Sigma Xi, The Scientific Research Society

The Development of Architectural Acoustics: The application of the science of acoustics to

architectural designs has produced greatly improved halls for both speech and music
Author(s): Robert S. Shankland
Source: American Scientist, Vol. 60, No. 2 (March-April 1972), pp. 201-209
Published by: Sigma Xi, The Scientific Research Society
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Robert

The Development
of
Architectural Acoustics

S. Shankland

The application of the science of acoustics to architectural designs

hasproducedgreatlyimproved
hallsfor bothspeechandmusic

From

the

earliest

com

of man's

days

munication with his fellows, there has

been a steady evolution in the use of
spaces

for

speech

communication

and

for music and the related arts. The

first notable developments were
in
the classical Greek
theaters. These
evolved for centuries from Hellenic
into Hellenistic times and were then
modified by theRomans, often inways
not beneficial for acoustics. Their
acoustical properties have been studied
since ancient times and often praised
terms.

in superlative
sis reveals

several

contributing

most

vital

to

Scientific
important

analy
factors

their acoustics.

circumstance

was

the

A
ex

tremely low background noise at the

sites ofGreek theaters. There were no
industrial or airplane noises or street
traffic, the sites were far enough from
the sea to eliminate surfnoise, and they
were sheltered fromwind.
Another prime factor was that the
actors were highly trained for speak
ing and singing and exerted great
physical effort in performance. There

were

some

rudimentary

acoustical

Robert S. Shankland
received the B.S.
degree in
in 1933 from Case
physics in 1929 and theM.S.
School of Applied Science, and the Ph.D.
degree
from the University of Chicago in 1935. He has
conducted research and served as a consultant in
architectural acoustics for forty years. During
World War
II he was Director
of the Under
water Sound Reference Laboratories at Mountain
Lakes, New Jersey, and Orlando, Florida,
op
erated by the OSRD
fcr underwater sound re
search and the development of Sonar. He
has
been a member of thephysics faculty of Case and
Case Western Reserve University
since 1930,
serving as department chairman from 1939 until
1958, and is now Ambrose Swasey Professor of
article is based on the authors
Physics. This
Lectures at
spring 1971 Sigma Xi National

and Yale Universities, and the

Waterloo, McGill,
Air Force
Research
Center.
The
Cambridge
are by Mrs.
Shankland.
Address:
drawings
Rockefeller Physics
Building,
Reserve
10900
University,
Cleveland, OH 44106.

Case
Euclid

Western

Avenue,

to
aids, such as mask mouthpieces
help direct sound to the audience, and
sound

resonating

to

boxes

stand

on,

but for the most part, loudness de

pended on the skill of the performers.
Greek audiences were not uniformly
quiet, and hucksters cried food and
drink, but forkey moments in the per
formances

were

people

attentive,

very

especially as the plays had

or political significance.

religious

was

were

seats

that

arranged

approximately in semicircles on a steep

conical slope. Thus, the sound propa
gating to the audience was confined
to a smaller solid angle than on level
ground, with a corresponding increase
in intensity.Determinations of speech
articulation in classical theaters have
shown that speech intelligibility im
proves with increased seating angle. A
specific comparison of this effect on
in the
speech articulation was made
theater at Syracuse. The seats of this
are

theater

cut

in the native

rock

and,

as seen in Figure 1, their angle at the

rear of the theater is steeper on the left
than on the right side. The
speech
articulation scores dropped from 50 to

40

tions. At Epidaurus
are

of seats

set at

two

these

between

percent

loca

the upper sections

steeper

than

angle

the lower sections to improve hearing

conditions.

theater

the performers.
a

floor was
seating.

audience.

In

stone

circular

built near

This

increased

were

surfaces

Sound-reflecting

near

Further

located

the Greek
"orchestra"

the focus of the

sound-reflecting

the sound

going

developments

of

sound

from

surface

to

the

intro

duced a raised stage (proskenion) be

hind the orchestra, which gave better
angles for direct sound from actor

to listeners.

performers

Certain vertical areas in the skene in

panels
corporated wooden
(pinakes)
as sound reflectors ; they also resonated
the equivalent of a
and produced
weak

reverberation.

small but had

Figure 1 is a drawing of the ancient

theater at
(about 420 b.c.) Greek
Syracuse in Sicily. A most essential
feature

to audience and also for sound re

flected from the orchestra surface
toward the seats. The
stage house
(skene) gave additional sound-reflect
ing surfaces to increase the projection

tance

for

the

The

effect

psychological

actors.

Vitruvius

was

impor
dis

cusses in great detail the use of reso

nating bronze vases {echeia) placed in
area
to improve the
the audience
acoustics.
recesses

These

the

along

were

located

in

center

cross-aisle

of

the theater. A weak sympathetic reso

nance might be produced
in these
tuned vases, but they could not have
had a marked acoustical
effect, for
received
they could hardly have
sufficient sound energy from the stage
to be strongly activated.
Figure 2 shows speech articulation re
sults with standard word listsmade in
several

ancient

Sicily. The
age
rectly

in

theaters

contours

percentage
at various

Italy

and

show the aver

cor

of words

heard

locations

in the audi

toria. The results prove that hearing

conditions are better in the theaters
than at the same distances on level
ground.

