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Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 8 (2014) 7491
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Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/seta
Original Research Article
Review of energy storage technologies for sustainable power networks

D.O. Akinyele , R.K. Rayudu
School of Engineering and Computer Science, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington 6140, New Zealand
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 9 September 2013
Revised 26 June 2014
Accepted 22 July 2014
Keywords:
Adiabatic-CAES
Renewable integration
Sub-surface pumped hydro
Tri-generation
Underwater-CAES
a b s t r a c t
A signicant percentage of the global energy demand is expected to be met through widespread supply of
renewable electricity in the near future. However, renewable energy outputs are variable due to a stochastic characteristic of their sources. Electrical power system operators around the world are faced with
difculties of integrating these variable power sources into the existing power grids. Energy storage systems are one of the possible solutions for mitigating the effects of intermittent renewable resources on
networks, allowing increased renewable energy utilization, and providing exibility and ancillary services for managing future electricity supply/demand challenges. This paper presents a comprehensive
review of energy storage technologies that are currently engaged for power applications, including
pumped hydro, compressed-air, battery, ywheel, capacitor, supercapacitor, superconducting magnetic
and thermal systems. The study compares the characteristics of these systems, and presents their
technological development status and capital costs. Some directions for future work are also highlighted.
Furthermore, particular attention is paid to some new storage technologies such as: adiabatic, underwater, isothermal and small-scale compressed-air; sub-surface, seawater and variable-speed pumped hydro,
and pumped heat systems, which hold opportunity for future smart electrical grid applications, but there
is need for more research to actualize their promising potentials.
2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Introduction
Recent concerns on the increase of carbon dioxide emissions
(CDE) in the environment, rising energy demands, and the liberalization of the electricity sector have informed the attention of global community to renewable energy technologies [1]. Renewable
energy, such as solar, wind, hydro, biomass, geothermal, wave or
tidal is an energy obtained from natural and persistent ows of
energy occurring in the immediate environment, with a huge
potential for alternative electricity generation [2]. Though integration of intermittent renewable energy (RE) generation is new in the
evolution of electrical power systems, it is receiving increasing
attention around the world, due to certain technical benets it
offers, including improvement of power quality and voltage prole,
enhancement of voltage stability and reliability, and grid support,
etc. [3]. However, grid-integrated renewable systems affect the
operational characteristics of existing power networks, because
of the stochastic nature of renewable energy sources [4,5]. In certain cases, the grid may not be able to accommodate the entire
RE generation at the PCC, and this will lead to curtailment of power
generation, to a level that could be allowed by the network
Corresponding author. Tel.: +64 223891364.

E-mail address: daniel.akinyele@ecs.vuw.ac.nz (D.O. Akinyele).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2014.07.004
2213-1388/ 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
characteristics [6]. This development will restrict renewable

energy production, and limit its further uptake in the future. Compensation for variability in power networks at different time scales
is being achieved by some generators which are dedicated for
intermediate and peaking generation, and operating reserves [7].
However, the application of demand response (DR) and ESSs have
been identied as possible solutions for intermittency of renewable energy resources [7]. Renewable energy resources are dependent on weather conditions, and because of this, they cannot be
dispatched; this means that if renewable electricity is not stored,
it must be utilized as soon as it is generated [8]. ESSs have a capacity to absorb the variability of renewable energy sources [8], and
can allow renewable power to be dispatched. They are useful in
every section of electrical power systems; for large (GW), medium
(MW), or micro (kW) scale applications, depending on the function
and location. At generation, they are employed for energy arbitrage, balance and reserve; for frequency regulation and investment deferral at transmission level; for voltage control,
investment deferral, grid capacity support at distribution level;
and for peak shaving, ToU cost management, etc. at the customer-side [9,10]. They are also a necessary component for smart
grid systems, which are expected to thrive in the future for widespread deployment of distributed generation technologies.
Some recent scholarly research has been conducted on the
applications of energy storage systems for electrical power
D.O. Akinyele, R.K. Rayudu / Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 8 (2014) 7491
75
Nomenclature
ATES
BES
BP
CAES
CES
CEST
CDE
CS
CSP
DER
DG
DR
ESS
EEST
Estorage
EM
EV
FES
HEB
HS
HTES
Hupper
Hlower
Li-ion
MEST
NaS
NBC
aquiferous thermal energy storage

battery energy storage
bridging power
compressed air energy storage
cryogenic energy storage
chemical energy storage technologies
carbon dioxide emission
capacitor storage
concentrated solar plant
distributed energy resources
distributed generation
demand response
energy storage system
electrical energy storage technologies
energy stored
energy management
electric vehicle
ywheel energy storage
high energy battery
hydrogen storage
hot thermal energy storage
height of upper hydro reservoir
height of lower hydro reservoir
lithium-ion
mechanical energy storage technologies
sodium sulfur
novel battery chemistries
applications. One of such is a technical report in [11] by NREL on

the role of energy storage technologies with RE electricity generation, focusing on large-scale deployment of intermittent RE
resources. Jiang et al. proposed a robust unit commitment with
wind power, in which pumped hydro storage technology is applied
for absorbing the variability of wind energy resource [4]. An executive overview of energy storage options for a sustainable energy
future has been presented in [12], which deals with the economics
and competitive edge of energy storage technologies. A hybrid
energy storage system (HESS) controlled by wavelet-based capacity conguration, for smoothing out wind power intermittency
has been presented in [13]; where the author discussed a hybrid
option consisting of an ultra-capacitor and lithium-ion battery
banks, for better storage performance. Tewari et al. presented the
analysis and results of capacity of sodium sulfur (NAS) battery
for grid integration of wind power [7]. Competitive storage systems with RE applications have also been presented in [14]. In
[15], the author considered an energy management approach of
employing ywheel storage for smoothing uctuation of wind
power output. Also, a critical review of the progress in electrical
energy storage system was discussed by Chen et al., focusing on
the descriptions, applications, and comparison of energy storage
systems [16]. The application of Vanadium Redox ow battery
has been proposed in [17] for enhancing integration of wind
power. An optimal power ow has also been discussed for distribution power networks with distributed generation (DG) and battery
energy storage [8]. While the author in Ref. [18] presented adequacy and economy analysis of distribution systems integrated
with electric energy storage and renewable energy resources,
[19] proposed how distribution network systems could be
expanded with DG and energy storage units, by applying a modied Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) algorithm. A study has
been conducted on the economics of compressed air energy storage (CAES) system to interconnect wind power with the grid for
a case study of Electric Reliability Council of Texas (ERCOT) [20].
NiCd
PHS
PHES
PHEV
PCC
PSBB
PCM
RE
RTE
SCES
SMES
SoS
SPHS
SSPHS
TES
TEST
T/D
ToU
VSPHS
V2G
VRB
ZEBRA
ZnBr
x
I
nickelcadmium
pumped hydro storage
pumped heat electrical storage
plug-in hybrid electric vehicle
point of common coupling
polysulphide bromine battery
phase change materials
renewable energy
round trip efciency
super capacitor energy storage
superconducting magnetic energy storage
state-of-charge
seawater pumped hydro storage
sub-surface pumped hydro storage
thermal energy storage
thermal energy storage technologies
transmission and distribution
time-of-use
variable speed pumped hydro storage
vehicle-to-grid
vanadium redox battery
zero emissions batteries research activity
zinc bromine
velocity of ywheel
moment of inertia of ywheel rotor
density of water
An overview, applications, technologies and economical evaluation

