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JavaScript
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Not to be confused with Java (programming language), Java (software platform), o
r Javanese script.
JavaScript
Paradigm
Multi-paradigm: scripting, object-oriented (prototype-based), im
perative, functional[1]
Designed by
Brendan Eich
Developer
Netscape Communications Corporation, Mozilla Foundation, Ecma In
ternational
First appeared May 1995; 20 years ago
Stable release ECMAScript 6[2] / June 17, 2015; 4 months ago
Typing discipline
dynamic, duck
Major implementations
KJS, Rhino, SpiderMonkey, V8, Carakan, Chakra
Influenced by
Lua, Scheme, Perl, Self, Java, C, Python, AWK, HyperTalk
Influenced
ActionScript, AtScript, CoffeeScript, Dart, JScript .NET, Objective-J, QML, Type
Script, LiveScript
JavaScript at Wikibooks
JavaScript
Javascript icon.svg
Filename extension
.js
Internet media type
application/javascript text/javascript (obsolete)[3]
Uniform Type Identifier (UTI) com.netscape.javascript-source[4]
Type of format Scripting language
Part of a series on
JavaScript
JavaScript syntax
JavaScript library
Unobtrusive JavaScript
JavaScript engine
Lists of Frameworks and Libraries
Ajax frameworks
JavaScript web application frameworks
Comparison of JavaScript frameworks
List of JavaScript libraries
JavaScript unit testing frameworks
JavaScript Object Notation
See also
ECMAScript
v t e
JavaScript (/'d???v??skr?pt/[5]) is a high-level, dynamic, untyped, and interpre
ted programming language.[6] It has been standardized in the ECMAScript language
specification.[7] Alongside HTML and CSS, it is one of the three essential tech
nologies of World Wide Web content production; the majority of websites employ i
t and it is supported by all modern web browsers without plug-ins.[6] JavaScript
is prototype-based with first-class functions, making it a multi-paradigm langu
age, supporting object-oriented,[8] imperative, and functional programming style
s.[6] It has an API for working with text, arrays, dates and regular expressions
, but does not include any I/O, such as networking, storage or graphics faciliti
es, relying for these upon the host environment in which it is embedded.[7]
Despite some naming, syntactic, and standard library similarities, JavaScript an
d Java are otherwise unrelated and have very different semantics. The syntax of

JavaScript is actually derived from C, while the semantics and design are influe
nced by the Self and Scheme programming languages.[9]
JavaScript is also used in environments that are not web-based, such as PDF docu
ments, site-specific browsers, and desktop widgets. Newer and faster JavaScript
virtual machines (VMs) and platforms built upon them have also increased the pop
ularity of JavaScript for server-side web applications. On the client side, Java
Script has been traditionally implemented as an interpreted language, but more r
ecent browsers perform just-in-time compilation. It is also used in game develop
ment, the creation of desktop and mobile applications, and server-side network p
rogramming with runtime environments such as Node.js.
Contents [hide]
1 History
1.1 Beginnings at Netscape
1.2 Server-side JavaScript
1.3 Adoption by Microsoft
1.4 Standardization
1.5 Later developments
2 Trademark
3 Features
3.1 Imperative and structured
3.2 Dynamic
3.3 Functional
3.4 Prototype-based object-oriented programming
3.5 Implicit and explicit delegation
3.6 Miscellaneous
3.7 Vendor-specific extensions
4 Syntax
4.1 Simple examples
4.2 More advanced example
5 Use in web pages
5.1 Example script
5.2 Compatibility considerations
6 Security
6.1 Cross-site vulnerabilities
6.1.1 Misplaced trust in the client
6.1.2 Browser and plugin coding errors
6.1.3 Sandbox implementation errors
7 Uses outside web pages
7.1 Embedded scripting language
7.2 Scripting engine
7.3 Application platform
7.4 Microcontrollers
8 Development tools
9 Version history
10 Related languages and features
10.1 Use as an intermediate language
10.2 JavaScript and Java
11 References
12 Further reading
13 External links
History[edit]
Beginnings at Netscape[edit]
JavaScript was originally developed in 10 days in May 1995 by Brendan Eich, whil
e he was working for Netscape Communications Corporation. Indeed, while competin
g with Microsoft for user adoption of web technologies and platforms, Netscape c
onsidered their client-server offering a distributed OS with a portable version
of Sun Microsystems' Java providing an environment in which applets could be run
.[citation needed] Because Java was a competitor of C++ and aimed at professiona

