R1' R2
v2
vo ' v1 '
R1 R1 R R2
wherenow,thev1 inputisscaledbyanadditionalterm
containingR.
Foracommonmodeinput,bothinputsignalsarethesame:
v1 v2 vicm
Theoutputduetoacommonmodeinputsignalis:
vo vicm
R
R2 R1' R2
R2
v
1
icm ' '
R1' R1' R2 R
R1 R1 R2 R
Thecommonmodegainis
nolongerzero:
K.Webb
Acm
R2
R
R
A
d
R1' R1' R2 R
R1' R2 R
CMRR MismatchedResistances
76
Whetherduetomismatchedsourceresistances,orto
mismatchedresistorsinthediff.ampitself,theresult
ofresistormismatchisareductioninCMRR.
Assumeresistancematchingto (e.g.for5%
matching,=0.05).
Notetherenumberingofresistorstoreflecttheir
individualvariation.
Theworstcasecommonmodegain and,therefore,theworstcaseCMRRofthe
circuitoccurswhen:
1
TheactualvaluesoftheworstcasecommonmodegainandCMRRdependonthe
relativenominalvaluesofallresistors.Wewillconsiderasimplifiedcasewhereall
resistorsarenominallyequalshortly.
K.Webb
OpampDifferentialAmplifier Problems
77
Theopampdifferentialamplifiercanideally
providehighdifferentialgain,lowcommonmode
gainandveryhighCMRR,butithasafew
drawbacks:
HighCMRRisheavilydependentoncloseresistor
matching
GainandCMRRaredependentonsourceresistances.
CMRRonsourceresistancematching,gainonabsolute
values
Thereisabetteralternative:theinstrumentation
amplifier
K.Webb
Instrumentationamplifier
78
Thefollowingcircuitisaclassicthreeopampinstrumentationamplifier.
Stage1
Stage2
Bestunderstoodandanalyzed
bytreatingitastwoseparate
stages.
Firststagehashigh
impedanceinputs,highAd,
whichisindependentof
sourceimpedance,andlow
Acm,whichreliesonlyonthe
matchingoftheR2 resistors.
Secondstageisdiff.amp
wevealreadylookedat.
HighCMRRoffirststage
relaxesmatching
requirementsofsecondstage.
K.Webb
Instrumentationamplifier Stage1
79
Wevealreadyanalyzedstage2.Letstakealookatstage1.Wellconsidertwo
separatecases:first,apurelydifferentialinputand,second,apurelycommonmode
input
Foradifferentialinput,v1andv2moveoutof
v
phasewithoneanother:
v1 id v2
2
Thereisnegativefeedbackaroundbothopamps,so
wecanassumethatthevoltageateachoftheir
inputterminalsareequal:
V1 V1 v1 v2
and
V2 V2 v2 v1
Duetosymmetry,thenodelabeledvx,betweenthe
twoR1 resistors,mustbesittingatground:
vx 0V
Wecanassumethatnodevx isgrounded,andtreat
eachamplifierasaseparatenoninvertingamplifier.
K.Webb
80
Theoutputofstage1foradifferentialinputisthedifferencebetweentheoutputsof
twononinvertingamplifiers:
R R2
R R2 R1 R2
vo1d v1 1
v2 1
v1 v2
R1
R1
R1
vo1d
R1 R2 vid vid
R1 R2
v
id
R1 2
R1
2
vo1d vid
R1 R2
R1
A1d
vo1d R1 R2
vid
R1
Thedifferentialgainisequaltothegainofeachof
thenoninvertingamplifiers,consideredseparately.
Thevalueofthedifferentialgaincaneasilybemade
verylargewithreasonableresistorvalues.
Theoutputduetoadifferentialinputispurely
differentialaswell.
K.Webb
81
Nowletsconsidertheresponseofstage1toapurelycommonmodeinput:
Foracommonmodeinput,v1andv2areequal:
v1 v2 vicm
Again,thereisavirtualshortattheopampinputs,
butnow:
V1 V1 v1 v2
V2 V2 v2 v1
and
NowthevoltageoneithersideofthepairofR1
resistorsisthesame.
Thereisnovoltagedropacrosstheseresistors,so
nocurrentflows.
IfnocurrentflowsthroughtheR1resistors,wecan
removethemfromthecircuitforthepurposeofthis
analysis.
K.Webb
82
WiththeR1resistorsremoved,nocurrentflowsthroughtheR2resistors,because
nocurrentcanflowintotheopampinputterminals.
Eachopampcannowbetreatedasaseparateunity
gainbuffer.
Thecommonmodeoutputofstage1inresponseto
acommonmodeinputisthevoltageattheoutput
oftheunitygainbuffers:
vo1cm vicm
A1cm
vo1cm
1
vicm
Thecommonmodegainofthefirststageisunity,
whichcanbemuchsmallerthanthedifferentialgain.
CMRRforstage1is:
K.Webb
CMRR1
A1d
R R2
A1d 1
A1cm
R1
CMRR MismatchedResistances
83
TheCMRRofthesecondstageisnominallyinfinite,
howeverresistormismatcheswillresultinnonzero
commonmodegainand,therefore,finiteCMRR.
Assumeresistancematchingto (e.g.for5%
matching,=0.05).
TheworstcaseCMRRofthecircuitisoccursforthe
resistorvaluesshown.Itis:
Thisisanimportantresult:itprovidesalinkbetweenaCMRRrequirementand
resistortolerancesforathreeopampinstrumentationamplifier.
K.Webb
InstrumentationAmplifier
84
TheoverallCMRRoftheInAmp istheproduct of
theCMRRofeachstage(sum,ifindB).
ThehighCMRRofthefirststagesignificantlyeases
thematchingrequirementsofthesecondstageto
achievesimilar(ormuchhigher)overallCMRR.
AdvantagesofInAmp overdifferentialamplifier:
Highimpedanceinputs:sourceresistancesdonot
affectgainorCMRR.
Resistormatchingislesscritical becausethereare
twocascadedhighCMRRstages
K.Webb
InstrumentationAmplifier Example
85
DesignanInAmp forthefollowingapplication:
MeasuringstrainwithaWheatstonebridgecircuit
Strainsignalis100mVdifferentialatmax/minstrain
Wanttoamplifybridgeoutputtousefull5Vdynamic
rangeofdataacq.system.
Commonmodenoiseonthebridgeoutputsignalis
200mVpp.Thatsthefulldynamicrangeofthestraingauge!
Assumeresistorsinstage1arematched.
Assume1%matchingofresistorsinstage2.
WhatisworstcaseCMRR?
HowmuchnoiseisthereattheoutputoftheInAmp?
K.Webb
86
DifferentialgainoftheInAmp shouldbe:
Ad
5V
50
100mV
ArbitrarilysetR2=10K.ChooseresistorR1 togivetherequiredgain:
Ad
R1 R2
R2
10 K
R1
204 R1 205
R1
Ad 1 50 1
CMRRofthefirststageisthedifferentialgainofthatstage:
CMRR1 Ad 50
1
2
WorstcaseCMRRofthesecondstageis:
50
WorstcaseCMRRoftheoverallInAmp is:
CMRR wc CMRR1 wc CMRR2 wc 50 50 2500
CMRR wc 2500
68dB
Arbitrarilysetallresistorsinstage2tobeR=10K.
K.Webb
87
Theresultingcircuitis:
Determinetheamountof
noisepresentonthe
outputsignal:
Commonmodegainof
theInAmp underworst
casemismatch
conditionsis: A A A 1 A
cm wc
cm1
cm 2 wc
cm 2 wc
Thecommonmodegainofstage2underworstcasematchingconditionsis:
2
1
Thenoiseattheoutputis:
K.Webb
19.8
10
vocm wc vicm Acm 2 wc 200mVpp 19.8 103 4mVpp