of energy storage system has also been presented in Ref. [21]. Electricity energy storage technology options with emphasis on the
applications, costs and benets are reported in Ref. [22]. The
research in Ref. [23] investigates the contribution of electric vehicles to primary frequency response of the Great Britains power
system. The history, evolution, and the future status of energy storage technologies are discussed in Ref. [24], focusing on large- and
small-scale storage options, and possible prognosis. The research
work in Ref. [25] focuses on energy storage technologies for transport and grid applications. The author in Ref. [26] studies the global
energy scenario and impact of power electronics in 21st century;
the impact of power electronics in RE, storage technologies and
electric/hybrid vehicles has also been discussed. The study in Ref.
[27] presents the role of energy storage in power networks, and
how the capacity of power networks will be met in the future,
and also suggests other possible solutions apart from storage systems. The seasonal energy storage in a RE system devoid of fossil
fuels has also been presented [28]. The research in Ref. [29] studies
how energy storage is considered as the core of RE technologies.
Battery storage for enabling integration of distributed solar power
generation has been proposed in Ref. [30], with focus on mitigation
of the negative effects of integrating photovoltaic systems. A scholarly research on electric vehicles charge forward has been discussed in Ref. [31], which reviews the global status of electric
vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles. Carrasco et al. presents a survey of power-electronic systems for grid integration of RE sources
[32]. A review of congurations, control and applications of hybrid
renewable/alternative energy systems for electric power generation has also been studied [33]. The research in Ref. [34] deals with
the history, present state, and future prospects of underground
pumped hydro system for achieving massive energy storage. An
investigation of optimized thermal and electrical scheduling of a
large-scale virtual power plant in the presence of ESSs has been
conducted in Ref. [35]. The research in Ref. [36] proposes an
76
intelligent home energy management system for the purpose of

improving demand response. Also, the study in Ref. [37] focuses
on balancing wind intermittency by employing hydro reserves
and demand response.
While some of these studies have highlighted the roles of major
energy storage systems being currently used, a major part of the
literature concentrates on the grid applications of storage devices.
However, none of these research works have considered new
systems such as: adiabatic-CAES, underwater/ocean-CAES, isothermal-CAES, small-scale CAES, sub-surface PHS, seawater PHS, variable-speed PHS and pumped heat electrical storage systems,
which hold opportunity for future power applications.
Energy storage devices may be applied in other systems, such as
portable devices and electric vehicles [16], however, the intent of
this study is to review the state-of-the-art development of ESSs,
which are currently engaged for power applications including
pumped hydro storage (PHS), compressed-air energy storage
(CAES), battery energy storage (BES), capacitor storage (CS), supercapacitors energy storage (SCES), ywheel energy storage (FES),
superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) and thermal
energy storage (TES) technologies. The utilization of ESSs for electrical applications is referred to as stationary application. The
development status, comparison and capital cost metrics for these
technologies are also discussed. While some of these storage technologies are matured and have gained commercial acceptance,
some are still in the early stages of development, demonstration,
pilot, and laboratory or idea stage [22]. There is need for more
research to improve the performance of some of these technologies
at optimum costs, and also develop innovative options for those
ones having negative environmental inuence, including CAES,
PHS, NiCd. Furthermore, in this paper, we paid particular attention to recent technological breakthroughs leading to the development of some new storage technologies including adiabatic-,
underwater/ocean-, isothermal-, and small-scale CAES; sub-surface, seawater and variable-speed pumped hydro storage, and
pumped heat electrical storage systems, which require further
research to realize their promising potentials for addressing future
electricity supply/demand challenges.
Energy storage systems
An electrical ESS includes a means by which electricity
imported from a power grid, is converted into a form that could
be stored at off-peak demand, when energy cost is usually low or
during surplus generation, and converted back to electricity at
peak demand or when needed. Its benets are well summarized
in Refs. [16,21,22,25,38], some of which are discussed later in this
section. A storage system is made up of four main components
including the following [38]:
Storage medium: this is a means or system through which
energy is stored such as BES, CAES, CS/SCES, FES, PHS, SMES
and TES.
Charging: this unit permits the ow of energy from the
electrical network to the storage medium.
Fig. 1. Components of an energy storage system [38].
Discharging: it ensures the delivery of the stored energy when

demanded.
Control: it governs the entire storage system.
An ESS is illustrated in Fig. 1. The interface links the energy
ows from the storage system with the electrical network during
charging and discharging.
The conventional electricity system links the following sections
[16]: fuel/energy source, generation, transmission, distribution and
customer-side. ESSs are expected to play a major role across these
sections in the future, offering exibility to power networks. Therefore, integrating storage devices into power systems provides some
benets such as: hedge risk, energy arbitrage, high-energy utilization, stability and improved power quality; however, electrical
networks without storage systems face the technical challenges
of: unpredictability, low-utilization of energy generation, congestion, security and poor power quality, respectively [16,39]. Fig. 2
shows the role of a large-scale energy storage system with baseload, intermediate and peak generation, at different periods of
the day [39]. The large-scale storage system could provide electricity during peak periods, at optimum costs; it has potential to
reduce the requirements for expensive peaking generation; and
could also facilitate reductions in transmission losses, and
improvement of system power quality and reliability [24,39].
Energy storage technologies
Though it is difcult to achieve a cost-effective means of storing
electricity directly, it is possible to store it in other forms and
convert back to electrical energy when demanded [16]. Storage
technologies for power applications are categorized into the
following [16]:

EEST include CS, SCES and SMES systems.