l programmers, Netscape also wanted a lightweight interpreted language that woul

d complement Java by appealing to nonprofessional programmers, like Microsoft's
Visual Basic (see JavaScript and Java).[10]
Although it was developed under the name Mocha, the language was officially call
ed LiveScript when it first shipped in beta releases of Netscape Navigator 2.0 i
n September 1995, but it was renamed JavaScript[11] when it was deployed in the
Netscape browser version 2.0B3.[12]
The change of name from LiveScript to JavaScript roughly coincided with Netscape
adding support for Java technology in its Netscape Navigator web browser. The f
inal choice of name caused confusion, giving the impression that the language wa
s a spin-off of the Java programming language, and the choice has been character
ized as a marketing ploy by Netscape to give JavaScript the cachet of what was t
hen the hot new web programming language.[13][14]
There is a common misconception that the JavaScript language was influenced by a
n earlier web page scripting language developed by Nombas named C--, not to be c
onfused with the later C-- created in 1997.[15][16][17] Brendan Eich, however, h
ad never heard of C-- before he created LiveScript.[18] Nombas did pitch their e
mbedded web page scripting to Netscape, though web page scripting was not a new
concept, as shown by ViolaWWW.[19] Nombas later switched to offering JavaScript
instead of C-- in their ScriptEase product and was part of the TC39 group that s
tandardized ECMAScript.[20][21]
Server-side JavaScript[edit]
Netscape introduced an implementation of the language for server-side scripting
with Netscape Enterprise Server in December, 1995, soon after releasing JavaScri
pt for browsers.[22][23] Since the mid-2000s, there has been a resurgence of ser
ver-side JavaScript implementations, such as Node.js.[24][25]
Adoption by Microsoft[edit]
Microsoft Windows script technologies including VBScript and JScript were releas
ed in 1996. JScript, a port of Netscape's JavaScript, was released on July 16, 1
996 and was part of Internet Explorer 3, as well as being available server-side
in Internet Information Server. IE3 also included Microsoft's first support for
Cascading Style Sheets and various extensions to HTML, but in each case the impl
ementation was noticeably different to that found in Netscape Navigator at the t
ime.[26][27] These differences made it difficult for designers and programmers t
o make a single website work well in both browsers leading to the use of 'best v
iewed in Netscape' and 'best viewed in Internet Explorer' logos that characteris
ed these early years of the browser wars.[28] JavaScript began to acquire a repu
tation for being one of the roadblocks to a cross-platform and standards-driven
web. Some developers took on the difficult task of trying to make their sites wo
rk in both major browsers, but many could not afford the time.[26] With the rele
ase of Internet Explorer 4, Microsoft introduced the concept of Dynamic HTML, bu
t the differences in language implementations and the different and proprietary
Document Object Models remained, and were obstacles to widespread take-up of Jav
aScript on the web.[26]
Standardization[edit]
In November 1996, Netscape announced that it had submitted JavaScript to Ecma In
ternational for consideration as an industry standard, and subsequent work resul
ted in the standardized version named ECMAScript. In June 1997, Ecma Internation
al published the first edition of the ECMA-262 specification. In June 1998, some
modifications were made to adapt it to the ISO/IEC-16262 standard, and the seco
nd edition was released. The third edition of ECMA-262 was published on December
1999.[29]
Development of the fourth edition of the ECMAScript standard was never completed

.[30] The fifth edition was released in December 2009. The current edition of th
e ECMAScript standard is 6, released in June 2015.[31]
Later developments[edit]
JavaScript has become one of the most popular programming languages on the Web.
Initially, however, many professional programmers denigrated the language becaus
e its target audience consisted of Web authors and other such "amateurs", among
other reasons.[32] The advent of Ajax returned JavaScript to the spotlight and b
rought more professional programming attention. The result was a proliferation o
f comprehensive frameworks and libraries, improved JavaScript programming practi
ces, and increased usage of JavaScript outside Web browsers, as seen by the prol
iferation of server-side JavaScript platforms.
In January 2009, the CommonJS project was founded with the goal of specifying a
common standard library mainly for JavaScript development outside the browser.[3
3]
With the rise of the single-page web app and JavaScript-heavy sites, it is incre
asingly being used as a compile target for source-to-source compilers from both
dynamic languages and static languages. In particular, Emscripten and highly opt
imized JIT compilers, in tandem with asm.js that is friendly to AOT compilers li
ke OdinMonkey, have enabled C and C++ programs to be compiled into JavaScript an
d execute at near-native speeds, causing JavaScript to be considered the "assemb
ly language of the web",[34] according to its creator and others.
Trademark[edit]
"JavaScript" is a trademark of Oracle Corporation.[35] It is used under license
for technology invented and implemented by Netscape Communications and current e
ntities such as the Mozilla Foundation.[36]
Features[edit]
The following features are common to all conforming ECMAScript implementations,
unless explicitly specified otherwise.
Imperative and structured[edit]
JavaScript supports much of the structured programming syntax from C (e.g., if s
tatements, while loops, switch statements, do while loops, etc.). One partial ex
ception is scoping: JavaScript originally had only function scoping with var. EC
MAScript 2015 adds a let keyword for block scoping, meaning JavaScript now has b
oth function and block scoping. Like C, JavaScript makes a distinction between e
xpressions and statements. One syntactic difference from C is automatic semicolo
n insertion, which allows the semicolons that would normally terminate statement
s to be omitted.[37]
Dynamic[edit]
Dynamic typing
As in most scripting languages, types are associated with values, not with varia
bles. For example, a variable x could be bound to a number, then later rebound t
o a string. JavaScript supports various ways to test the type of an object, incl
uding duck typing.[38]
Object-based
JavaScript is almost entirely object-based. JavaScript objects are associative a
rrays, augmented with prototypes (see below). Object property names are string k
eys. They support two equivalent syntaxes: dot notation (obj.x = 10) and bracket
notation (obj['x'] = 10). Properties and their values can be added, changed, or
deleted at run-time. Most properties of an object (and those on its prototype i
nheritance chain) can be enumerated using a for...in loop. JavaScript has a smal
l number of built-in objects such as Function and Date.
Run-time evaluation
JavaScript includes an eval function that can execute statements provided as str