The

measurements

also

show

that the greatest improvement occurs

near the center of the theaters, where
both the direct and reflected sound are
most effective and where the maxi
mum useful sound is scattered from
the sides toward the center of the
theater. Sound scattered by people
differs from that diffracted by empty
seats, but the effect on loudness and
is similar. High
speech articulation
in
the
up
theaters, listening conditions
are poorer, and in the top third of
large theaters satisfactory hearing, as
1972 March-April

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201

......... ......
-MORE!glum,
-vow&
7-7

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MRR
JrKI.

All

ofod

nz.

ir
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all

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ALIQQ;

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N

OF

ro,

all

71

theater at Syracuse,
1. Greek
Sicily.
Figure
are cut in the native
the
Seats
rock, and
at
the
varies
of
slope
considerably
angle
was
rear. Half
of the circular
orchestra
the enlarged
Roman
covered
stage
by
and
have
stage house, which
entirely dis
that
tests prove
Articulation
appeared.
in the rear seating sections
hearing conditions
are unsatisfactory.

determinations
articulation
Figure 2. Speech
theaters at Syracuse,
in ancient
Taormina,
in Sicily, and at Ostia
and Segesta
Antica,
and
in Italy. Hearing
Fiesole,
Pompeii
are better
than at corresponding
conditions
on
level ground
distances
lines),
(colored
at the rear in the
conditions
but hearing
not meet
theaters would
larger
standards for speech intelligibility.

accepted

standards
(85
by modern
judged
was
hardly pos
percent articulation),
sible. It should be noted that hearing
the front of the
conditions near
theaters (90 percent curves in Fig. 2)
are poorer than on level ground. This
acoustical defect in the front seats has
been noted even in themost perfectly
preserved theater, that at Epidaurus.
It is due to sound scattered back with
a time delay from the auditorium,
which blurs the direct sound from the
stage.

Wind has a pronounced negative ef

fect on hearing conditions, especially
in the restored
for speech. Tests
Roman theater at Ostia Antica proved
that speech articulation scores in the
rear seats would drop from 75 to 45

percent with moderate winds. Greek

to be
chosen
theater sites were
shielded from wind, but the Romans
often chose sites which failed to meet
this requirement, but the defect was
compensated for in part by the shield
over
ing of large stage houses and
head awnings to give an almost en
closed

space.

In geometrically perfect theaters a

distinct echo tone can be heard at the
focal point owing to constructive inter
ference of sound scattered by the
of the
seats. The
half-wavelength
fundamental tone equals the spacing
between adjacent rows of seats. The
harmonics are also reinforced, and
thus the echo tone from an impulsive
sound is very harsh in quality. The
effect falls off rapidly with distance
away from the focal point of the
auditorium and is absent in theaters
such as those at Syracuse and Segesta,
where the seating geometry is not
an
perfect. It also disappears with
audience.

the Greek
modified
The Romans
theater in several important respects
that resulted in less satisfactory acous
tics. The

250

202

American

Scientist,

Distance
Volume

from speaker in feet

250

sound-reflecting

"orchestra"

was reduced to a semicircle by widen

was
ing the stage, and the remainder
a seating place for dig
as
preempted
nitaries and enlarged by four wide
circular steps for chairs. Consequently,

60

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..

.....

--

---

;r
4
.- .

3. Blossom
Music
outside
Center,
Figure
lawn area,
Cleveland,
showing the audience
similar to the site of a Greek
theater, which
is served by a time-delayed
loud-speaker

acoustical properties of the orchestra

were lost. The stage was also lowered
for the benefit of the front-seat occu
pants, causing sound to travel to the
main auditorium at a less effective
stage gave
angle, and the deeper
poorer

rear-wall

reflections.

Roman

designs greatly increased the com

plexity and height of the stage house,
which increased the reflected and dif
fused sound going from actor to audi
ence, but the higher stage structure
sound and even
delayed
produced
echoes that seriously reduced speech
intelligibility. The awnings to shield
from the sun produced reflected sound
and reverberation
that further im
the
acoustics.
paired
In recent years there has been a re
newed interest in outdoor theaters,
and principles learned from theGreeks
are useful in their design. The site for
the Blossom Music Center near Cleve
land (Fig. 3) was chosen in a natural
amphitheater reminiscent of a Greek
theater. Its location was also selected
for low background
noise. Present
outdoor
theaters
have a stage
day
shell of greater efficiency than the
classical stage house to project sound
to the audience, and a significant por
tion of the listeners are now seated in a
roofed and partially enclosed pavilion.
In addition, electronic sound amplifi
cation is now essential for large out
door

theaters.

development

of theGreek odeion

--"r.-

".

s71

reflected

sounds to the audience.