MEST include FES, CAES and PHS systems.
CEST include BES, FC systems.
TEST include ATES, CES, HTES, PHES systems.
However, energy storage technologies are also classied based

on their discharge capacity. Classication of ESSs in terms of their
discharge duration is shown in Fig. 3. The storage systems with
discharge time of seconds to minutes are used for achieving power
quality (PQ); those with discharge capacity of minutes to an
hour are employed for bridging power (BP), and systems with discharge time of hours are used for energy management (EM) applications [11,16]. The following are some applications of ESSs
[25,38,127129]:
(1) Energy arbitrage: It involves storing electricity at off-peaks
when the cost is low, and selling it at peak demand periods
when the cost is high.
(2) Load leveling: It is the utilization of the stored energy at peak
periods, thereby reducing the requirements of peaking
generators.
(3) Renewable integration: Storage systems could minimize the
effect of intermittency of renewable energy resources and
increase their penetration in power grids, thus, allowing
renewable generation to be dispatched.
(4) Spinning reserve: Storage systems could reduce the requirement for idling generators in power systems. Such generators
are dedicated to take over of any sudden failure of a major
generator, but ESSs could defer the option of operating them.
(5) Customer-side peak shaving: This involves reliability back-up
support by ESSs through the use of uninterruptible power
supply (UPS) to address short- and long-period interruptions, voltage peaks and ickers.
77
Peak demand for power

supplied by peaking plant,
running only a few hours
each day
Storage discharging
into network
Mid merit
generation
Generation profile
with storage
Storage charged
from baseload
generating plant
Baseload
generation
System Demand / MW
Peaking
generation
Generation profile
without storage
Storage used to
maintain frequency and
voltage by balancing
supply and demand
Storage charged
from baseload
generating plant
Generation
profile without
storage
6am
midday
6pm
midnight
Time of day
Fig. 2. Load prole of a large-capacity energy storage system [39].
Fig. 3. Classication of storage technologies based on time scales.
(6) Primary frequency regulation: This involves the provision of

frequency stability support for power networks through
the charge/discharge characteristics of ESSs, thereby
regulating the voltage and frequency.
(7) Investment deferral: Involves the use of storage to
defer transmission and distribution (T/D) infrastructure
investment.
Energy storage for power quality support
Power quality is of great importance to electrical power systems
operation, due to requirements of generating undistorted (sinusoidal) power and supplying the end-users at acceptable voltage
levels [40]. The PQ support by ESSs requires a rapid response which
includes frequency regulation and transient stability, for a discharge time up to 10 min, and response of milliseconds
[11,16,27,30]. The typical power rating for CS in this application
is less than 1 MW, SCES up to 1 MW; FES between 10 kW and
1 MW, and SMES from 1 MW to 10 MW; these technologies have
a high power density but a relatively small energy density.
Capacitors
Capacitors offer a direct storage of electricity. They store electricity at a very fast rate, possessing several thousand charge/discharge cycles without material degradation compared to
batteries, and are suitable for transient voltage stability applications [11,16,21,24]. However, conventional capacitors are limited
by their low energy density; this shortcoming has triggered innovative research towards the development of electrochemical
capacitors, referred to as supercapacitors. SCES systems possess

capacitance and energy density values which are thousands of
times higher than those of conventional capacitors, due to their larger surface area [21]. Structurally, conventional electrolytic capacitors store energy through two parallel plates separated by a
dielectric material, but in SCES, energy is stored through an electrolyte solution (propylene carbonate) between two plates, instead
of dielectric between electrodes that is employed in conventional
capacitors [16,25]. The challenges with capacitors are: short discharge time and high self-discharge losses [16], which have limited
them to applications with shorter timescales. Eq. (1) shows the
relationship between the energy stored in a capacitor, its capacitance (C) and voltage (V). CS and SCES have an expected lifetime
of about 15 and 20 years, respectively [16], their structural
schematics are shown in Fig. 4. Though SCES systems possess high
power and energy densities compared to conventional CS systems,
their energy density is still lower than that of leadacid battery
[21,24,25]. It has been suggested that power capacity of capacitors
will be most suitable for stationary applications rather than their
relatively low energy capacity [24].
Estorage 0:5 CV2
The energy storage capacity of a capacitor is directly proportional to

the square of its voltage [12]. Increase in capacitance and voltage
values of capacitors will also lead to an increase in energy.
Flywheel energy storage
A ywheel is essentially an electromechanical system which
stores energy in the form of kinetic energy; it is made up of a rotating cylinder on magnetic bearings coupled with an electrical
machine, which behaves as a motor during charging, and as a generator during discharging [11,15,21]. The levitated magnetic bearings are employed to minimize frictional effects and also increase
the lifespan of the system; FES systems are operated in vacuums
to ensure minimization of drag and maintain good performance
[11,15,21]. To store energy, the machine operates as an electrical
78
Fig. 4. Schematic diagrams of three types of capacitors [41].
motor with a very high speed (10,000 r.p.m for low-speed rotors,
>10,000100,000 r.p.m for high-speed rotors), to spin the ywheel;
to discharge the energy, the motor regenerates through the drive
(reverses), and supplies power to the network through a suitable
interface power electronic converter [21,42]. Eq. (2) represents
the energy stored in a FES system [2,42]. The moment of inertia is
a function of mass and radius of the rotor [2], and the higher the
velocity of FES, the larger the energy stored. Flywheels have an
expected lifetime of 15 years [16] with several thousand charge/
discharge cycles compared to batteries, but possess short discharge
duration like capacitors; they have high self-discharge and frictional losses. FES systems have a high efciency, which is usually
in the range of 90% and 95% [2,10,16,2426]. Fig. 5 shows the beacons generation 4 ywheel storage technology, which has up to
100,000 charge/discharge cycles and a lifespan of >20 years [43].
Estorage 0:5Ix2
Superconducting magnetic energy storage