ings at run-time.
Functional[edit]
First-class functions
Functions are first-class; they are objects themselves. As such, they have prope
rties and methods, such as .call() and .bind().[39] A nested function is a funct
ion defined within another function. It is created each time the outer function
is invoked. In addition, each created function forms a lexical closure: the lexi
cal scope of the outer function, including any constants, local variables and ar
gument values, becomes part of the internal state of each inner function object,
even after execution of the outer function concludes.[40] JavaScript also suppo
rts anonymous functions.
Prototype-based object-oriented programming[edit]
Prototypes
JavaScript uses prototypes where many other object-oriented languages use classe
s for inheritance.[41] It is possible to simulate many class-based features with
prototypes in JavaScript.[42]
Functions as object constructors
Functions double as object constructors along with their typical role. Prefixing
a function call with new will create an instance of a prototype, inheriting pro
perties and methods from the constructor (including properties from the Object p
rototype).[43] ECMAScript 5 offers the Object.create method, allowing explicit c
reation of an instance without automatically inheriting from the Object prototyp
e (older environments can assign the prototype to null).[44] The constructor's p
rototype property determines the object used for the new object's internal proto
type. New methods can be added by modifying the prototype of the function used a
s a constructor. JavaScript's built-in constructors, such as Array or Object, al
so have prototypes that can be modified. While it is possible to modify the Obje
ct prototype, it is generally considered bad practice because most objects in Ja
vaScript will inherit methods and properties from the Object prototype and they
may not expect the prototype to be modified.[45]
Functions as methods
Unlike many object-oriented languages, there is no distinction between a functio
n definition and a method definition. Rather, the distinction occurs during func
tion calling; when a function is called as a method of an object, the function's
local this keyword is bound to that object for that invocation.
Implicit and explicit delegation[edit]
JavaScript is a delegation language.
Functions as Roles (Traits and Mixins)
JavaScript natively supports various function-based implementations of Role[46]
patterns like Traits[47][48] and Mixins.[49][50] Such a function defines additio
nal behavior by at least one method bound to the this keyword within its functio
n body. A Role then has to be delegated explicitly via call or apply to objects
that need to feature additional behavior that is not shared via the prototype ch
ain.
Object Composition and Inheritance
Whereas explicit function-based delegation does cover composition in JavaScript,
implicit delegation already happens every time the prototype chain is walked in
order to, e.g., find a method that might be related to but is not directly owne
d by an object. Once the method is found it gets called within this object's con
text. Thus inheritance in JavaScript is covered by a delegation automatism that
is bound to the prototype property of constructor functions.
Miscellaneous[edit]
Run-time environment
JavaScript typically relies on a run-time environment (e.g., a Web browser) to p
rovide objects and methods by which scripts can interact with the environment (e
.g., a webpage DOM). It also relies on the run-time environment to provide the a
bility to include/import scripts (e.g., HTML <script> elements). This is not a l
anguage feature per se, but it is common in most JavaScript implementations.
JavaScript processes messages from a queue one at a time. Upon loading a new mes

sage, JavaScript calls a function associated with that message, which creates a
call stack frame (the function's arguments and local variables). The call stack
shrinks and grows based on the function's needs. Upon function completion, when
the stack is empty, JavaScript proceeds to the next message in the queue. This i
s called the event loop, described as "run to completion" because each message i
s fully processed before the next message is considered. However, the language's
concurrency model describes the event loop as non-blocking: program input/outpu
t is performed using events and callback functions. This means, for instance, th
at JavaScript can process a mouse click while waiting for a database query to re
turn information.[51]
Variadic functions
An indefinite number of parameters can be passed to a function. The function can
access them through formal parameters and also through the local arguments obje
ct. Variadic functions can also be created by using the bind method.
Array and object literals
Like many scripting languages, arrays and objects (associative arrays in other l
anguages) can each be created with a succinct shortcut syntax. In fact, these li
terals form the basis of the JSON data format.
Regular expressions
JavaScript also supports regular expressions in a manner similar to Perl, which
provide a concise and powerful syntax for text manipulation that is more sophist
icated than the built-in string functions.[52]
Vendor-specific extensions[edit]
JavaScript is officially managed by Mozilla Foundation, and new language feature
s are added periodically. However, only some JavaScript engines support these ne
w features:
property getter and setter functions (supported by WebKit, Gecko, Opera,[53] Act
ionScript, and Rhino)[54]
conditional catch clauses
iterator protocol (adopted from Python)
shallow generators-coroutines (adopted from Python)
array comprehensions and generator expressions (adopted from Python)
proper block scope via the let keyword
array and object destructuring (limited form of pattern matching)
concise function expressions (function(args) expr)
ECMAScript for XML (E4X), an extension that adds native XML support to ECMAScrip
t (unsupported in Firefox since version 21[55])
Syntax[edit]
Main article: JavaScript syntax
Simple examples[edit]
Variables in JavaScript can be defined using the var keyword:[56]
var x; // defines the variable x, the special value undefined (not to be confused
with an undefined value) is assigned to it by default
var y = 2; // defines the variable y and assigns the value of 2 to it
Note the comments in the example above, both of which were preceded with two for
ward slashes.
There is no built-in I/O functionality in JavaScript; the run-time environment p
rovides that. The ECMAScript specification in edition 5.1 mentions:[57]
... indeed, there are no provisions in this specification for input of external
data or output of computed results.
However, most runtime environments have a console object[58] that can be used to
print output. Here is a minimalist Hello World program:
console.log("Hello World!");
A simple recursive function:

