Body language refers to various forms of nonverbal communication, wherein a person may reveal

clues as to some unspoken intention or feeling through their physical behavior. These behaviors include,
but are not limited to: facial expressions, body posture, gestures, eye movement, touch and the use of
space. Body language exists in bothanimals and humans, but this article focuses on interpretations of
human body language.
Body language must not be confused with sign language as sign languages are real languages like
spoken languages and have their own complex grammar systems, as well as being able to exhibit the
fundamental properties that exist in all languages.[1][2] Body language, however, does not have
a grammar and must be interpreted broadly, instead of having an absolute meaning corresponding with
a certain movement, so it is not a language like sign language, [3] and is simply termed as a 'language'
due to popular culture.
In a community, there are agreed-upon interpretations of particular behavior. Interpretations may vary
from country to country, or culture to culture. On this note, there is controversy on whether body
language is universal.
Body language, a subset of nonverbal communication, complements verbal communication in social
interaction. In fact some researchers conclude that nonverbal communication accounts for the majority
of information transmitted during interpersonal interactions.[4] It helps to establish the relationship
between two people and regulates interaction, but can be ambiguous. Hence, it is crucial to accurately
read body language to avoid misunderstanding in social interactions.
While body language is a more familiar term referring to the nonverbal communication through
movement of the human body, Kinesics is believed to be a more accurate term, as 'body language' does
not fit with a linguist's definition of language, as shown below.
Contents
[hide]

1 Physical Movement
o

1.1 Facial Expression

1.2 Body Postures

1.3 Gestures

1.4 Handshakes

1.5 Other types of Physical Movements

2 Other subcategories of Body Language

o

2.1 Oculesics

2.2 Haptics

2.3 Proxemics

3 Universal vs. Culture-specific body language

4 Applications of Body Language

4.1 Instructional Teaching

4.1.1 Second Language Acquisition

4.1.2 Enhancing Teaching

4.2 Detecting Deceit

4.2.1 Law Enforcement

4.2.2 Poker

5 Kinesics

6 See also

7 References

Physical Movement[edit]
Facial Expression[edit]
Facial expression is integral when expressing emotions through the body. Combinations of eyes,
eyebrow, lips and cheek movements help form different moods of an individual (e.g. happy, sad,
depressed, angry, etc.).[5]
A few studies show that facial expression and bodily expression (i.e. body language) are congruent
when interpreting emotions.[6][7] Behavioural experiments have also shown that recognition of facial
expression is influenced by perceived bodily expression. This means that the brain processes the
other's facial and bodily expressions simultaneously.[6]Subjects in these studies showed accuracy in
judging emotions based on facial expression. This is because the face and the body are normally seen
together in their natural proportions and the emotional signals from the face and body are well
integrated.

Body Postures[edit]
Emotions can also be detected through body postures. Research has shown that body postures are
more accurately recognised when an emotion is compared with a different or neutral emotion. [8] For
example, a person feeling angry would portray dominance over the other, and his/her posture displays
approach tendencies. Comparing this to a person feeling fearful: he/she would feel weak, submissive
and his/her posture would display avoidance tendencies,[8] the opposite of an angry person.

Sitting or standing postures also indicate ones emotions. A person sitting till the back of his/her chair,
leans forward with his/her head nodding along with the discussion implies that he/she is open, relaxed
and generally ready to listen. On the other hand, a person who has his/her legs and arms crossed with
the foot kicking slightly implies that he/she is feeling impatient and emotionally detached from the
discussion.[5]
In a standing discussion, a person stands with arms akimbo with feet pointed towards the speaker could
suggest that he/she is attentive and is interested in the conversation. However, a small difference in this
posture could mean a lot. For example, if the same person has his/her leg crossed over the other, and
places his/her entire balance on one leg, this suggests a more casual attitude. [5]

Gestures[edit]
Gestures are movements made with body parts (e.g. hands, arms, fingers, head, legs) and they may be
voluntary or involuntary.[5] Arm gestures can be interpreted in several ways. In a discussion, when one
stands or sits with folded arms, this is normally not a welcoming gesture. It could mean that he/she has
a closed mind and is most likely unwilling to listen to the speakers viewpoint. Another type of arm
gesture also includes an arm crossed over the other, demonstrating insecurity and a lack of confidence.
[5]

