Principles of Welding

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To present an overall view of the implications of making joints by welding.

SUMMARY
This lecture describes the basic principles involved in making a welded joint.
It discusses the structure and properties of both the weld metal and the heat
affected zone. It explains the necessity for edge preparations when butt
welding, and gives examples of the types used. It outlines how the welding
procedure can be varied to meet the needs of the particular joint being made.

ABBREVIATIONS
MAG Metal Active Gas Welding (sometimes referred to as MIG Metal
Inert Gas Welding)
MMA Manual Metal Arc Welding
SAW Submerged Arc Welding
HAZ Heat Affected Zone

1. INTRODUCTION
Welding offers a means of making continuous, load bearing, metallic
joints between the components of a structure.
In structural work, a variety of welded joints are used; these can all be
made up from the basic configurations shown in Figure 1, which are
classified as follows:
butt joints.
tee joints.
lap joints.
corner joints.

As illustrated in Figure 2, a welded joint is made by fusing (melting)

the steel plates or sections (the parent metal) along the line of the
joint. The metal melted from each member at the joint unites in a pool

of molten metal which bridges the interface. As the pool cools, molten
metal at the fusion boundary solidifies, forming a solid bond with the
parent metal, see Figure 3. When the solidification is complete, there
is continuity of metal through the joint.

2. METHODS OF MAKING A WELDED JOINT

Two types of weld are in common use: butt welds and fillet welds. In
the former the weld metal is generally contained within the profiles of
the welded elements; in the latter, deposited weld metal is external to
the profile of the welded elements.
Obviously the complete length of joint cannot be melted
simultaneously. In practice a heat source is used to melt a small area
and is then moved along the joint line, progressively fusing the parent
metal at the leading edge of the weld pool, as shown in Figure 4. At
the same time, the metal at the trailing edge of the pool solidifies. The
most commonly used heat source, in structural work, is a low voltage
(15 to 35 volt), high current (50 to 1000 amp) arc. As shown
diagrammatically in Figure 5, the arc operates between the end of a
steel electrode (rod) and the work piece. It melts both the parent
metal and the electrode; molten metal from the electrode is thereby
added to the weld pool.

The molten steel in the pool will readily absorb oxygen and nitrogen
from the air, which could lead to porosity in the solidified weld and
possibly to metallurgical problems. Figure 6 shows how this is avoided
by covering the pool with a molten flux, as in Manual Metal Arc (MMA)
and Submerged Arc Welding (SAW), or by replacing the air around the
arc by a non-reactive gas, as in Metal Active Gas (MAG) Welding or
cored wire welding.

3. STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF WELDS

The solidified weld metal has a cast structure and has properties
characteristic of cast steel, i.e. higher ratio of yield to ultimate
strength than structural steel. The weld metal is a mixture of parent

metal and steel melted from the electrode. In structural work the
composition of the electrode is usually chosen so that the resultant
weld metal is stronger than the connected elements. Occasionally,
specific conditions may override this chocie. For example, when joining
stainless steel to carbon-manganese steel, a highly alloyed electrode
must be used to avoid cracking in the weld metal.
When the weld pool is cooling and solidifying, the majority of the heat
flows through the parent metal alongside the joint. The steel is thus
subjected to heating and cooling cycles similar to those experienced in
heat treatment practice. As shown in Figure 7, the structure of the
steel will be changed in this region (called the heat affected zone,
HAZ). This must be taken into account in the design in terms of notch
toughness (Charpy value), etc.

The structure of the HAZ will be controlled by:

the composition of the steel (carbon equivalent).
the cooling rate in the HAZ.
In turn the cooling rate is determined by:
arc energy, i.e. heat input to the joint.
type of joint.
thickness of steel.
temperature of steel plate or section prior to welding, e.g. preheat.
A method of determining the interaction of these factors in relation to
the avoidance of cracks in the HAZ is given in the sample chart shown
in Figure 8.

In addition to its effect on the cooling rate, preheat is used to:

Disperse hyrodgen from the weld pool and HAZ. Hydrogen in the HAZ
increases the risk of cracking if hardening has occurred. The hydrogen
comes principally from the flux. An appropriate electrode, correctly
stored, will reduce the risk of hydrogen pick-up.
Remove surface moisture in high humidity conditions or on site.

Bring the steel up to 'normal' ambient conditions (20C).