function factorial(n) {
if (n == 0) {
return 1;
}
return n * factorial(n - 1);
}
Anonymous function (or lambda) syntax and closure example:
var displayClosure = function() {
var count = 0;
return function () {
return ++count;
};
}
var inc = displayClosure();
inc(); // returns 1
inc(); // returns 2
inc(); // returns 3
Variadic function demonstration (arguments is a special variable).[59]
var sum = function() {
var i, x = 0;
for (i = 0; i < arguments.length; ++i) {
x += arguments[i];
}
return x;
}
sum(1, 2, 3); // returns 6
Immediately-invoked function expressions allow functions to pass around variable
s under their own closures.
var v;
v = 1;
var getValue = (function(v) {
return function() {return v;};
})(v);
v = 2;
getValue(); // 1
More advanced example[edit]
This sample code displays various JavaScript features.
/* Finds the lowest common multiple (LCM) of two numbers */
function LCMCalculator(x, y) { // constructor function
var checkInt = function (x) { // inner function
if (x % 1 !== 0) {
throw new TypeError(x + " is not an integer"); // throw an exception
}
return x;
};
this.a = checkInt(x)
// semicolons ^^^^ are optional, a newline is enough
this.b = checkInt(y);
}
// The prototype of object instances created by a constructor is
// that constructor's "prototype" property.
LCMCalculator.prototype = { // object literal
constructor: LCMCalculator, // when reassigning a prototype, set the constru

ctor property appropriately

gcd: function () { // method that calculates the greatest common divisor
// Euclidean algorithm:
var a = Math.abs(this.a), b = Math.abs(this.b), t;
if (a < b) {
// swap variables
t = b;
b = a;
a = t;
}
while (b !== 0) {
t = b;
b = a % b;
a = t;
}
// Only need to calculate GCD once, so "redefine" this method.
// (Actually not redefinition it's defined on the instance itself,
// so that this.gcd refers to this "redefinition" instead of LCMCalculat
or.prototype.gcd.
// Note that this leads to a wrong result if the LCMCalculator object me
mbers "a" and/or "b" are altered afterwards.)
// Also, 'gcd' === "gcd", this['gcd'] === this.gcd
this['gcd'] = function () {
return a;
};
return a;
},
// Object property names can be specified by strings delimited by double (")
or single (') quotes.
lcm : function () {
// Variable names don't collide with object properties, e.g., |lcm| is n
ot |this.lcm|.
// not using |this.a * this.b| to avoid FP precision issues
var lcm = this.a / this.gcd() * this.b;
// Only need to calculate lcm once, so "redefine" this method.
this.lcm = function () {
return lcm;
};
return lcm;
},
toString: function () {
return "LCMCalculator: a = " + this.a + ", b = " + this.b;
}
};
// Define generic output function; this implementation only works for Web browse
rs
function output(x) {
document.body.appendChild(document.createTextNode(x));
document.body.appendChild(document.createElement('br'));
}
// Note: Array's map() and forEach() are defined in JavaScript 1.6.
// They are used here to demonstrate JavaScript's inherent functional nature.
[[25, 55], [21, 56], [22, 58], [28, 56]].map(function (pair) { // array literal
+ mapping function
return new LCMCalculator(pair[0], pair[1]);
}).sort(function (a, b) { // sort with this comparative function
return a.lcm() - b.lcm();
}).forEach(function (obj) {

output(obj + ", gcd = " + obj.gcd() + ", lcm = " + obj.lcm());

});
The following output should be displayed in the browser window.
LCMCalculator: a = 28, b = 56, gcd = 28, lcm = 56
LCMCalculator: a = 21, b = 56, gcd = 7, lcm = 168
LCMCalculator: a = 25, b = 55, gcd = 5, lcm = 275
LCMCalculator: a = 22, b = 58, gcd = 2, lcm = 638
Use in web pages[edit]
See also: Dynamic HTML and Ajax (programming)
The most common use of JavaScript is to add client-side behavior to HTML pages,
a.k.a. Dynamic HTML (DHTML). Scripts are embedded in or included from HTML pages
and interact with the Document Object Model (DOM) of the page. Some simple exam
ples of this usage are:
Loading new page content or submitting data to the server via AJAX without reloa
ding the page (for example, a social network might allow the user to post status
updates without leaving the page)
Animation of page elements, fading them in and out, resizing them, moving them,
etc.
Interactive content, for example games, and playing audio and video
Validating input values of a Web form to make sure that they are acceptable befo
re being submitted to the server.
Transmitting information about the user's reading habits and browsing activities
to various websites. Web pages frequently do this for web analytics, ad trackin
g, personalization or other purposes.[60]
Because JavaScript code can run locally in a user's browser (rather than on a re
mote server), the browser can respond to user actions quickly, making an applica
tion more responsive. Furthermore, JavaScript code can detect user actions that
HTML alone cannot, such as individual keystrokes. Applications such as Gmail tak
e advantage of this: much of the user-interface logic is written in JavaScript,
and JavaScript dispatches requests for information (such as the content of an email message) to the server. The wider trend of Ajax programming similarly explo
its this strength.
A JavaScript engine (also known as JavaScript interpreter or JavaScript implemen
tation) is an interpreter that interprets JavaScript source code and executes th
e script accordingly. The first JavaScript engine was created by Brendan Eich at
Netscape Communications Corporation, for the Netscape Navigator web browser. Th
e engine, code-named SpiderMonkey, is implemented in C. It has since been update
d (in JavaScript 1.5) to conform to ECMA-262 Edition 3. The Rhino engine, create
d primarily by Norris Boyd (formerly of Netscape; now at Google) is a JavaScript
implementation in Java. Rhino, like SpiderMonkey, is ECMA-262 Edition 3 complia
nt.
A web browser is by far the most common host environment for JavaScript. Web bro
wsers typically create "host objects" to represent the Document Object Model (DO
M) in JavaScript. The web server is another common host environment. A JavaScrip
t web server would typically expose host objects representing HTTP request and r
esponse objects, which a JavaScript program could then interrogate and manipulat
e to dynamically generate web pages.
Because JavaScript is the only language that the most popular browsers share sup
port for, it has become a target language for many frameworks in other languages
, even though JavaScript was never intended to be such a language.[61] Despite t
he performance limitations inherent to its dynamic nature, the increasing speed
of JavaScript engines has made the language a surprisingly feasible compilation
target.
Example script[edit]