When a direct current (d.c) passes through a normal coil, the
resistance of the coil will make the current to die out quickly.
However, when a d.c ows through a superconducting coil, the
electrical energy will certainly not die out, in this way, the energy
is stored in a magnetic form till it is needed [120]. The direct
current induces a magnetic eld in the superconductors, thus,

allowing energy to be stored in SMES [16,21,25]. SMES is made
up of the following components as shown in Fig. 6 [16,42,120]:
Superconductor: is a superconducting coil made of an alloy,
called niobiumtitanium which operates at about the boiling
point of liquid helium (269 C).
Cryogenic refrigerator: it utilizes helium as a refrigerant and
maintains the operating temperature of SMES by keeping the
superconducting feature of the coils.
Power conversion system (PCS): it ensures effective charging
and discharging by providing a positive voltage across the
superconductor in order to store electrical energy, and a
negative voltage to release the stored energy when needed.
Control: it ensures the coordination between the electrical network and the energy ow to and from the superconducting
coils.
Eq. (3) represents the energy stored in the magnetic eld of the
superconducting wire, where I and L are current and inductance of
the wire, respectively [16,42]. The energy stored is a function of the
amount of direct current allowed in the inductive coil; SMES has an
efciency of 98% with a switching time of 17 ms between charge
and discharge (fast response); it also has exceptional power density and expected life span of >20 years; however, short discharge
duration, high system cost and the environmental concerns of
strong magnetic eld, are major challenges of SMES [12,16,25].
Estorage 0:5LI2
Energy storage for bridging power

The bridging power applications include load following,
spinning reserve and forecast uncertainty [11], requiring a rapid
response in seconds to minutes and discharge time of up to 1 h,
and ensuring the reliability of power supply to customers. It has
a typical power rating of 1 kW10 MW, as reported in Ref. [46].
Batteries are the most commonly used storage technologies; they
Fig. 5. Beacons Gen 4 Flywheel system [43].
Fig. 6. Components of SMES system [120].
are suitable for BP applications due to less cycling requirements

compared to PQ applications; BES for BP include leadacid, Ni
Cd, NiMH and Li-ion, and these systems can respond to load
changes within 20 ms; they have a round trip efciency (RTE)
between 60% and 90% depending on the technology [8,11,12,16].
Leadacid batteries
Leadacid is the oldest and most commonly used rechargeable
BES [16]. It consists of series-connected cells, an electrolyte, and
the positive and negative electrodes [16,24]. In the charged state,
the battery consists of lead (Pb) and lead oxide (PbO2) in 37% tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid (H2SO4); however, in the discharged state,
lead sulphate (PbSO4) is produced both at the anode and the cathode, while the electrolyte changes to water [16]. A porous separator is placed between the electrodes to prevent them from having
a contact [24]. The chemical reactions at anode and cathode are
represented by Eqs. (4) and (5), respectively [16]. Because the tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid is consumed in the discharged state, SoC of
the battery could be determined by measuring the concentration of
the electrolyte through the specic gravity (SG) method [16,42].
For batteries designed for temperate regions, SG for the fullycharged and the fully-discharged states is 1.21.3 and 1.01.2
[42], respectively. Furthermore, there are two types of leadacid
batteries namely: ooded or vented and sealed or valve-regulated [42]. By Ohms law, the same current ows through the series-connected cells, and the total voltage is the sum of the voltages
across the cells. The nominal voltage of a single leadacid battery
cell is 2 V. Therefore, stringing 6 units of 2 V cells will produce a
12 V battery. Eqs. (6) and (7) show the current and voltages of series-connected cells. Battery units are arranged in series or parallel
to achieve a desired electrical conguration voltage and amperehour (Ah) capacity. For instance, a parallel connection of 4 units of
12 V 100 Ah batteries will produce a 12 V 400 Ah conguration. On
the contrary, a series arrangement of 4 units of 12 V 100 Ah batteries will yield a 48 V 100 Ah capacity. Because batteries store direct
current, power electronic converters are required to interface them
with power networks. Leadacid batteries possess a low cycle life
(20002500), and a RTE of 7090% with an expected lifetime of
515 years; they also have a negative inuence on the environment by generating toxic remnants [16]. They are suitable for
cost-sensitive applications such as automotive starting, lighting
79
and ignition and uninterruptible power supplies [25]. A Leadacid

battery is illustrated in Fig. 7(a) and (b).

Pb SO2
4 $ PbSO4 2e

PbSO2 SO2
4 4H 2e $ PbSO4 2H2 O
I I1 I2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IN
V V1 V2 . . . . . . . . . . . . VN
where I, I1, I2 and IN is the current through the battery, cell 1, cell 2,
and cell N, respectively; V, V1, V2 and VN is the output voltage of the
battery, voltage across cell 1, cell 2 and cell N, respectively.
Lithium-ion batteries
This technology is <40 years old, and it is recognized in electronics and transportation industries, especially in the operation
of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), and power grid applications [24]. A Li-ion battery has a high energy-to-weight ratio and
low self-discharge loss [16,25]; it has a cycle life of 10,000 and an
efciency of 100% compared to all other BES technologies; it has
no memory effect. Its negative electrode is made of graphite,
while the positive electrode is a lithiated metal oxide, such as:
Lithium cobalt(III) oxide (LiCoO2), Lithium nickel dioxide powder
(LiNiO2) or LiMnO2, etc. [16,44]; the electrolyte is made up of a
lithium salt such as Lithium hexauorophosphate (LiPF6) or
Lithium perchlorate LiClO4, etc., which has been dissolved in an
organic carbonate solvents. The lithium cations migrate to the
anode during charging and to the cathode during discharging a
form of intercalation chemical reactions [24,45,126]. Eqs. (8)
and (9) show the reversible reactions involved in the charged/
discharged states, at anode and cathode, respectively [45]. Li-ion
batteries have a higher energy density (75200 Wh/kg) compared
to leadacid, NiCd and NiMH batteries; they also have a cell voltage of 3.6 V compared to 1.2 V and 2.0 V for nickel and leadacid
technologies, respectively [29]. Fig. 8(a) illustrates the lithium-ion
battery.
C xLi xe $ Lix C
LiMO2 $ Li1x MO2 xLi xe
Fig. 7. Leadacid battery storage [50,52].
80
Fig. 8. (a) Schematic diagram of Li-ion. (b) Diagram of NiCd batteries [53,58].
Nickel cadmium batteries