4. EDGE PREPARATION FOR BUTT WELDS

For square edge preparations the depth of melting into the plate is
called the Depth of Penetration, see Figure 9a. As a very rough guide,
the penetration is about 1mm per 100 amp. In manual welding the
current is usually not more than 350 amp; more commonly 150-200
amp. This means that the edges of the plate must be cut back along
the joint line for continuity through the thickness to be achieved
(Figure 9b). The groove so formed is then filled with metal melted
from the electrode (Figure 9c). Various edge profiles are used and are
illustrated in Figure 10; the edges may be planed, sawn, guillotined or
flame cut.

The first run to be deposited in the bottom of the groove is called the
root run. The root faces must be melted to ensure good penetration,
but at the same time the weld pool must be controlled to avoid
collapse, as seen in Figure 11. This task requires considerable skill.
The difficulties can be eased by using a backing strip.

The choice of edge preparation depends on:

type of process.
position of welding (Figure 12).
access for arc and electrode.

volume of deposited weld metal which should be kept to a minimum.

cost of preparing edges.
shrinkage and distortion (Figure 13).

5. WELDING PROCEDURES
The term welding procedure is used to describe the complete process
involved in making a weld. It covers choice of electrode, edge
preparation, preheat, welding parameters (voltage, current and travel
speed), welding position, number of weld runs to fill the groove, and
post-weld treatments, e.g. grinding or heat treatment. Welding
procedures may be devised to meet various needs, e.g. to minimise
costs, control distortion, avoid defects or achieve good impact
properties. Specific aspects of the weld procedure are worth detailed
comment.

5.1 Current
The current controls heat input. The minimum value is fixed by the
need to fuse the plate and to keep the arc stable; the specified
minimum, however, may be higher to avoid HAZ cracks. The
maximum current depends on operating conditions. Usually, as high a
current as possible is used to achieve faster welding, and hence lower
costs. The use of maximum current may be restricted by position; in
the overhead position, for example, currents above 160 amps cannot
be used. High currents usually give low impact properties. Note that
the current used is chosen to match the electrode diameter.

5.2 Welding Position

The effect of position on current is noted above. Welding in the
overhead position requires greater skill to avoid defects, such as poor
profile, and should only be used when absolutely necessary. Vertical
welding is slower than welding in the flat position but requires less skill
than the overhead position.

5.3 Environment
If on site welding is necessary the following points must be
considered:

in cold weather the steel may need to be heated to bring it up to

20C.

overnight condensation and high humidity can lead to porosity.

care must be taken to ensure the electrodes are kept dry in the stores.

it is often difficult to achieve accurate fitting of the joint; variable

and/or large gaps may result in defective welds, distortion and
increased costs.

6. SHRINKAGE
During cooling, the hot metal in the weld zone contracts, causing the
joint to shrink. The contraction is restrained by the cold metal
surrounding the joint; stresses are set up which, being in excess of the
yield stress, produce plastic deformation. This can lead to the
distortion or buckling shown in Figure 13. Distortion can be reduced by
choice of edge preparation and weld procedure; examples are shown
in Figure 14.

When the plastic deformation has ceased, the joint is left with the
residual stress pattern of Figure 15 with tension in the weld metal and
HAZ, and compression in the surrounding steel. The significance of
these residual stresses is discussed in other lectures.

7. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
A welded joint is made by fusing parent metal from both components
being joined, usually with added weld metal.
The properties of both the weld metal, which has melted and solidified,
and the surrounding heat affected zone may differ from those of the
parent metal.
Welding procedures should be properly specified to give a satisfactory
welded joint. The major parameters are: welding position, electrode
type, edge preparation, preheat, voltage, current, travel speed,
number of runs and post-weld heat treatments.

Hot metal in the weld zone contracts during cooling causing residual
stresses. Distortion will occur if appropriate control is not exercised.

8. ADDITIONAL READING
Hicks, J. "Welding Design", Granada.
details of joints and welds.
strength of welded joints.
effects of welding on metallurgical structures, heat affected
zones, HAZ cracking.
edge preparation.
welding positions - definitions and comments.
Gourd, L. M. "Principles of Welding Technology", Edward Arnold, 1980.
formation of a weld.
types of heat source.
strength of welded joints.
effects of welding on metallurgical structure, heat affected
zones, HAZ cracking.
edge preparation.
comments on residual stresses.
control of distortion.
Milner, D.R. and Apps, R. L. "Introduction to Welding and Brazing",
Pergamon.
effects of welding on metallurgical structure, heat affected
zones, HAZ cracking.
control of distortion.
Pratt, J. L. "Introduction to the Welding of Structural Steelwork",
Steel Construction Institute - Publication No 014.
British Standard BS 5135: 1986, "Metal Arc Welding of Carbon and
Carbon Maganese Steels", British Standards Institution, London.