Dal ton, van Dijk
and

provide

to
has reverberation
system. The
pavilion
concert
hall
acoustics
for 4,500
shell directs
and the large orchestral
people,

many early
(Architects:
Partners. )

that of the theater and

paralleled
a
major acoustical role in the
played

used primarily for the opera

and the standing audience.

from

change
were

to

open-air

moderate-sized

square

structures

with steeply stepped curved seating

and stepped wood roofs. They varied
in capacity from 200 seats to the 2,000
in the Odeion
of
accommodated
Herodes Atticus at Athens. The en
closed space confined the sound, gave
increased
loudness, and produced
useful

reverberation

that

favored

in

struments like the harp and flute and

led to musical
forms utilizing har
in the larger
mony. Reverberation
odeions was controlled by a heavy
drape vela thatwas suspended from the
ceiling.
A much later development, with its
roots in the classical
theater and
odeion, was the Italian opera house.
A notable building in this evolution
was the small roofed theater at Pom
peii. Its interior was rectangular, but
the seating and stage evolved directly
from the Roman modifications of the
It
Greek
theater described
above.
gradually became clear that speech
articulation is improved when seat
ing is arranged on steep angles to pro
vide more effective sound paths. The
Italian opera house is the logical ex
tension of this principle, where the
horseshoe of boxes can be considered
as the limiting shape for a steep sta
The

main-floor

Flynn,

ballet

enclosed

for plays and music. Odeions

spaces

dium.

The

-=-N-v

acoustics

were

inferior, and for years this space was

theater the acoustical

for
speech and music
requirements
were almost identical, but when per
formances went increasingly indoors
as civilization moved to Sicily, Italy,
the
Northern Europe, and England,
more
became
acoustical
problems
specialized. The firstmajor changes in
indoor acoustics since the time of the
Greek odeion occurred in the Chris
tian churches. As these became larger
they emphasized acoustical problems
that had been of only minimal con
cern in earlier times. The hard sur
faces of the interior wall, ceiling, and
In

the Greek

floor

areas

gave

increased

prominence

to reflected sound, which produced

serious disturbing echoes and rever
beration. These difficulties stimulated
a long architectural development of
room shapes that ultimately led to a
in acoustics.

improvement

gradual

first Christian
churches were
and
in
closely pat
shape
rectangular
basilicas.
terned after the Roman
The columns, pilasters, piers, sculp
ture, and decorations in these churches
as the size
helped the acoustics, but
the
of the sanctuaries
increased,
conditions
acoustical
steadily de
teriorated. Another favored shape for
from the
early churches derived
The

Roman

Pantheon.

lar and, when

stanza

at

Rome,

were

These

small, as
the

acoustics

1972 March-April

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circu

in S. Con
were

203

but
circular
satisfactory,
larger
churches, like S. Steffano Rotundo,
were distinctly inferior. This led to a
return to the rectangular shape of the
church that continued
Romanesque
into

modern

times.

But

im

today,

proved structural technology and ver

satile sound
systems
amplification

have

made

new

many

and

-rr

1et

novel

Al.

shapes for churches possible, but not

to

always

their

acoustical

advantage.
;2 -

There was a long interval after the

Roman Empire before rooms having
acoustics were available.
acceptable
The failure to solve acoustical prob
lems greatly delayed the evolution of
art forms with speech and music for
both secular and religious purposes.
Poor

was

acoustics

so

more

services

spectacles

occurred

more

visual

became

than means

for com

by sound. As a result, the

munication
next

and

rather

advance
important
elsewhere.

in

acoustics

A major
influence for this advance,
the
during
period before and after
1600 in Italy and Sicily, involved the
small chapels or "oratorios"
built
adjacent to large churches. Figure 4
shows the interior of an oratorio and
the essential acoustical
emphasizes
in the architecture
elements
and
decorations.

These

rooms

were

used

for worship
by aristocratic groups
that had gained political and social
distinction for service to church and
state.

The

size,

rectangular,

good

acoustics.

oratorios

were
not

of moderate
too

wide,

and

extremely

im

-Z*

ILI

--

204

American

Scientist,

Volume

-o~

--i

70

of San
4. Drawing
of the oratorio
Figure
rectan
Lorenzo,
Palermo,
Sicily. Narrow
gular rooms of this type with high ceilings
were
ornament
and much
wall
sculptural

diffusion from the front and side walls

in the oratorio is to provide many
early reflected sounds from source to
listener. Diffusion of sound at the
rear wall and ceiling eliminates strong
reflections that could produce echoes.
lower walls were covered with
The
heavy, soft fabrics that reduced re
flections and helped control reverbera
tion. The excellent acoustics of the
oratorios, coupled with the support of
talented musicians, made possible a
sustained artistic development of sing
ing

instrumental

and

music

to a

de

gree of sophistication that could never

have occurred in large churches with
their

erate

poor

acoustics.

oratorios, because
size,

had

short

of their mod
reverberation

times, which made

rapid and com
plex music, both singing and instru
choral
mental,
Soloists,
possible.
found
and
instrumentalists
groups,
the acoustical conditions highly favor
able for the progress of their art.
It has gradually become clear that Organs of high quality became avail
the acoustical excellence of a room for able for accompaniment and, of even
and
music, as well as for speech, is dis
interest, woodwind
greater
tinctly improved by increasing the
stringed instruments that would have
diffusion of sound. The chief effect of been wholly
in large
impractical
portant feature of the oratorios is that
they were decorated with a wealth of
sculptural detail, especially on wall
surfaces, which produced much sound
diffusion at all audible frequencies.

-rj

--

with high ceilings. It is now accepted

that this is the ideal room shape for The
Another

-V

7AA

in

prevalent

large churches that itwas a prime in

fluence in the development of the form
of religious service in theRomanesque,
and Baroque
Gothic, Renaissance,
was
It
essential
formusic to
periods.
be played and sung slowly, and speak
to chanting to give
ing gave way
reasonable intelligibility. Thus, Medi
eval church music was
limited to
forms and
slow choral
Gregorian
works. At best the acoustical results
were
the
hardly
satisfactory, and

the forerunners
of Italian
were
Acoustical
conditions
of music.
development

concert
halls.
ideal
for the

churches gained favor in the oratorios.