There are ve BES technologies which use the nickel-electrode
[42], these include nickeliron (NiFe), nickel cadmium (NiCd),
nickel hydrogen (NiH2), nickel metal hydride (NiMH), and
nickelzinc (NiZn); NiCd and NiMH are popular than the others, but NiCd is the most utilized nickel-electrode technology in
modern utility industries. The drawbacks of NiCd batteries are a
low cycling capacity of 20002500, a memory effect and the toxic
cadmium material which poses a threat to the environment
[16,24,25]. The cathode of this battery is nickel hydroxideNi(OH)2
in a spongy form, which is converted to nickel oxyhydroxide NiOOH during the charging process; its anode is a metallic cadmium,
which is converted to cadmium hydroxide Cd(OH)2 by oxidation
when it is charged in the presence of aqueous potassium hydroxide
KOH(H2O) electrolyte; during discharge, NiOOH reacts with H2O
to produce Ni(OH)2 and hydroxide ion at the positive electrode
[42]. Eq. (10) represents the reversible reaction in the battery
system [16]. NiCd battery is illustrated in Fig. 8(b).
2NiOOH Cd 2H2 O $ 2NiOH2 CdOH2
10
with capacity of >100 MW1GW; NaS batteries are utilized for

applications >10 MW; large-scale batteries, ow batteries and
high-temperature TES, which are also termed medium-scale ESSs
are used for systems with a storage capacity of 10 to 100 MW
[16,22,46].
Compressed-air energy storage
CAES systems store energy in the form of a compressed air in
underground caverns [93], and the energy is later supplied to electrical networks through a conversion process. The air is compressed into an underground reservoir, which facilitates the
storage of energy in a pressure gradient; the energy is discharged
through a combustion process to operate an expansion turbine
which spins an electrical generator [20]. The heat energy generated
during air compression (charging) is released to the atmosphere,
and during decompression (discharging), the air needs to be
reheated, usually with a fuel [97]. The components of a CAES are
shown in Fig. 9. CAES systems have a RTE of 85%, and an expected
life time of 2040 years; they are a suitable option for large-scale
storage applications [11,12,16,24,48]. The challenges with CAES
Metalair batteries
These batteries are a type of fuel cell which employs metal as
the fuel and air as the oxidizing agent [16]; they are environmentally friendly and have a potential to offer a cost-effective storage
option in the future; however, the major challenges with metal
air batteries are that they have a low RTE (<50%) and poor recharging capacity [16].
Energy storage for energy management
Some ESSs offer a continuous energy discharge for several
hours; the application of such systems in electrical networks is
referred to as energy management (EM), through which energy
could be shifted over longer timescales [11]. The storage technologies used for EM include CAES, PHS, TES, High-energy BES (ow
batteries). PHS and CAES are presently employed for applications
Fig. 9. Schematic diagram of CAES [20].
systems include the requirement for an underground cavern, dissipation of heat into the atmosphere, consumption of fossil fuels, and
generation of pollutant emissions from their combustion processes
[16,97,98]. The diabatic-CAES system has been described above;
however, recent technological efforts have led to development of
the following systems:
Adiabatic-CAES: this system has been designed to eliminate the
need for fuel in CAES technologies, by storing the heat energy
generated during compression, and then use it to reheat the
air during expansion [97,98]. In this case, the combustion chamber in the conventional CAES has been replaced by a thermal
energy storage (TES) system. Adiabatic-CAES is a promising
technology because of its scalability, environmental friendliness, hybrid storage property (CAES/TES) and high energy storage efciency [98,99]; the elimination of combustors and fossil
fuels also gives it an economic advantage over the conventional
CAES. The major components of an adiabatic-CAES plant include
compressor, TES, underground cavern and air turbine [98].
These components could be congured into the desired storage
scale. Salt and concrete are suitable thermal energy storage
materials in adiabatic-CAES system [99]. The worlds rst adiabatic-CAES plant, referred to advanced adiabatic-CAES (AACAES) demonstration plant, is expected to go on stream in Germany by 2016, by RWE Power and its partners [99101]. The
focus of the project is to achieve system efciencies of 70%.
The AA-CAES by RWE is shown in Fig. 10.
Isothermal CAES: this emerging technology attempts to address
some of the challenges with conventional diabatic- or adiabaticCAES [98,102], by eliminating the requirement for fuel and high
temperature heat energy storage, thus, offering an improved
RTE of (7080%) and a relatively low cost. The air is compressed without a change in temperature, allowing minimal
work for compression while maximizing the work needed for
expansion, through effective heat transfer with surroundings
of the air vessel [98,99].
Small-medium scale CAES: large-scale CAES plants usually
require suitable geological formations for storing air [16,98
101]. However, small-medium scale CAES, with a capacity of
110 MW, having articial pressure vessels is a more exible
CAES option without caverns and TES [103,104]. This technology can be used for a tri-generation purpose, including
81
distributed electricity generation and storage, air-cycle heating and cooling in a single process [98], which can signicantly reduce energy costs and greenhouse gas emissions in
the future.
Underwater/ocean-CAES: this is a promising storage option in
the absence of underground cavern, which could be integrated
with offshore renewable energy resources such as wind, tides
and waves [99]. The compressed air is stored in an underwater
air storage chamber installed on the seabed; the pressure of the
compressed air is kept constant requiring no pressure throttling, thus, allowing efcient extraction of energy from the compressed air [99]. The authors in Ref. [98,99] have proposed
constant-pressure CAES combined with pumped hydro storage,
and conceptual design of ocean compressed air energy storage
(OCAES), respectively. Also, an energy storage solution has been
patented by Hydrostor, based in Canada. This technology utilizes semi-adiabatic underwater-CAES (UW-CAES) with a
potential to store large-scale electricity for durations of
448 h, at applications between 1 and 50 MW [105]. UW-CAES
is promising for future applications of microgrids and DERs. It is
also expected to be delivered at optimum costs for the intended
markets.
Pumped-hydro storage
The PHS is also a means of storing off-peak electricity from
power grid and delivering it at peak demand periods. It is a low
cost and widely employed option for large-scale storage applications; it consists of two interconnected reservoirs at different elevations (lower and upper), a means to pump water to the upper
reservoir at off-peak hours and a turbine to produce electricity
when water is released to the lower reservoir at peak demand periods [12,16,24,26]. PHS has a RTE of 7080%, but usually at 75% [12]
depending on its scale, design and the technical arrangement; it
has an expected lifetime of 4060 years [16]. Eq. (11) shows that
the energy stored in a PHS is proportional to the product of volume
of water, and the difference in height between upper and lower
reservoirs [21]. The constant of proportionality is the product of
the density of water and the acceleration due to gravity. If a big
volume of water or a large difference between the two heights
could be achieved, a large energy will be stored by PHS.
Estorage a VHupper Hlower
Fig. 10. Diagram of adiabatic-CAES [100].
11
82
Eq. (11) is re-written as: E = qgV(Hupper Hlower), where q, g and V