Hand gestures often signify the state of well-being of the person making them. Relaxed hands indicate
confidence and self-assurance, while clenched hands may be interpreted as signs of stress or anger. If
a person is wringing his/her hands, this demonstrates nervousness and anxiety.[5]
Finger gestures are also commonly used to exemplify ones speech as well as denote the state of wellbeing of the person making them. In certain cultures, pointing using ones index finger is deemed
acceptable. However, pointing at a person may be viewed as aggressive in other cultures - for example,
people who share Hindu beliefs consider finger pointing offensive. Instead, they point with their thumbs.
[9]

Likewise, the thumbs up gesture could show OK or good in countries like the US, France and

Germany. But this same gesture is insulting in other countries like Iran, Bangladesh and Thailand, where
it is the equivalent of showing the middle finger in the US.[9]

Handshakes[edit]
Handshakes are regular greeting rituals and are commonly done on meeting, greeting, offering
congratulations or after the completion of an agreement. They usually indicate the level of confidence
and emotion level in people.[5] Studies have also categorised several handshake styles,[9] e.g. the finger
squeeze, the bone crusher (shaking hands too strongly), the limp fish (shaking hands too weakly), etc.
Handshakes are popular in the US and are appropriate for use between men and women. However, in
Muslim cultures, men may not shake hands or touch women in any way and vice versa. Likewise, in
Hindu cultures, Hindu men may never shake hands with women. Instead, they greet women by placing
their hands as if praying.

Other types of Physical Movements[edit]

Covering ones mouth suggests suppression of feeling and perhaps uncertainty. This could also mean
that he/she is thinking hard and may be unsure of what to say next.[5]

Other subcategories of Body Language[edit]

Oculesics[edit]
Main article: Oculesics
Oculesics, a subcategory of body language, is the study of eye movement, eye behavior, gaze, and eyerelated nonverbal communication. As a social or behavioral science, oculesics is a form of nonverbal
communication focusing on deriving meaning from eye behavior.[10] It is also crucial to note that
Oculesics is culturally dependent. For example, in traditional Anglo-Saxon culture, avoiding eye contact
usually portrays a lack of confidence, certainty, or truthfulness.[11] However, in the Latino culture, direct or
prolonged eye contact means that you are challenging the individual with whom you are speaking or
that you have a romantic interest in the person.[11]

Haptics[edit]
Main article: Haptic communication
Haptics, a subcategory of Body Language, is the study of touching and how it is used in communication.
[12]

As such, handshakes, holding hands, kissing, back slapping, high fives, brushing up against someone

or pats all have meaning.[12]

Based on the Body Language Project,[12] touching is the most developed sense at birth and formulates
our initial views of the world. Touching can be used to sooth, for amusement during play, to flirt, to
expressing power and maintaining bonds between people such as with baby and mother. Touching can
carry distinct emotions and also show the intensity of those emotions. Touch absent of other cues can
signal anger, fear, disgust, love, gratitude and sympathy depending on the length and type of touching
that is performed. Many factors also contribute to the meaning of touching such as the length of the
touch and location on the body in which the touching takes place.
Research has also shown that people can accurately decode distinct emotions by merely watching
others communicate via touch.[13]
Heslin outlines five haptic categories:[14]
Functional/professional which expresses task-orientation
Donald Walton[15] stated in his book that touching is the ultimate expression of closeness or confidence
between two people, but not seen often in business or formal relationships. Touching stresses how
special the message is that is being sent by the initiator. "If a word of praise is accompanied by a touch
on the shoulder, thats the gold star on the ribbon," wrote Walton.[15]
Social/polite which expresses ritual interaction
A study by Jones and Yarbrough[16] regarded communication with touch as the most intimate and
involving form which helps people to keep good relationships with others. For example, Jones and

Yarbrough explained that strategic touching is a series of touching usually with an ulterior or hidden
motive thus making them seem to be using touch as a game to get someone to do something for them.
[16]

Friendship/warmth which expresses idiosyncratic relationship

Love/intimacy which expresses emotional attachment
Public touch can serve as a tie sign that shows others that your partner is taken. [17] When a couple is
holding hands, putting their arms around each other, this is a tie sign showing others that they are
together. The use of tie signs are used more often by couples in the dating and courtship stages than
between their married counterparts according to Burgoon, Buller, and Woodall. [18]
Sexual/arousal which expresses sexual intent.
The amount of touching that occurs within a culture is also culturally dependent.