The violin, which had hitherto been
only an instrument for street music,
became socially acceptable, and the
flute and harp experienced a revival of
popularity they had not known since
the time of theGreeks. This inevitably
led to the development of new forms
of musical

composition.

The

"ora

torio" as a recognized musical form

took its name from the room inRome
St. Philip Neri
where
conducted
musical
his
groups and produced
compositions. It is also of interest to
note that Handel wrote much of his
music in a small church at Canon's
Park at Edgeware, England, and it
was often performed in the Holywell
Music Room at Oxford, both rooms
having acoustical properties similar
to the Italian oratorios.
In northern Italy, and especially in
the palace ballroom, which
Venice,
had acoustical properties similar to
the oratorio, provided another ex
de
cellent environment for musical
The
ball
secular
velopments.
palace
room

permitted

an

even

more

com

plete break with early church music

than the oratorio could allow and also

60

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A
B
C

4-

the direct sound to give increased

loudness. He designed the wall and
ceiling surfaces of the Smithsonian
to give useful early re
Lecture Hall
flected sounds in accordance with this
principle. All delayed reflections heard
within the 50 millisecond
interval,
provided these delayed sounds are not
too loud compared with the direct
sound, will be heard as a single signal
of increased loudness and identified
as coming from the direction of the
the
first sound perceived. Although
delayed sounds are not individually
detected, they nevertheless form an
acoustical image quite different from
that produced
by a direct source

St. Thomas
Church, Leipzig
Troy, N.Y., Concert Hall
Severance Hall, Cleveland

S3
0
e

oA

0
*

B
S2
e

alone.

This

"precedence

effect,"

or

is of major
"intimacy,"
importance
formusic and is a prime objective in
concert hall design.

100
5. Reverberation
Figure
time-frequency
for the Troy,
characteristics
New
York,
concert hall; Severance
in Cleveland;
Hall,
and St. Thomas
in Leipzig.
The
Church,
first two are excellent concert halls, and St.

gave

increased

mental

music
The

organ.

to

prominence

new

freedoms

instru

of

independent
led

the

to con

tinual change in the design of larger

halls and in the forms of musical
composition and ushered in the era
of classical

music

as

art.

secular

The building of Italian-type concert

halls
spread
throughout northern
Europe as music developed during the
two centuries after 1650.
Italian
architects were often employed
in
Germany,
Europe,

and

Russia,
and
noted

elsewhere

in

architects,

English

including Inigo Jones, studied the

buildings designed by famous Italian
architects,

Palladio.

especially

major

importance

Jones's

the Banqueting
Palace, were of

designs, especially
Hall
in Whitehall

for

later

concert

in England. One of these with

exceptionally fine acoustics is Covent
in London,
Garden
equally fine for
halls

both

opera

and

orchestral

concerts.

Thus, concert hall evolution into the

late nineteenth century was largely
based on Italian models
initiated by
the oratorios. The
culmination
of
acoustical

in

excellence

the

rectangu

lar Italian concert hall is best illus

trated by the Gewandhaus
in Leipzig
in
the
World
War
II),
(destroyed
Musikvereinssaal

at Vienna,

ton Symphony Hall,

and

generally

Bos

con

The direction, intensity, quality, and

a reflected or amplified
1000 Frequency-Hertz
10.000 time delay of
sound are all critical to achieve the
where
Bach
and per
full effect of this phenomenon. The
Thomas,
composed
re
formed his greatest
has
compositions,
best directions for delayed sounds are
verberation
conditions
suitable for a concert
near the plane defined by the source
hall.
when
the
(All the halls were occupied
and the listener's ears, and at angles
reverberation
times were
recorded.)
not greater than 80? from the line of
from the source. Thus,
propagation
sidered to be the best concert halls in delayed sounds from stage shell and
the world.
than
side walls are more desirable
those from the ceiling or rear wall.
sound
The
intensity of a delayed
Acoustical
principles
should not exceed that of the direct
the continuous evolution of sound
During
by more than about 10 decibels,
rooms
a
for various
and the distribution of time delays
uses,
parallel
should be uniform in the allowed 0 to
growth in theoretical understanding
of the behavior of sound in enclosures
50 millisecond
interval. The spectral
has gradually influenced architectural
character of the early reflected sound
should be nearly the same as that of
design. One of the most important
the direct sound for the precedence
principles for room acoustics is the
limit of perceptibilityor precedence effect, effect to be
fully operative. This is the
discovered by Joseph Henry in 1854
basic defect in the use of suspended
while designing a new lecture hall for ceiling panels to produce early re
the Smithsonian
Institution. This
as
scat
inefficient
flections,
they are
effectmakes delayed sounds reflected
terers
The
sound.
of
low-frequency
from wall and ceiling surfaces (and
im
effect is especially
precedence
today from suitably
time-delayed
portant for large churches where
directional loud speakers) blend with
directional loud speakers are mounted
the direct sound to create a single
along the nave in circuits to give
acoustical
in the listener's
image
proper time delays, depending on the
consciousness.
distance from the pulpit, and for
for large out
sound amplification
conducted outdoor
Professor Henry
door
audiences.
experiments