are density of water, acceleration due to gravity and volume of
water, respectively. PHS is illustrated in Fig. 11. The major problems
with PHS technologies include the need for a suitable site (usually
large land mass), high capital cost, long construction time, and environmental concerns [16]. However, innovative research has led to
the development of some systems which have potentials to reduce
the environmental impacts of PHS technologies. These systems
include sub-sea PHS, seawater PHS, and variable-speed PHS.
Sub-surface pumped hydro storage (SSPHS): PHS systems normally involve upper and lower reservoirs, and while some
pumped hydro systems use rivers as the lower reservoir, others
have employed ocean or massive lakes [106]. The SSPHS concept attempts to position either the lower or upper reservoir, or
both reservoirs at sub-surface (below ground) [106]. Due to
high cost of underground excavation and construction, potential developers make use of existing subsurface structures for
building SSPHS plants [106]. The schematic diagram of a subsurface PHS is shown in Fig. 12. Elmhurst Quarry pumped storage project developed by DuPage County, Illinois, US, has been
proposed to use an abandoned mine and quarry for both reservoirs, with a rating of 50250 MW and energy storage capacity
of 708.5 GWh [106]; other SSPHS projects are from Riverbank
Wisacasset Energy Centre (RWEC) and Gravity, LLC. While
RWEC proposed a large underground PHS reservoirs
(1000 MW), positioned 2200 feet beneath the earth in Wisacasset, Maine; Gravity Power, LLC is working towards developing a
Gravity Power Grid-Scale electricity storage system [106].
Though SSPHS systems have not yet been completed at the
moment, they are promising systems for future applications,
because of the availability of location for upper and/or lower
reservoirs, and potential to minimize environmental inuences.
Seawater pumped hydro storage (SPHS): this system uses the
ocean as its lower reservoir [107]. The Okinawa Yanbaru SPHS,
having a capacity of 30 MW, located in Japan is currently the
only PHS plant which utilizes seawater in the world [107], with
Pacic ocean as its lower reservoir and a man-made upper reservoir. However, other SPHS projects have recently been proposed including 480 MW SPHS plant in Glinsk, Ireland;
300 MW SPHS system in Lanai Hawaii [108]. The proposed SPHS
in Ireland is expected to store about one-third of the surplus
power from 5000 MW wind generators that will be in operation
by 2020; also, the SPHS plant in Hawaii is expected to increase
renewable energy penetration by storing excess electricity in
the near future, from a proposed 400 MW wind turbines

[108]. Though SPHS systems suffer from additional operations
and maintenance (O and M) costs due to a highly corrosive environment for pumping turbines and marine growth on hydraulic
structures [107], they utilize less land (only one reservoir is
needed on land), and can also be sited close to renewable power
generating plants such as wind and solar, which can lead to
integration of a greater proportion of renewable energy
resources into power grids, in the future [108].
Variable Speed Pumped Hydro Storage (VSPHS): majority of PHS
systems around the world employ xed-speed pump turbines
[109]; the reversible single-stage Francis pump turbine
developed in the US, is an example of a xed-speed turbine used
for PHS. This proven system operates as a pump in one direction and as a turbine in the other; however, it cannot provide
frequency regulation support to the grid because of its xedspeed; also, when operating as a turbine, the unit will be unable
to run at maximum efciency at part load [109]. However, variable-speed turbines will address these draw backs by ensuring
that the power consumed in the pumping mode is varied over a
range of outputs, thus, allowing the machine to operate at peak
efciency over a wide range of speeds [109]. The widespread
application of variable-speed machines (i.e., doubly-fed induction motor/generator), and other variable-speed technology
such as cyclo-converters in PHS will enable greater renewable
power penetration in the future, by providing ancillary service
to electrical grids in the presence of a large intermittent renewable power input [109].
Thermal energy storage
TES utilizes materials that can be maintained at high or low temperatures in effectively insulated containments [16]; the heat or
cold that is extracted in the process is utilized for producing electricity through a heat engine. The thermal storage may be classied
into low- and high-temperature systems, but the working principle
of each one of these depends on the operating temperature of the
corresponding storage medium compared to room temperature
[16]; temperature below 18 C is used for industrial cooling,
012 C employed for cooling in buildings, between 25 C and
50 C for heating in buildings, and >175 C for industrial heat storage.
Low-temperature thermal energy storage: this technology is
classied into ATES and CES systems [16]. ATES involves cooling
or icing of water by a refrigerator, at low energy demand periods, which can be utilized to meet the cooling requirements
Fig. 11. Schematic diagram of pumped-hydro system [56,57].
83
Fig. 12. Schematic diagram of a sub-surface pumped hydro storage [106].
at periods of peak energy demand; CES involves boiling liquid

nitrogen (cryogen) by surrounding heat, and the heated
cryogen is utilized for generating electrical energy through a
cryogenic heat engine system [16]. CES has an expected life
span of 2040 years [16], and an efciency of 4050%.
Fig. 13(a) illustrates the CES.
High-temperature thermal energy storage: a system which
stores heat energy from a solar thermal plant, in a double tank
of molten salt [25] is illustrated in Fig. 13(b). Other potential
media for HTES are concrete, phase change materials, saturated
water/steam and high purity-graphite [16,124]. HTES has an
expected lifetime of 515 years, and a potential for low cost
storage in the future; $3060/kWh based on [16]. Though the
RTE of a CSP may be close to 100%, it is restricted to solar thermal applications, and cannot store electrical energy from any
other source [11]. The worlds largest solar thermal plant, called
Solana Generating Station, has a capacity of 280 MW with 6 h
storage duration in molten salt [110]. A PHES requires two large
heat reservoirs; it stores electrical energy by means of a heat
pump, which pumps thermal energy from cold to hot store