88
Attheinputthefullscale
signalis200mVpp.
Noiseattheinputis
200mVpp.
Inputsignaltonoiseratio
(SNR) is:
200mV pp
SNRi
1 0dB
200mV pp
Attheoutputthefullscalesignalis10Vpp,whilethenoisehasbeenreducedtoonly
4mVpp,resultinginanoutputSNRof:
10V pp
SNRo
2500 68dB
4mV pp
Theimprovement inSNRisequaltotheCMRR.
Thisisabigdeal theInAmp hasallowedustoaccuratelymeasureadifferential
signalthatwascompletelyburiedincommonmodenoise.
K.Webb
89
K.Webb
DCOpampNonIdealities
RealOpamps
90
Recallthecharacteristicsofanidealopamp:
1) Infiniteinputimpedance zeroinputcurrent
2) Infinitedifferentialmodegain
3) Zerocommonmodegain
4) Zerooutputimpedance
5) Infinitebandwidth
6) Virtualshortatinputterminals(w/negativefeedback)(not
partoftheoriginallist followsfrom#2)
Inpractice,realopamps arenonideal.
Thetextcoversthreecategoriesofopampnonidealities.
Welltakeabrieflookatafewnonidealitiesthatfallintojustone
ofthesecategories:DCoffsets.
K.Webb
OpampDCOffsets
91
TherearethreeprimaryDCimperfections
associatedwithrealopamps:
Biascurrent:DCcurrentsthatflowintotheopamp
inputs
Offsetcurrent:thedifferencebetweenbiascurrents
atthenoninvertingandinvertinginputs
Offsetvoltage:differenceininputterminalvoltagesin
thepresenceofnegativefeedback.Or,theequivalent
DCsourcethat,whenconnectedinserieswithoneof
theinputs,wouldexplainanonzerooutputvoltage
forzeroinputvoltage.
K.Webb
BiasCurrent
92
Theinternaldevices(transistors)attheopampinput
terminalsrequireasmallamountofDCbiascurrentto
function.
Thatcurrentmustflowinthroughtheinputterminals
OpampswithBJT(BipolarJunctionTransistor)input
deviceshavehigherbiascurrents.
OpampswithFET (FieldEffectTransistor)inputdeviceswill
havemuchlowerbiascurrents.
BiascurrentistheaverageDCinputcurrent
Biascurrentcanbeaccountedforbyaddingcurrent
sourcestotheidealopampmodel.
K.Webb
OffsetCurrent
93
Duetomismatchbetweeninternalopampinput
devices,biascurrentsateachinputmaynotbe
equal.
Thedifferencebetweenthebiascurrentsateach
inputterminalistheoffsetcurrent.
Offsetcurrentcanbeaccountedforbyaddinga
currentsource,inadditiontothebiascurrent
sources,totheidealopampmodel.
K.Webb
ModelingBiasandOffsetCurrents
94
Biascurrentistheaverageofthe
DCinputcurrentsateach
terminal:
IB
I B I B
Opampmodelaccountingforbias
and offsetcurrents:
IdealOpamp
Offsetcurrentisthedifference
betweenthebiascurrentsateach
inputterminal:
I off I B I B
K.Webb
OffsetVoltage
95
Duetomismatchesandimperfectionsinthe
internalopampcircuitry,theoutputvoltageofan
opampmaynotbezeroeveniftheinputvoltage
(differential)iszero.
Thisoutputerrorvoltagecanbetreatedasan
inputreferrederrorvoltage,modeledasaDC
voltagesourceinserieswithoneoftheinputs.
Thevalueofthisinputreferredsourceistheoffset
voltage.
K.Webb
ModelingOffsetVoltage
96
Offsetvoltageismodeledasasourceinserieswithoneoftheinputs.
Usuallyspeced as somevalue,sopolarity(orwhatterminalits
connectedto)isnotcritical.
Anotherwaytothinkofoffsetvoltage:itisthevoltagerequiredacrossthe
inputterminalstoforcetheoutputvoltagetozero.
IdealOpamp
K.Webb
ModelingOpampDCNonIdealities
97
ThefollowingmodelaccountsforallDCopampimperfections.
TheresultofeacherrorsourceisaDCerrorvoltageattheoutput.
Thismodelcanbeusedinplaceofanidealopampmodel forcircuitanalysisto
determinetheeffectofeachnonidealityoncircuitperformance.
Totaloutputerrorcanbe
determinedbyapplying
superposition todeterminethe
errorduetoeachindividual
source.
IdealOpamp
Absolutevaluesforeacherror
sourcewill,ingeneral,notbe
known.Arangeforthevaluesis
typicallyspecified,allowingfora
worstcaseerroranalysis.
K.Webb
DCErrorAnalysis Example
98
Forthenoninvertingamplifiershown,determinetheworst
caseDCoutputerror(atanambienttemperatureofTA=25C),
giventhefollowing:
R1=20K,R2=100K.
OpampisanLM741.
|Voff|5mV.
Ibias 500nA.
|Ioff|200nA.
Usesuperpositiontodeterminetheworstcaseoutputerrorduetoeacherror
source,thensumtheindividualcontributionstodeterminethetotalworstcase
outputerror.
Voerr Vo V Vo
off
K.Webb
IB
Vo
I off
99
First,determinetheoutputduetotheinputoffsetvoltage:
Here,theoffsetvoltageappearsasthe
inputtoanoninvertingamplifier,with
gain
vo R1 R2 20 K 100 K
6
vi
R1
20 K
Theoutputduetotheinputoffsetvoltageis:
Vo V Voff
off
R1 R2
5mV 6 30mV
R1
Vo V 30mV
off
Theoffsetvoltagealwaysappearsattheoutputscaledbythenoninvertinggain,
evenforinvertingamplifiers.
K.Webb
100
Next,determinetheoutputduetotheinputbiascurrent:
Thebiascurrentatthenoninvertingterminal
comesdirectlyfromgroundand,thereforehas
noeffectontheoutput.
ApplyingKCLattheinvertinginput:
V Vo V
I B I1 I 2
R1
R2
Becausetheopampmodelitselfisideal,there
isavirtualshortattheinputterminals,and
Vo=V =0V,whichgives:
Theoutputvoltageduetothebiascurrentis
Vo
K.Webb
IB
I B R2 500nA 100 K 50mV
Vo
IB
50mV
101
Finally,determinetheoutputduetotheinputoffsetcurrent:
Theanalysisfordeterminingtheoutputvoltage
duetotheoffsetcurrentisessentiallyidentical
totheanalysisforthebiascurrent,so
Vo
I off
I off
2
R2 200nA 100 K 20mV
Theoutputvoltageduetotheoffsetcurrentis:
Vo
I off
20mV
NotethatbotheffectofboththebiasandoffsetcurrentsisproportionaltoR2.
ThistellsusthatwecanreducetheireffectsbyreducingthevalueofR2.The
tradeoffisincreasedpowerdissipation.Wellseeshortlythatitsactuallypossible
tocanceltheeffectofbiascurrent.
K.Webb
102
Theoveralloutputerrorvoltageisgivenbythesumofthe
individualerrorvoltagecontributions:
V
V
oerr
max
oerr
max
Vo V
off
V V
max
o IB
max
o I off
max
30mV 50mV 20mV 100mV
Themaximumoutputerrorvoltageduetothese
threeerrorsourcesis:
V
oerr
max
100mV
Notethatthepolarityofthebiascurrentisknown inthiscaseIB flowsinto the