Below is a minimal example of a standards-conforming web page containing JavaScr

ipt (using HTML 5 syntax) and the DOM:
<!DOCTYPE html>
<meta charset="utf-8">
<title>Minimal Example</title>
<h1 id="header">This is JavaScript</h1>
<script>
document.body.appendChild(document.createTextNode('Hello World!'));
var h1 = document.getElementById('header'); // holds a reference to the <h1>
tag
h1 = document.getElementsByTagName('h1')[0]; // accessing the same <h1> elem
ent
</script>
<noscript>Your browser either does not support JavaScript, or has it turned off.
</noscript>
Compatibility considerations[edit]
Main article: Web interoperability
Because JavaScript runs in widely varying environments, an important part of tes
ting and debugging is to test and verify that the JavaScript works across multip
le browsers.
The DOM interfaces for manipulating web pages are not part of the ECMAScript sta
ndard, or of JavaScript itself. Officially, the DOM interfaces are defined by a
separate standardization effort by the W3C; in practice, browser implementations
differ from the standards and from each other, and not all browsers execute Jav
aScript.
To deal with these differences, JavaScript authors can attempt to write standard
s-compliant code that will also be executed correctly by most browsers; failing
that, they can write code that checks for the presence of certain browser featur
es and behaves differently if they are not available.[62] In some cases, two bro
wsers may both implement a feature but with different behavior, and authors may
find it practical to detect what browser is running and change their script's be
havior to match.[63][64] Programmers may also use libraries or toolkits that tak
e browser differences into account.
Furthermore, scripts may not work for some users. For example, a user may:
use an old or rare browser with incomplete or unusual DOM support,
use a PDA or mobile phone browser that cannot execute JavaScript,
have JavaScript execution disabled as a security precaution,
use a speech browser due to, for example, a visual disability.
To support these users, Web authors can try to create pages that degrade gracefu
lly on user agents (browsers) that do not support the page's JavaScript. In part
icular, the page should remain usable albeit without the extra features that the
JavaScript would have added. An alternative approach that many find preferable
is to first author content using basic technologies that work in all browsers, t
hen enhance the content for users that have JavaScript enabled. This is known as
progressive enhancement.
Security[edit]
See also: Browser security
JavaScript and the DOM provide the potential for malicious authors to deliver sc
ripts to run on a client computer via the Web. Browser authors contain this risk

using two restrictions. First, scripts run in a sandbox in which they can only
perform Web-related actions, not general-purpose programming tasks like creating
files. Second, scripts are constrained by the same origin policy: scripts from
one Web site do not have access to information such as usernames, passwords, or
cookies sent to another site. Most JavaScript-related security bugs are breaches
of either the same origin policy or the sandbox.
There are subsets of general JavaScript
ADsafe, Secure ECMA Script (SES) that pr
ovide greater level of security, especially on code created by third parties (su
ch as advertisements).[65][66]
Content Security Policy is the main intended method of ensuring that only truste
d code is executed on a web page.
See also: Content Security Policy
Cross-site vulnerabilities[edit]
Main articles: Cross-site scripting and Cross-site request forgery
A common JavaScript-related security problem is cross-site scripting, or XSS, a
violation of the same-origin policy. XSS vulnerabilities occur when an attacker
is able to cause a target Web site, such as an online banking website, to includ
e a malicious script in the webpage presented to a victim. The script in this ex
ample can then access the banking application with the privileges of the victim,
potentially disclosing secret information or transferring money without the vic
tim's authorization. A solution to XSS vulnerabilities is to use HTML escaping w
henever displaying untrusted data.
Some browsers include partial protection against reflected XSS attacks, in which
the attacker provides a URL including malicious script. However, even users of
those browsers are vulnerable to other XSS attacks, such as those where the mali
cious code is stored in a database. Only correct design of Web applications on t
he server side can fully prevent XSS.
XSS vulnerabilities can also occur because of implementation mistakes by browser
authors.[67]
Another cross-site vulnerability is cross-site request forgery or CSRF. In CSRF,
code on an attacker's site tricks the victim's browser into taking actions the
user didn't intend at a target site (like transferring money at a bank). It work
s because, if the target site relies only on cookies to authenticate requests, t
hen requests initiated by code on the attacker's site will carry the same legiti
mate login credentials as requests initiated by the user. In general, the soluti
on to CSRF is to require an authentication value in a hidden form field, and not
only in the cookies, to authenticate any request that might have lasting effect
s. Checking the HTTP Referrer header can also help.
"JavaScript hijacking" is a type of CSRF attack in which a <script> tag on an at
tacker's site exploits a page on the victim's site that returns private informat
ion such as JSON or JavaScript. Possible solutions include:
requiring an authentication token in the POST and GET parameters for any respons
e that returns private information
Misplaced trust in the client[edit]
Developers of client-server applications must recognize that untrusted clients m
ay be under the control of attackers. The application author cannot assume that
his JavaScript code will run as intended (or at all) because any secret embedded
in the code could be extracted by a determined adversary. Some implications are
:
Web site authors cannot perfectly conceal how their JavaScript operates because
the raw source code must be sent to the client. The code can be obfuscated, but

obfuscation can be reverse-engineered.