[111]. In order to recover the thermal energy, the operation of
the heat pump is reversed, and it becomes a heat engine in
the power-producing engine cycle to spin a generator for electricity generation [111,112]. PHES uses gravel as the storage
material, thereby offering a relatively low cost option; it is in
development stage, and its efciency is also expected to be
between 75% and 80% [111,112]. This technology is scalable
and cost-effective compared to PHS; it can also be deployed
close to habitation with less environmental concerns [112].
These benets are likely to attract developers and electricity
operators towards PHES in the future.
High-energy batteries
HEB systems that are used for EM applications include NaS,
VRB, sodiumnickel chloride (ZEBRA) and ZnBr. These technologies
are classied into high-temperature and liquid-electrolyte ow
batteries [11], and they may also be employed for all the timescales. They could store electricity in a smaller package compared
Fig. 13. Schematic diagrams of: (a) CES; (b) hot-TES [16,54,59].
84
to leadacid batteries [11]. The commercially available high-temperature batteries include NaS and ZEBRA; while VRB and ZnBr
are the ow batteries. Flow batteries are scalable, suitable for
large-scale applications, and environmentally benign (non-toxic)
[25,42]. The ow battery is an ESS in which the electrolyte contains one or more dissolved electro-active species owing through
a power cell/reactor in which the chemical energy is converted to
electricity [16]. Its shortcomings are possession of a low energy
density (though higher than leadacid), and the need for pumping
mechanisms, which might limit their use for stationary applications in the future [24,25].
VRB: this technology stores energy by electron transfer between
different ionic vanadium materials. During the charge process at
the anode, V3+ is converted to V2+ by accepting an electron, but
during discharge, V2+ ions are converted back to V3+ leading to
the release of an electron [42]. The same process of electron transfer occurs at the cathode between ionic V5+ and V4+ [24,42]. VRB
has a lifetime of 510 years and an efciency of 85%, but poses a
negative effect to the environment by generation of toxic remnants [16]. Fig. 14(a) is a schematic diagram for VRB.
ZnBr: this technology is a form of hybrid system in which a
high proportion of the energy is stored through plating solid
zinc onto the negative plates, in the electrochemical stack,
when it is being charged [114]. During discharge, Zn and Br
react together to form ZnBr [16]. The chemical reactions at
the cathode and anode are represented by Eqs. (12) and (13),
respectively [42].
NaS: this technology has a high power and energy density more
than four times that of leadacid BES [25]; it consist of molten
sulphur at the cathode, and sodium at the anode, which are separated by beta alumina membrane ceramic electrolyte (NaO and
Al2O3); the electrolyte allows the sodium to pass through it and
then combine with sulfur to produce sodium polysulphides
[16,24,25,46]. The battery is maintained at a temperature of
300350 C [16]. The shortcoming of NaS is that there is need
for an external heat source for its efcient operation.
Fig. 14(b) is a schematic diagram for NaS.
ZEBRA: this BES is called sodium nickel chloride; it has a high
temperature property (300 C), and uses nickel chloride and
liquid sodium as cathode and anode, respectively [16,97]; it
can operate between 40 C and 70 C without the need for
cooling, and also possesses a high cell voltage of 2.58 V. Every
component of ZEBRA batteries may be recycled and processed

into new BESs; however, they possess a lower power and energy
density compared to NaS technologies [97]. Eq. (14) represents
the chemical reactions which occur in sodium nickel chloride
technologies [16].
Br2 aq 2e $ 2Br aq
12
Zn $ Zn2 aq 2e
13
2NaCl Ni $ NiCl2 2Na
14
Comparison of characteristics of storage technologies

The following comparisons for the storage technologies are
based on Tables 1 and 2 [16,9396] and Fig. 15 [46]:
PHS, CAES and CES technologies are appropriate for energy
management (EM) application with power ratings >100 MW
[16,46]. Large-scale (leadacid, Li-ion, NiCd, NiMH), VRB,
ZnBr BESs and HTES are suitable for EM applications with power
rating of 10100 MW [16]. Also, BES technologies for EM applications could also be employed for all the storage timescales
and purposes [11].
BESs including Leadacid, Li-ion, NiCd, NiMH and metalair
with typical power rating of 0.00110 MW [16,46] and discharge duration of seconds to hours are used for bridging power
applications because of less cycling requirements.
CS, SCES, FES, and SMES technologies have discharge duration of
milliseconds to minutes, and are employed for power quality
supports. While the power rating of capacitors and FES is
<1 MW [16,46], SMES has up to 10 MW.
PHS, CAES, VRB, ZnBr and Metalair technologies possess a very
small daily self-discharge loss, and may be employed for applications requiring long storage time (hours to months); Lead
acid, NiCd, Li-ion BES, HTES and CES systems have a small
self-discharge loss of 0.11% [16] and could be used for storage
applications of minutes to days; CS, SCES, SMES, NaS and ZEBRA
have a high daily energy dissipation of 1040% with storage
duration of seconds to hours; FES has a very high daily selfdischarge loss of 100% and this has limited it to a storage
duration of <10 min [16].
Fig. 14. (a) Schematic diagrams of: (a) VRB; (b) NaS [55,46].
85
Table 1
Comparison of properties of storage technologies [16].
Technology
Power rating (MW)
Discharge time
Discharge losses (day)
Suitable storage duration
Cycling capacity
Life time (years)
PHS
CAES
CES
HTES
NaS
VRB
ZEBRA
ZnBr
NiCd
Leadacid
Li-ion
Fuel cells
MetalAir
SMES
FES
SCES
CS
1005000
5300
0.1300
060
0.058
0.033
00.3
0.052
040
020
00.1
050
00.01
0.110
00.25
00.3
00.05
124 h+
124 h+
18 h
124 h+
Secondshours
Seconds10 h
Secondshours
Seconds10 h
Secondshours
Secondshours
Minutes hours
Seconds24 h+
Seconds24 h+
Milliseconds8 sec
Milliseconds15 min
Milliseconds60 min
Milliseconds60 min
Very small
Small
0.51%
0.051%
20%
Small
15%
Small
0.20.6%
0.10.3%
0.10.3%
0
Very small
1015%
100%
2040%
40%
Hoursmonths
Hoursmonths
Minutesdays
Minutesmonths
Secondshours
Hoursmonths
Secondshours
Hoursmonths
Minutesdays
Minutesdays
Minutesdays
Hoursmonths
Hoursmonths
Minuteshours
Secondsminutes
Secondshours
Secondshours
20,00050,000 [93]
10,00030,000 [93]
4060
2040
2040
515
1015
510
1014
510
1020
515
515
515
It is evident that Li-ion, FES, SMES, and SCES technologies