opampinputterminals whereasthepolaritiesoftheoffsetvoltageandthe
offsetcurrentarenotknown andneverare.
Thisisnotalwaysentirelyobviousfromthedatasheet,butthesignofthebias
currentshouldindicateitspolarity.
K.Webb
BiasCurrentCancellation
103
Itispossibletocanceltheeffectofbiascurrentbyaddingasingleresistortoboth
theinvertingandnoninvertingopampamplifiertopologies:
NonInvertingAmplifier:
InvertingAmplifier:
Inbothcases:
K.Webb
Rbias R1 || R2
R1 R2
R1 R2
OffsetVoltageNulling
104
Manyopamps,includingthebasic741,provideameansfornulling theiroffset
voltage.
Thisistypicallydonebyinsertingapotentiometerbetweentwoadditionalopamp
pins,typicallybothcalledoffsetnull,orsomethingtothateffect.
Onthe741opampthesearepins1and5.
Connecta10K (forthe741)potentiometerbetweentheoffsetnullpins,withthe
wiperterminalconnectedtothenegativesupply.
Shorttheinputs(oftheamplifierwithfeedbackconnected)togroundthenadjust
thepotuntiltheoutputis0V.
Thepotentiometerisoftenreferredtoasatrim
pot,becauseitisusedfortrimming theoffset
voltage.
Trimpotconnectionsandrecommendedresistance
valuewillvaryfromopamptoopamp checkthe
datasheet.
K.Webb