near

large

vertical

wall

of the original Smithsonian building

and found that sound reflected from
thiswall failed to give a distinct echo
the time delay behind
the
when
initial sound was less than 50 milli
seconds. He concluded that reflections
from wall and ceiling surfaces in an
auditorium with time delays that did
not exceed this limitwould blend with

in architectural
A
great advance
C.
acoustics was made
by Wallace
in
Harvard
of
Sabine,
University,
the years just before 1900. He made
the first quantitative
study of rever
of sound
beration, the phenomenon
a room
in
to
be
audible
continuing
for an appreciable time after the source
ceases
to radiate.
defined
Sabine
1972 March-April

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205

as

time

reverberation

the

interval

to one (60 decibel)

a million

for

decrease

in sound-pressure
level
after a sound
source
is stopped.
He
the rela
found
to the air
tion of reverberation
time
of a

volume

room

and

the

surfaces,
by
Air
audience.

absorption
and
the

total

sound

furnishings,
absorption

is

times

for

also important at high frequencies.

reverberation

Acceptable
rooms
vary
but

limits,
listeners
that
agree
are
near
1.0
values

experienced

the

optimum
seconds
for
and

music,
organ.

1.5

speech,
seconds

2.0

opera,

reasonable

within

seconds

for

for

longer
times

reverberation

ad

versely affect speech

intelligibility
and clarity ofmusic, while too short a
time

reduces

sensation

an

causes

and

loudness

undesirable

called

"dry

ness."

Not

should

only

proper
average
but
variation
the

time with
audible

room have

range
of a

natural

tone

to

nearly

the
the

instruments,
constant

reverberation time through themiddle

frequency range, from 300 cycles to
1,500 cycles. At higher frequencies
the
come
of

times

reverberation
air

absorption.

beration
music

of

at

be

usually
shorter
because

progressively

high

short

Too

rever

robs

frequencies

its "brilliance."

Reverbera

tion times below 300 cycles should

increase to the lowest

progressively
audible

Prominent

frequencies.
reverberation
frequency
gives
ness
which
is especially
of tone,"
sirable
for music.
5
Figure

low
de
shows

T he diffusionor scatteringof sound is a

highly important factor for the acous
tics of rooms. For effective diffusion,
sound must strike architectural fea
or other
tures, furniture, people,
objects having dimensions approximat
ing the wavelength of the sound. For
low-frequency sounds, objects must
be several feet across, while for the
highest frequencies objects of only a
few inches in dimension will be effec

is that the scattered sound provides

many early reflections. This is likely
the "secret" ofmany fine old halls in
Europe.

Scientist,

Volume

are

chandeliers

Large
sound

diffusers.

also

effective
the

However,

travels

sound

without

much

through
deviation.

scattered

sound

has

frequency
chandelier
the

a wall

lengths are
angles.

scattered

through large
are

chandeliers

Large

also

effective in breaking up focusing and

that
high-frequency standing waves
cause

undesirable

intensity

in the high

harmonics

variations

of musical

the

completely
construction

under
there

is little danger of excessive sound dif

because

fusion

architectural

the

installation
or

features

of

decorations

for this purpose is expensive, and with

present-day building skills it is ex
Best
tremely difficult to achieve.
seem
to
result
when
conditions
listening
the

sound

field

some

preserves

direc

tionality and is not completely ran

is a limit (seldom
domized. There
to
the
attained)
degree of desirable
diffusion.

The

binaural

listener

to

hearing
identify

sense
and

enables
concentrate

conditions

These

orchestra.

the best
near

are

hear

The

each

the

time-delay
horizontal

pro

sequence
plane.

other.

characteristic

quency

versus

time

reverberation

of a concert

fre
hall,

as shown in Figure 5, should rise at

low frequencies and slope off at high
it

However,

frequencies.

that

emphasized

correct

should

concert

excellent

insure

hall.

concert hall design

and

be

reverbera

tion conditions alone will not

an

diences
is not
optimum
In modern
stood.

There

architectural

to the stage
The
surfaces adjacent
and in the orchestra shell should give
adequate mixing of sound and also
provide reflections so that the players

amount of sound diffusion that is

The

theater.

legitimate
as
much

be

duce early reflected sounds that come

predominantly from the side walls and
the vicinity of the stage rather than
from the rear wall and ceiling;
they

can

very

all wave

where

diffuser,

the

detail as possible for sound diffusion,

near
especially on the side walls and

and

different frequency spectrum from

the incident, so is not as useful for the
effect as that diffracted
precedence
from

in

thus have

sound

is pre
by a chandelier
dominantly high frequency, for low
scattered

that both au
is

praise

performers

essentially rectangular, with a high

ceiling, with a balcony or balconies
that

do

not

extend

too

far over

seats

below, and with articulated box or

balcony fronts, to give considerable
diffusion. An example of a fine stage
design for this type of hall is shown in
Figure 6. In this hall (in Troy, New
York) early reflected sounds reach the
listener with a wide spread in time
the shorter time
delays but with
delays emphasized. As is evident in
rear wall, especially
Figure 6, the stage
the

curved

portion,

has

architectural

detail for effective diffusion of sound.