Proxemics[edit]
Main article: Proxemics

Diagram of Edward T. Hall's personal reaction bubbles(1966), showing radius in feet

Another notable area in the nonverbal world of body language is that of spatial relationships, which is
also known as Proxemics. Introduced by Edward T. Hall in 1966, proxemics is the study of measurable
distances between people as they interact with one another.[19] In the book, Body Language,[20] Julius
Fast mentioned that the signals that we send or receive to others through body language are reactions
to others invasions of our personal territories, which links Proxemics an important part of Body
Language.
Hall also came up with four distinct zones in which most men operate: [19]

Intimate distance for embracing, touching or whispering

Close phase less than 6 inches (15 cm)
Far phase 6 to 18 inches (15 to 46 cm)
Personal distance for interactions among good friends or family members
Close phase 1.5 to 2.5 feet (46 to 76 cm)
Far phase 2.5 to 4 feet (76 to 122 cm)
Social distance for interactions among acquaintances
Close phase 4 to 7 feet (1.2 to 2.1 m)
Far phase 7 to 12 feet (2.1 to 3.7 m)
Public Distance used for public speaking
Close phase 12 to 25 feet (3.7 to 7.6 m)
Far phase 25 feet (7.6 m) or more.
In addition to physical distance, the level of intimacy between
conversants can be determined by "socio-petal socio-fugal axis", or the
"angle formed by the axis of the conversants' shoulders". [21]
Changing the distance between two people can convey a desire for
intimacy, declare a lack of interest, or increase/decrease domination. [22]
It can also influence the body language that is used. For example,
when people talk they like to face each other. If forced to sit side by
side, their body language will try to compensate for this lack of eye-toeye contact by leaning in shoulder-to-shoulder.[22]
It is important to note that as with other types of Body Language,
proximity range varies with culture. Hall suggested that "physical
contact between two people ... can be perfectly correct in one culture,
and absolutely taboo in another".[23] In Latin America, people who may
be complete strangers may engage in very close contact. They often
greet one another by kissing on the cheeks. North Americans, on the
other hand, prefer to shake hands. While they have made some
physical contact with the shaking of the hand, they still maintain a
certain amount of physical space between the other person. [24]

Universal vs. Culture-specific body

language[edit]
Scholars have long debated on whether body language, particularly
facial expressions, are universally understood. In Darwins (1872)
evolutionary theory, he postulated that facial expressions of emotion
are inherited.[25] On the other hand, scholars have questioned if culture

influences ones bodily expression of emotions. Broadly, the theories

can be categorized into two models:
Cultural Equivalence Model
The Cultural Equivalence Model predicts that individuals should be
equally accurate in understanding the emotions of in-group and outgroup members (Soto & Levenson, 2009). This model is rooted in
Darwins (1872) evolutionary theory, where he noted that both humans
and animals share similar postural expressions of emotions such as
anger/aggression, happiness, and fear.[26] These similarities support the
evolution argument that social animals (including humans) have a
natural ability to relay emotional signals with one another, a notion
shared by several academics (Chevalier-Skolnikoff, 1974; Linnankoski,
Laasko, Aul-anko, & Leinonen, 1994). Where Darwin notes similarity in
expression among animals and humans, the Cultural Equivalence
Model notes similarity in expression across cultures in humans, even
though they may be completely different.
One of the strongest pieces of evidence that supports this model was a
study conducted by Ekman and Friesen (1971), where members of a
preliterate tribe in Papua New Guinea reliably recognized the facial
expressions of individuals from the United States. Culturally isolated
and with no exposure to US media, there was no possibility of crosscultural transmission to the Papuan tribesmen.[27]
Cultural Advantage Model
On the other hand, the Cultural Advantage Model predicts that
individuals of the same race process the visual characteristics more
accurately and efficiently than other-race faces.[28] Other factors that
increase accurate interpretation include familiarity with nonverbal
accents.[29]
There are numerous studies that support both the Cultural Equivalence
Model and the Cultural Advantage Model, but reviewing the literature
indicates that there is a general consensus that 7 emotions are
universally recognized, regardless of cultural background: happiness,
surprise, fear, anger, contempt, disgust, and sadness. [30]
Recently, scholars have shown that the expressions of pride and
shame are universal. Tracy and Robins (2008) concluded that the
expression of pride includes an expanded posture of the body with the
head tilted back, with a low-intensity face and a non-Duchenne smile