JavaScript form validation only provides convenience for users, not security. If
a site verifies that the user agreed to its terms of service, or filters invali
d characters out of fields that should only contain numbers, it must do so on th
e server, not only the client.
Scripts can be selectively disabled, so JavaScript can't be relied on to prevent
operations such as right-clicking on an image to save it.[68]
It is extremely bad practice to embed sensitive information such as passwords in
JavaScript because it can be extracted by an attacker.
Browser and plugin coding errors[edit]
JavaScript provides an interface to a wide range of browser capabilities, some o
f which may have flaws such as buffer overflows. These flaws can allow attackers
to write scripts that would run any code they wish on the user's system. This c
ode is not by any means limited to another JavaScript application. For example,
a buffer overrun exploit can allow an attacker to gain access to the operating s
ystem's API with superuser privileges.
These flaws have affected major browsers including Firefox,[69] Internet Explore
r,[70] and Safari.[71]
Plugins, such as video players, Adobe Flash, and the wide range of ActiveX contr
ols enabled by default in Microsoft Internet Explorer, may also have flaws explo
itable via JavaScript (such flaws have been exploited in the past).[72][73]
In Windows Vista, Microsoft has attempted to contain the risks of bugs such as b
uffer overflows by running the Internet Explorer process with limited privileges
.[74] Google Chrome similarly confines its page renderers to their own "sandbox"
.
Sandbox implementation errors[edit]
Web browsers are capable of running JavaScript outside the sandbox, with the pri
vileges necessary to, for example, create or delete files. Of course, such privi
leges aren't meant to be granted to code from the Web.
Incorrectly granting privileges to JavaScript from the Web has played a role in
vulnerabilities in both Internet Explorer[75] and Firefox.[76] In Windows XP Ser
vice Pack 2, Microsoft demoted JScript's privileges in Internet Explorer.[77]
Microsoft Windows allows JavaScript source files on a computer's hard drive to b
e launched as general-purpose, non-sandboxed programs (see: Windows Script Host)
. This makes JavaScript (like VBScript) a theoretically viable vector for a Troj
an horse, although JavaScript Trojan horses are uncommon in practice.[78]
Uses outside web pages[edit]
In addition to web browsers and servers, JavaScript interpreters are embedded in
a number of tools. Each of these applications provides its own object model tha
t provides access to the host environment. The core JavaScript language remains
mostly the same in each application.
Embedded scripting language[edit]
Google's Chrome extensions, Opera's extensions, Apple's Safari 5 extensions, App
le's Dashboard Widgets, Microsoft's Gadgets, Yahoo! Widgets, Google Desktop Gadg
ets, and Serence Klipfolio are implemented using JavaScript.
The MongoDB database accepts queries written in JavaScript. MongoDB and NodeJS a
re the core components of MEAN: a solution stack for creating Web applications u
sing just JavaScript.
The Clusterpoint database accept queries written in JS/SQL, which is a combinati
on of SQL and JavaScript. Clusterpoint has built-in computing engine that allows
execution of JavaScript code right inside the distributed database.
Adobe's Acrobat and Adobe Reader support JavaScript in PDF files.[79]

Tools in the Adobe Creative Suite, including Photoshop, Illustrator, Dreamweaver

, and InDesign, allow scripting through JavaScript.
OpenOffice.org, an office application suite, as well as its popular fork LibreOf
fice, allows JavaScript to be used as a scripting language.
The interactive music signal processing software Max/MSP released by Cycling '74
, offers a JavaScript model of its environment for use by developers. It allows
much more precise control than the default GUI-centric programming model.
Apple's Logic Pro X digital audio workstation (DAW) software can create custom M
IDI effects plugins using JavaScript.
ECMAScript was included in the VRML97 standard for scripting nodes of VRML scene
description files.
The open-source Re-Animator framework allows developing 2D sprite-based games us
ing JavaScript and XML.[80]
The Unity game engine supports a modified version of JavaScript for scripting vi
a Mono.[81]
DX Studio (3D engine) uses the SpiderMonkey implementation of JavaScript for gam
e and simulation logic.[82]
Maxwell Render (rendering software) provides an ECMA standard based scripting en
gine for tasks automation.[83]
Google Apps Script in Google Spreadsheets and Google Sites allows users to creat
e custom formulas, automate repetitive tasks and also interact with other Google
products such as Gmail.[84]
Many IRC clients, like ChatZilla or XChat, use JavaScript for their scripting ab
ilities.[85][86]
SpinetiX products use the SpiderMonkey JavaScript engine to allow scripting with
in SVG files to create digital signage projects.[87]
RPG Maker MV uses Javascript as its scripting language.[88]
DroidScript is an Android App development tool that uses Google's V8 Javascript
engine, allowing users to create both native and HTML5 based graphical interface
s as well as accessing device hardware from the JavaScript environment[89]
Scripting engine[edit]
Microsoft's Active Scripting technology supports JScript as a scripting language
.[90]
The Java programming language introduced the javax.script package in version 6 t
hat includes a JavaScript implementation based on Mozilla Rhino. Thus, Java appl
ications can host scripts that access the application's variables and objects, m
uch like web browsers host scripts that access a webpage's Document Object Model
(DOM).[91][92]
The Qt C++ toolkit includes a QtScript module to interpret JavaScript, analogous
to Java's javax.script package.[93]
JSDB (JavaScript for Databases) is an open-source JavaScript shell for Windows,
Mac OS X, Linux, and Unix, which extends the Mozilla JavaScript engine with file
, database, email, and network objects.[94]
jslibs is an open-source JavaScript shell for Windows and Linux that extends the
Mozilla JavaScript engine. It has the ability to call functions in commonly use
d libraries like NSPR, SQLite, libTomCrypt, OpenGL, OpenAL, and librsvg.[95]
OS X Yosemite introduced JavaScript for Automation (JXA), which is built upon Ja
vaScriptCore and the Open Scripting Architecture. It features an Objective-C bri
dge which enables entire Cocoa applications to be programmed in JavaScript.
Late Night Software's JavaScript OSA (a.k.a. JavaScript for OSA, or JSOSA) is a
freeware alternative to AppleScript for Mac OS X. It is based on the Mozilla 1.5
JavaScript implementation, with the addition of a MacOS object for interaction
with the operating system and third-party applications.[96]
Application platform[edit]
ActionScript, the programming language used in Adobe Flash, is another implement
ation of the ECMAScript standard.
Adobe Integrated Runtime is a JavaScript runtime that allows developers to creat
e desktop applications.
CA, Inc.'s AutoShell cross-application scripting environment is built on the Spi
derMonkey JavaScript engine. It contains preprocessor-like extensions for comman