floor is closely
The wooden main
coupled

structurally

to

the

stage,

and

it is possible that this feature con

tributes to the acoustical quality of
the hall.

sounds and
attention on desirable
it is
unwanted
much
sound;
ignore
especially important for discriminat
The development of concert halls of
ing against noise. In architectural
acoustics the binaural effect helps a
rectangular shape is one of the most
of
the location
listener establish
important factors in architectural
and halls which
a sound source and also gives him a
depart
acoustics,
feeling for the size and shape of a room. markedly from this shape often have
inferior acoustics. On the other hand,
to the Italian
that adhere
halls
of acoustical
Examples
oratorio-concert hall todition, such as
designs
the new Kennedy Arts Center concert
almost without
hall in Washington,
has proved
Concert halls. Experience
that the most desirable shape for a
exception have excellent acoustics.
is rectangular. The
concert hall
the
room should not be too wide;
to
insure
be
should
high,
ceiling
reverberation; and the or
adequate
chestra stage should be located in the
hall

American

probably,

"full

typical reverberation time-frequency

characteristics for two concert halls
that have excellent acoustics, and also
St. Thomas
for Bach's
in
Church
Leipzig. Note that the reverberation
in this church is essentially the same
as for a concert hall.

206

of diffusion,

aspect

portant

the

preserve

of musical
a

For

should

instruments.

throughout
critical.

hall
be

time

reverberation

of

is also

should

the

reverberation

frequency

acoustics
there

as

a room
intensity
throughout
troublesome
dead
eliminate
spots,
most
echoes.
im
and
The
focusing,

Thus,

symphonic

somewhat

Long

for

the sound

and

itself aned

not

in a

recesserd

space

Departure from the rectangular shape,

however, need not be disastrous for
the acoustics. For example, in the fan
shaped Severance Hall in Cleveland,
seats in the dress circle and balcony

60

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reflections would have too long a time

delay.

a theater are
Ceiling reflections in
important primarily for the balcony
seats. It is also essential to provide
properly designed soffits under the
balconies, with hard surfaces sloping
upward toward the stage so that sound
will be reflected to the seats under the

- *-

balcony.

recent trend toward providing

The
use for con
halls of multipurpose

-Alp.I

N~
N4

<471

certs,

opera,

volume

and

as

6. Stage
details
Figure
inTroy, New York. The
extension,

side

boxes,

of the concert hall

rear wall and curved
and
organ
exposed

receive excellent sound by many early

reflections from ceiling and side walls
in a masterful design by the late
and the original
Dayton C. Miller,
lack of early reflected sound on. the
main floor has been corrected by a
special stage shell with effective sound
reflecting and diffusing properties.
The most successful opera houses all
have
the general
features of the
classic golden horseshoe. Examples
are La Scala inMilan,
San Carlo at
at Pa
the
Massimi
Teatro
Naples,
lermo, and the opera houses in Rome
and New York. Since the intelligibility
of speech as well as the quality of
music
is important for opera,
the
reverberation

times

of an

opera

house

should be shorter (1.5 seconds) than

ihose in a concert hall (2 seconds).
re
Legitimate theater.The acoustical
quirements for the legitimate theater
are closely related to those for the
opera house, but with
important
differences. Both must provide ade
quate loudness, low noise levels, and
clarity of articulation. The prime need

sound diffusion and give

pipes provide much
and
many
early reflections to both audience
orchestra.

theater for intelligibility of

is

however,

speech,

in

accom

part

plished by a shorter reverberation

time (1 second). But itmust not be
too short, for reverberation
adds
to speech, and, furthermore,
"body"
too short a reverberation would mean
excessive

sound
loss

sequent

in

with

absorption,

and

loudness,

con
sense

that the performance was staged out

are
The
doors.
best
conditions
achieved with the lower frequencies
less emphasized than formusic.
It ismost effective to provide the early
reflected sounds in a theater from
wall

and

scenery

the stage. This

turn

at

various

on

surfaces

is because
angles

from

or

near

the actors
the

au

dience, and only by having efficient

sound reflectors at the rear and sides
of the stage as well as a hard floor can
loudness of speech be in
adequate
it
sured. Another factor that makes
desirable for early sound reflections to
originate on or near the stage is that
theaters

are

usually

to

theater,

wider

than

con

cert halls, to bring the audiences near

the performance, and thus side wall

the

hence

for play,

needed

save

reverberation,
or concert.

opera,

Elaborate
engineering is required for
these installations, and some have
proved successful-for example, in the
at Houston,
Jesse Jones Theater
Texas, and at the new Arts Center in
Canada.