SECTION 5 Advanced Opamp Circuits

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SECTION 5 Advanced Opamp Circuits

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SECTION5:

If V V , then Vid 0V , and

If V V , then Vid 0V , and

16.67 103 R2 16.95 103 R1

Thefollowingcircuitiscalledarelaxationoscillator relaxation becauseits

Att=0,V= V,andV thenbeginschargingtoward

NowinsteadofbothZ1 andZ2 beingresistive,Z2 iscapacitive:

Acoupleofthingstonotice:1) thephaseisalways90,and2) gaindecreaseswith

NowinsteadofbothZ1 andZ2 beingresistive,Z1 iscapacitive:

Acoupleofthingstonotice:1) thephaseisalways90,and2) gainincreaseswith

ForalowpassfilterZ1 andZ2 areresistors,

R f 2 R f 1 K1 1 5.11K 0.152 777

R f 3 R f 1 K 2 1 5.11K 1.235 6.3K

R f 4 R f 1 K 3 1 5.11K 0.554 2.83K

vo vid Ad vicm Acm

icm ' '

vocm wc vicm Acm 2 wc 200mVpp 19.8 103 4mVpp

I B R2 500nA 100 K 50mV

R2 200nA 100 K 20mV

30mV 50mV 20mV 100mV

Notethatthepolarityofthebiascurrentisknown inthiscaseIB flowsinto the

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