(raising the corner of the mouth). The expression of shame includes

the hiding of the face, either by turning it down or covering it with the
hands.[27]

Applications of Body Language[edit]

Fundamentally, body language is seemed as an involuntary and
unconscious phenomena that adds to the process of communication.
Despite that, there have been certain areas where the conscious
harnessing of body language - both in action and comprehension have been useful. The use of body language has also seen an
increase in application and use commercially, with large volumes of
books and guides published designed to teach people how to be
conscious of body language, and how to use it to benefit them in
certain scenarios.[20]
The use of body language can be seen in a wide variety of fields. Body
language has seen application in instructional teaching in areas such
as second language acquisition[31]and also to enhance the teaching of
subjects like mathematics. A related use of body language is as a
substitution to verbal language to people who lack the ability to use
that, be it because of deafness or aphasia. Body language has also
been applied in the process of detecting deceit through microexpressions, both in law enforcement and even in the world of poker.[32]

Instructional Teaching[edit]
Second Language Acquisition[edit]
The importance of body language in second language acquisition was
inspired by the fact that to successfully learn a language is to achieve
discourse, strategic, andsociolinguistic competencies.[33] Sociolinguistic
competence includes understanding the body language that aids the
use of a particular language. This is usually also highly culturally
influenced. As such, a conscious ability to recognize and even perform
this sort of body language is necessary to achieve fluency in a
language beyond the discourse level.
The importance of body language to verbal language use is the need
to eliminate ambiguity and redundancy in comprehension.
[33]

Pennycook (1985) suggests to limit the use of non-visual materials

to facilitate the teaching of a second language to improve this aspect of

communication. He calls this being not just bilingual but also 'bikinesic'.[34]

Enhancing Teaching[edit]
Body language can be a useful aid not only in teaching a second
language, but also in other areas. The idea behind using it is as a
nonlinguistic input.[35] It can be used to guide, hint, or urge a student
towards the right answer. This is usually paired off with other verbal
methods of guiding the student, be it through confirmation checks or
modified language use. Tai[36] in his 2014 paper provides a list of three
main characteristic of body language and how they influence teaching.
The features are intuition, communication, and suggestion.
The intuitive feature of body language used in teaching is the
exemplification of the language, especially individual words, through
the use of matching body language. For example, when teaching about
the word "cry", teachers can imitate a crying person. This enables a
deeper impression which is able to lead to greater understanding of the
particular word.[36]
The communicative feature is the ability of body language to create an
environment and atmosphere that is able to facilitate effective learning.
A holistic environment is more productive for learning and the
acquisition for new knowledge.[36]
The suggestive feature of body language uses body language as a tool
to create opportunities for the students to gain additional information
about a particular concept or word through pairing it with the body
language itself.[36]

Detecting Deceit[edit]
Law Enforcement[edit]
Body language has seen use in the area of law enforcement. The
relevance of body language in this area can be seen in the
numerous Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) Law Enforcement
Bulletin[37][38] that have included it in their articles. The application of
body language in law enforcement goes both ways. Members of law
enforcement can use body language to catch unspoken cues by
suspects or even victims, this enables a more calculated and more
comprehensive judgement of people. The other side of body language
is that of the investigators' themselves. The body language of the
members of law enforcement might influence the accuracy of
eyewitness accounts.[39]
Poker[edit]

Main article: Poker

The game of poker does not consist only of the actual ability of playing
the game, but also the competence of reading and analyzing the body
language of the opponents. A key component of poker is to be able to
"cheat" the opponents. To spot these cheats, players must have the
ability to spot the individual "ticks" of their opponents. Players also
have to look out for signs that an opponent is doing well.

Kinesics[edit]
Main article: Kinesics
Kinesics is the study and interpretation of nonverbal communication
related to the movement of any part of the body or the body as a
whole [40] It is, in laymans term, the study of body language.
However, Ray Birdwhistell, who is considered the founder of this area
of study, never used, and did not consider appropriate, the term body
language. He argued that what can be conveyed with the body does
not meet the linguists definition of language.[3]
Birdwhistell pointed out that human gestures differ from those
of other animals in that they are polysemic, that they can be
interpreted to have many different meanings depending on the
communicative context in which they are produced. And, he
resisted the idea that body language could be deciphered in
some absolute fashion. He also indicated that every body
movement must be interpreted broadly and in conjunction with
every other element in communication[3]
.
Despite that, body language is still a more widely known term as
compared to kinesics.