d definition, as well as custom classes for various system-related tasks like fi

le I/O, operation system command invocation and redirection, and COM scripting.
GNOME Shell, the shell for the GNOME 3 desktop environment,[97] made JavaScript
its default programming language in 2013.[98]
The Mozilla platform, which underlies Firefox, Thunderbird, and some other web b
rowsers, uses JavaScript to implement the graphical user interface (GUI) of its
various products.
myNFC is a JavaScript based framework that allows developers to create applicati
ons for smart phones.[99]
Qt Quick's markup language (available since Qt 4.7) uses JavaScript for its appl
ication logic. Its declarative syntax is also similar to JavaScript.
TypeScript is a programming language based on JavaScript that adds support for o
ptional type annotations and some other language extensions such as classes, int
erfaces and modules. A TS-script compiles into plain JavaScript and can be execu
ted in any JS host supporting ECMAScript 3 or higher. The compiler is itself wri
tten in TypeScript.
Ubuntu Touch provides a JavaScript API for its unified usability interface.
webOS uses the WebKit implementation of JavaScript in its SDK to allow developer
s to create stand-alone applications solely in JavaScript.
WinJS provides a special Windows Library for JavaScript functionality in Windows
8 that enables the development of Modern style (formerly Metro style) applicati
ons in HTML5 and JavaScript.
Microcontrollers[edit]
As the specifications of microcontrollers have increased over the last few years
, it has become possible to use JavaScript to control hardware in embedded devic
es. There are currently two main implementations:[100]
Espruino is a JavaScript interpreter for low power microcontrollers.
Tessel is a microcontroller board with built-in WiFi.
Development tools[edit]
Within JavaScript, access to a debugger becomes invaluable when developing large
, non-trivial programs. Because there can be implementation differences between
the various browsers (particularly within the Document Object Model), it is usef
ul to have access to a debugger for each of the browsers that a Web application
targets.[101]
Script debuggers are integrated within Internet Explorer, Firefox, Safari, Googl
e Chrome, Opera and Node.js[102][103][104]
In addition to the native Internet Explorer Developer Tools, three debuggers are
available for Internet Explorer: Microsoft Visual Studio is the richest of the
three, closely followed by Microsoft Script Editor (a component of Microsoft Off
ice),[105] and finally the free Microsoft Script Debugger that is far more basic
than the other two. The free Microsoft Visual Web Developer Express provides a
limited version of the JavaScript debugging functionality in Microsoft Visual St
udio. Internet Explorer has included developer tools since version 8 (reached by
pressing the F12 key).
In comparison to Internet Explorer, Firefox has a more comprehensive set of deve
loper tools, which include a debugger as well. Old versions of Firefox without t
hese tools used a Firefox addon called Firebug, or the older Venkman debugger. A
lso, WebKit's Web Inspector includes a JavaScript debugger,[106] which is used i
n Safari. A modified version called Blink DevTools is used in Google Chrome. Nod
e.js has node-inspector, an interactive debugger that integrates with the Blink
DevTools, available in Google Chrome. Last but not least, Opera includes a set o
f tools called Dragonfly.[107]
In addition to the native computer software, there are online JavaScript IDEs, d
ebugging aids are themselves written in JavaScript and built to run on the Web.
An example is the program JSLint, developed by Douglas Crockford who has written