Ottawa,

in the

and

building costs, has put great demands

on acoustical designs, since the op
timum conditions for concert hall
and theater differ considerably. This
situation has been met by two general
approaches. One is to have a system
of variable
sound absorbers in the
auditorium so that the reverberation
can
be
time conditions
altered
the
necessary range. The
throughout
other is to have complex mechanisms
that adjust the ceiling height and
balcony openings to change the air

building
these

complex

are

features

the

both

However,

costs for

and maintenance

great,

and

the question ismoot as towhether it is

one hall with
better to provide
variable acoustics or to provide sep
arate halls for different types of
as

performances,

has

done

been

at

Center in New York and the

Kennedy Center inWashington.
Lincoln

Churches.The acoustics of churches has

had a longer and more complex history
than that of any other building form,
and it is no less complicated
today
when many new large churches of
novel and imaginative architecture are
being constructed. A church sanctuary
excellent acoustical
should provide
conditions for speech, solo and choral
singing, and organ music. Since the
acoustical criteria for these differ con
siderably, a design that will be satis
factory for them all is difficult to
and
from pulpit
achieve.
Speech
lectern

requires

acoustical

conditions

like those of the legitimate

For

organ

music

longer

theater.

reverberation

times than those considered optimum

for speech and other forms of music
are usually desired, but this require
1972 March-April

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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

207

ment

is often

church
loudness
both

In

exaggerated.

the necessity

large

for adequate

on
demands
complex
acoustics
and
sound

adds

architectural

choral works. The

were

Latin

ness and

to minimize

excessive

reverberation,

skill was developed

amplification.

resonances

For proper speech intelligibility with

out a carefully designed directional
and

sound
time-delayed
time
reverberation
with
not

should

congregation

the
system,
a
normal
2.5

exceed

seconds. In small churches this limit

can hardly be exceeded. For large
churches

extensive

treatments

are

sound-absorbing
to control
needed

often

reverberation.

Sound-absorbing
to make
the reverbera
help
on congrega
time less dependent
size.

seat

cushions
tion
tion

be

churches

large
made

between

was

Bach

where

an

has

organist,

choirmaster

areas

reverberation

average

time (with a large congregation) of

2.2 seconds. The rapid and intricate
organ music of Bach had great clarity
with this short (for churches) reverber
while

ation,

cathedrals

in

reverberant

large

the details of his com

are lost in the prolonged

positions
rumble.

itecture

the acoustical

have

conditions

varied greatly. In the early Christian

era

two

were

types

tangular and
evolved

from

the

and

the second

large

circular

Pantheon

the

Roman

air

church

such

mausoleum,

were

surfaces

seating was
gregations.

were

forms

of Augustus.
aban

gradually

because

of the superior
of the rectangular
form.

acoustics

reverberation,

the

and

large

All

these

were

and
that
es

improved,

covered

with

and

wood,

for larger con

supplied
Smaller

changes

The

improved

churches

were

reverbera

reduced

the acoustics.

also led to

Counter-Reformation
in

acoustics

improved

through the development

and

This

of architectural

ornament

and

churches

of Baroque

architecture.

a wealth

and

weakly

coupled side aisles and chapels, and

the resulting increase in sound dif
fusion

and

absorption

produced

acous

tical conditions superior to those in

and Gothic churches of
Romanesque
size.

comparable

plans to bring the congregation closer

to the service. These changes from the
ideal rectangular shape greatly com
plicate the acoustics as sound must be
projected to the congregation through
an angle of 180? or more. This puts
great strain on the preacher and also
imposes severe requirements for the
sound amplification system. Modern

materials

Romanesque

churches,

Sabina,

as

such

basilica-type
S.

and S. Maria

Rome,

are moderate

became

progressively

S.

Cl?mente,

in Cosmedin
in size

and

in

have

excellent acoustics both for music

and the spoken homily. These early
churches originally had
elaborate
coffered wood
ceilings, which both
absorbed
and diffused sound. As
churches increased in size to the great
and Gothic cathedrals
Romanesque
of Medieval
times their acoustics
Loudness

poorer.

and intelligibility of speech and clarity

in music were lost, and the service

was

forced

munication
208

American

to

emphasize

and

com

visual

chants

Scientist, Volume

and

slow

it is possible to produce artic

Today
ulate speech in large churches by
sound amplification even with long
reverberation.

This

requires

of

the

use

construction

excessive

echoes,

reverberation,

and focusing must be avoided. Sound

diffusion is of the utmost importance in
churches of this form, but modern
it extremely
costs make
building
difficult to fulfill this basic require
ment.

Rows

main
and

narthex

connecting

for

to the
areas,

similar features all

lofts, and

make

chapels,

windows

recessed

sanctuary,
doors,

choir

side

of columns,

spaces with openings

adjacent

con

acoustical

improved

ditions and should be used whenever

possible. In large churches the total
into
air volume should be divided
to
the
separate weakly coupled spaces
visual
extent
with
greatest
compatible
requirements.

in architectural

Trends
acoustics

are many possibilities for future

There

developments

tics. The

building

in

acous

architectural

immense variety of new

of
and methods
materials

construction

have

greatly

increased

the range of novel and unconventional

room

Early

newer

and

methods
permit great flexibility in
church design, with the imaginative use
of large areas of glass and other sound
unless
and,
reflectors,
carefully
in these churches
the
acoustics
planned,
can be disastrous for both speech
rules
intelligibility and music. No
cover all cases, but the fundamental
to achieve
adequate
requirements
loudness and clarity must be met,
and

glass.

built, and large cathedrals often were

divided into several areas of worship.

detail
the

nave,

in
pecially in the Lutheran Church
the
and
Presbyterian
Germany
stone
Hard
Church
in Scotland.

employs

as

between

volume
and

acoustics

decoration

the

structures

these

It was only with theReformation

the reemphasis on preaching

first

from

the sound.

excessive

of stone

rec

basilica,

derived

and theTomb

Circular
doned

used:

the circular. The

great

only slightly improves with a

because
of the
congregation

tion and

In the long evolution of church arch

and

coupling

has

large

and

the effects of

side aisles, and other spaces is strong,

and the entire edifice acts nearly as a
single air volume to give long reverber
ation. The modern Gothic cathedral,
e.g. St. John the Divine inNew York
City,

time desirable for speech intelligibility

and that needed formusic, especially
organ. St. Thomas Church in Leipzig,

increase

in using building

In

cathedrals.

which

must
compromise
the reverberation

of

loud

of great size and poor

reached their limit in the

the acoustical

enormous
In

to reinforce

Churches
acoustics
Gothic

vowels

open
to

intoned

shapes

that architects

can

create.