extensively on the language. JSLint scans JavaScript code for conformance to a

set of standards and guidelines. Many libraries for JavaScript, such as three.js
, provide links to demonstration code that can be edited by users. They are also
used as a pedagogical tool by institutions such as Khan Academy[108] to allow s
tudents to experience writing code in an environment where they can see the outp
ut of their programs, without needing any setup beyond a web browser.
On October 6, 2008[109] Remy Sharp release jsbin, one of the earliest environmen
ts to support live updates of JavaScript, CSS, and HTML. He credits John Resig's
Learning App, [1] as inspiration.
Version history[edit]
See also: ECMAScript Versions and ECMAScript Version correspondence
The following table is based on information from multiple sources.[110][111][112
]
Version Release date
Equivalent to Netscape
Navigator
Mozilla
Firefox Internet
Explorer
Opera Safari Google
Chrome
1.0
March 1996
2.0
3.0
1.1
August 1996
3.0
1.2
June 1997
4.0-4.05
3[113]
1.3
October 1998
ECMA-262 1st + 2nd edition
4.06-4.7x
4.0
5[114]
1.4
Netscape
Server
6
1.5
November 2000 ECMA-262 3rd edition
6.0
1.0
5.5 (JScript 5.5
),
6 (JScript 5.6),
7 (JScript 5.7),
8 (JScript 5.8) 7.0
3.0-5 1.0-10.0.666
1.6
November 2005 1.5 + array extras + array and string generics + E4X
1.5
1.7
October 2006
1.6 + Pythonic generators + iterators + let
2.0
28.0.1500.95
1.8
June 2008
1.7 + generator expressions + expression closures
3.0
11.50
1.8.1
1.8 + native JSON support + minor updates
3.5
1.8.2 June 22, 2009 1.8.1 + minor updates
3.6
Related languages and features[edit]
JSON, or JavaScript Object Notation, is a general-purpose data interchange forma
t that is defined as a subset of JavaScript's object literal syntax. Like much o
f JavaScript (regexps and anonymous functions as 1st class elements, closures, f
lexible classes, 'use strict'), JSON, except for replacing Perl's key-value oper
ator '=>' by an RFC 822[115] inspired ':', is syntactically pure Perl.
jQuery is a popular JavaScript library designed to simplify DOM-oriented clientside HTML scripting along with offering cross-browser compatibility because vari
ous browsers respond differently to certain vanilla JavaScript code.
Underscore.js is a utility JavaScript library for data manipulation that is used
in both client-side and server-side network applications.
Mozilla browsers currently support LiveConnect, a feature that allows JavaScript
and Java to intercommunicate on the Web. However, Mozilla-specific support for
LiveConnect is scheduled to be phased out in the future in favor of passing on t
he LiveConnect handling via NPAPI to the Java 1.6+ plug-in (not yet supported on
the Mac as of March 2010).[116] Most browser inspection tools, such as Firebug

in Firefox, include JavaScript interpreters that can act on the visible page's D
OM.
asm.js is a subset of JavaScript that can be run in any JavaScript engine or run
faster in an ahead-of-time (AOT) compiling engine.[117]
Use as an intermediate language[edit]
As JavaScript is the most widely supported client-side language that can run wit
hin a web browser, it has become an intermediate language for other languages to
target. This has included both newly created languages and ports of existing la
nguages. Some of these include:
Objective-J, a superset of JavaScript that compiles to standard JavaScript. It a
dds traditional inheritance and Smalltalk/Objective-C style dynamic dispatch and
optional pseudo-static typing to JavaScript.
Processing.js, a JavaScript port of Processing, a programming language designed
to write visualizations, images, and interactive content. It allows web browsers
to display animations, visual applications, games and other graphical rich cont
ent without the need for a Java applet or Flash plugin.
CoffeeScript, an alternate syntax for JavaScript intended to be more concise and
readable. It adds features like array comprehensions (also available in JavaScr
ipt since version 1.7)[118] and pattern matching. Like Objective-J, it compiles
to JavaScript. Ruby and Python have been cited as influential on CoffeeScript sy
ntax.
Google Web Toolkit translates a subset of Java to JavaScript.
Scala, an object-oriented and functional programming language, has an experiment
al Scala-to-JavaScript compiler.[119]
Pyjamas, a port of Google Web Toolkit to Python (translates a subset of Python t
o JavaScript)
Dart, an open-source programming language developed by Google, can be compiled t
o JavaScript.
Whalesong,[120] a Racket-to-JavaScript compiler.
Emscripten, a LLVM-backend for porting native libraries to JavaScript.
Fantom a programming language that runs on JVM, .NET and JavaScript.
TypeScript, a free and open-source programming language developed by Microsoft.
It is a superset of JavaScript, and essentially adds optional static typing and
class-based object-oriented programming to the language.
Haxe, an open-source high-level multiplatform programming language and compiler
that can produce applications and source code for many different platforms inclu
ding JavaScript.
ClojureScript,[121] a compiler for Clojure that targets JavaScript. It is design
ed to emit JavaScript code that is compatible with the advanced compilation mode
of the Google Closure optimizing compiler.
Kotlin, a statically-typed language that also compiles to Java byte code.
As JavaScript has unusual limitations
such as no separate integer type, using fl
oating point languages that compile to JavaScript commonly have slightly differe
nt behavior than in other environments.
JavaScript and Java[edit]
A common misconception is that JavaScript is similar or closely related to Java.
It is true that both have a C-like syntax (the C language being their most imme
diate common ancestor language). They also are both typically sandboxed (when us
ed inside a browser), and JavaScript was designed with Java's syntax and standar
d library in mind. In particular, all Java keywords were reserved in original Ja
vaScript, JavaScript's standard library follows Java's naming conventions, and J
avaScript's Math and Date objects are based on classes from Java 1.0,[122] but t
he similarities end there.
The differences between the two languages are more prominent than their similari
ties. Java has static typing, while JavaScript's typing is dynamic. Java is load

ed from compiled bytecode, while JavaScript is loaded as human-readable source c

ode. Java's objects are class-based, while JavaScript's are prototype-based. Fin
ally, Java did not support functional programming until Java 8, while JavaScript
does, as it contains many features based on Scheme.
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Further reading[edit]
Bhangal, Sham; Jankowski, Tomasz (2003). Foundation Web Design: Essential HTML,
JavaScript, CSS, PhotoShop, Fireworks, and Flash. APress L. P. ISBN 1-59059-1526.
Burns, Joe; Growney, Andree S. (2001). JavaScript Goodies. Pearson Education. IS
BN 0-7897-2612-2.
Duffy, Scott (2003). How to do Everything with JavaScript. Osborne. ISBN 0-07-22
2887-3.
Zakas, Nicholas C. (2012). Professional JavaScript for Web Developers (3rd ed.).
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