This flexibility in design has permitted

many deviations from the traditional
forms formerly considered acceptable
in rooms for speech and music.

are
new
directional
loud Many
advanta
structures
column-type
so
most
have
that
of
the
is
sound
but
others
geous
speakers
acoustically,
directed toward the congregation and
proved to be ineffective. As a result
acoustical designing for architecture
only a small fraction strikes hard wall
or ceiling surfaces. This reduces sound
has become increasingly challenging.
energy in the reverberant field in
to useful direct sound. A factor of major importance today
comparison
is the design of acoustically coupled
It is essential that the loud speakers
that the total
be operated with suitable time delays
spaces, which means
into several
is divided
tomake use of the precedence effect.
air volume
connected

Many
circular,

new

churches

hexagonal,

or

are built with

octagonal

floor

regions.

Close

acoustic

cou

pling permits sound energy to propa

gate readily back and forthbetween the

60

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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

several

volumes.

weak

Conversely,

acoustical

energy

coupling

one

leaving

with

the sound
not

does

space

easily return. Coupled air spaces will

be of the greatest importance in the
of

design

where

rooms,

large

weak

It will

the possible

control,

care

Great
to

however,

must

insure

that

tive designs made

vances

in

be

exercised,

the

imagina

ad

by

possible

structural

ex

engineering

clude undesirable

echoing and strong

reflections, focusing, disturbing dif

fraction

dead

effects,

and

spaces,

sound distribution. A wide

unequal
new room shapes will be
of
range
and

evolved,
properly
collaboration
science

for

to

these

must

there

between

and

A steady increase in noise is a growing

in rooms
as

considered

and

for speech

music.

that this problem

be

in

the

factor

prime

design and construction of buildings.

Here
the technology is well under
stood, and it is largely a matter of cost
and

attitudes

for

ditions to be achieved.

con

acceptable

concert

react

with

each

tectural

acoustics,

acoustics

will

possibilities

art

New

other.

forms

new facilities from archi

will demand

and

continually

that cannot

in the present

environments

in

advances
open

be

new

realized

of theater,

One

house.

opera

excellence.

simply making
performances
but
diences,
tive

will
of

This

for

types of

imagina
them
forms

be music,

or

au

larger

an

special

in art forms will

changes

to

not mean

will

require
the art

these

services,

strong

will be needed

conventional

whether

demand

character

available

evolution

Changes

the

performances.

positive approach
insure

on

influence

profound
artistic
of

selves,

Architectural acoustics in the future

will be closely linked with the evolu
tion of new art forms. They will

or

hall,

of the chief factors that will stimulate

this collaboration will be larger and
larger audiences, which will have a

in room

plays,
events.

inevitably
The

shape.

central stage may be supplemented by

many
and

auxiliary
here
acoustical

performance

areas,
for

developments

the design of coupled rooms will come

to the fore. A beginning has been
made,

and

the

future

holds

great

promise.

function

ever

be

architectural

church

ele

variable

satisfactory

including

ments.

increase

reverberation

also

of

the

design.

It is essential

The new architectural freedom should

result in designs that provide more
early reflected sound and
adequate
more
efficient sound-diffusing ele
methods

of

features

hazard

acoustical coupling isneeded.

ments.

the outset to be compatible with all

basic

closer

acoustical

architectural

design.

It has long been realized that acous

tical problems become progressively
more difficult with increasing room
size.

The

continual

size and

dience

sophisticated

and

church
on

demands

While
small

concerts,

for both

operas,

services will place

architectural

the acoustical
rooms

are

speech

au

in

growth

the evolution of more

plays,

great

acoustics.

requirements for

essentially
and music,

the

these

same

re

quirements diverge greatly for large

spaces and present difficult conflicts
in design. At the same time artistic
creations
for large audiences
will
become more specialized and varied,
making the related acoustical factors
ever more critical. The
skillful use
of coupled air spaces will be helpful
as will better use of absorptive, re
flective, and sound diffusing architec
tural elements. Large halls will also
require greatly improved sound am
re
systems, which will
plification
quire major advances in loud speaker
and microphone
design and asso
ciated electronic circuits. The
pre
cedence effect must be employed in
much more quantitative fashion than
in its present applications. The
re
quirements for improved electronics
pose challenges thatmust be solved in
close collaboration with architectural
acoustics. It will not be satisfactory
simply to install loud speakers when a
is completed;
instead, an
building
entire system must be desig-ned from

9p

4'4

'A

'Just don't think about it.We've always been carnivorous, and

we always will be carnivorous.''
1972 March-April

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209