possess a very high RTE (>90%); lead acid, NiCd, NiMH, NaS,
ZnBr, ZEBRA,VRB BESs and conventional CS technologies have
a RTE in the range of 6090%; CES, HES and metalair technologies have a low RTE (>60%) [16].
ESSs could also be categorized into high-energy and high-power
devices [25]; technologies with slow response are referred to as
high-energy devices, while the ones with fast response are
high-power devices.
Status of storage systems
PHS, CAES, NaS, Li-ion, advanced Leadacid, NiCd, FES and VRB
systems have the following global installed capacities [47];
127 GW, 440 MW, 304 MW, >100 MW, 70 MW, 27 MW,
<25 MW and <10 MW, respectively. The technological progress in
storage systems is shown in Table 3 [16,22,103,104]. It is shown
that PHS and Leadacid are mature technologies; CAES, Leadacid,
NiCd, NaS and Li-ion systems are at a commercial stage; FES, adiabatic-CAES, ZnBr, VRB, advanced leadacid, molten salt HTES,
PHES are at a demonstration stage; Fe/Cr is at a pilot stage; Zinc/
air, advanced Li-ion, NBC are at a laboratory level; nano-capacitors
have an idea status.
Capital cost of storage systems
The capital cost of storage technologies is a very important metric for determining the viability, industrial and commercial acceptance of the storage devices. However, benchmarking costs of ESS
depends on two factors namely: site and the intended applications.
Also, the value of storage systems may be quantied by the benets which could be realized from their applications [22,27,113].
The cost comparison metrics for the storage technologies in this
paper are based on Table 2 [16,9396] and Fig. 16 [49]. The capital
costs of the storage systems are divided into the following: energy
cost, power cost and per cycle cost which are expressed in $/kWh,
$/kW and /kWh/cycle, respectively. CAES is the cheapest developed storage system for large-scale applications, with a capital cost
of $250/kWh [16]. Also, CES, HTES, Metalair and PHS have low
capital costs of $330, $1060, $3060 and $5100/kWh, respectively. The power costs of high-power devices such as capacitors,
FES and SMES are less than their energy costs, and this is an indication that they are suitable for high-power applications. The PHS
has the lowest per cycle cost 0.11.4/kWh, amongst the storage
technologies; CAES and CES systems also have a low per cycle cost
2500
12,000+
2500+
2000+
20002500
5001000
100010,000+
1000+
100300
100,000+
20,000+
100,000+
50,000+
20+
15
20+
5
of 24/kWh/cycle; fuel cells have the highest power and per cycle
costs of >$10,000/kW and 600020,000/kWh/cycle, respectively
[16]. Further research will be needed to make fuel cells economically viable in the future. It is evident that BES has a high energy
and per cycle cost compared to PHS, CAES and CES technologies.
Leadacid, NiCd, NaS, ZEBRA, Li-ion, VRB and ZnBr systems have
the following costs: $200400, $8001500, $300500, $100200,
$6002500, $1501000 and $1501000/kWh [16], respectively;
their per cycle costs are 20100, 20100, 820, 510,
15100, 580 and 580/kWh/cycle, respectively.
Fig. 16 shows the costs for some storage systems employed for a
number of stationary applications in the US. Provision for area regulation has the highest cost of $7502000/kW; cost of offering
voltage support and renewable energy time-shift are the least
(<$500) [49]. ToU energy management has a cost of $1250/kW,
while T/D upgrade deferral costs $7501100/kW. Wind generation
grid integration (short duration) and electric service reliability cost
$5001000/kW and $350900/kW, respectively. The cost of providing electric service power quality, renewable capacity rming,
wind generation integration (long-term), T/D upgrade deferral
and demand charge management are $350900/kW, $700
850/kW, $200800/kW, $480700/kW and $600/kW, respectively. The author in Ref. [24] also identied energy cost as one
of the limiting factors for capacitor storage technologies; for
instance, the energy costs of CS and Li-ion are $3626/kWh and
$300/kWh, respectively, whereas the power cost of CS is $7.3/
kW, which is low compared to $30/kW for Li-ion, respectively.
TES has also been reported in Ref. [51] to have a relatively low
energy cost of $72240/kWh compared to BES technologies which
could cost more than $300/kWh (excluding power conversion system cost).
Energy storage applications in utility grid systems
Although energy storage systems are referred to as limited
energy resources with a narrow band of dispatch and operation,
they are suitable for the following applications: peak reduction
and load leveling, frequency regulation, spinning reserve, enhancement of reliability and power quality, and enabling greater penetration of renewable energy resources, etc. which has been
previously discussed [11,12,16,21,22,25,38,42,6192]. ESSs are
also used in transport systems. BES is central to the operation of
BEVs and PHEVs. The application of storage systems in grid integration of renewable energy resources and electric vehicles are
discussed below.
86
Technology
Energy and power density

Wh/kg
W/kg
Wh/L
PHS
0.51.5 [16]
CAES
CES
HTES
NaS
3060 [16]
150250 [16]
80200 [16]
150240 [16,94]
VRB
1030 [16]
ZEBRA
ZnBr
100 120 [16,94]

3050 [16], 60[93]
150200 [16,94]
150180 [16,94]
3060 [16]
NiCd
Leadacid
5075 [16]
3050 [16],
3550 [93]
75200 [16,94],
120200 [96]
80010,000 [16]
1503000 [16]
0.55 [16]
1030[16]
2.515 [16], 5 [95],
25 [96]
150300 [16]
75300 [16], 180 [93]
60150 [16]
5080 [16]
150315 [16,94]
200500 [16,94]
500+ [16]
5003000 [16]
50010,000 [16]
0.22.5 [16]
2080 [16]
1030 [16]
500+ [16]
210 [16]
Li-ion
Fuel cells
Metalair
SMES
FES
SCES
CS
0.055 [16]
0.51.5 [16]
1030 [16]
150230 [16,94]
36 [16]
120200 [16]
120500 [16]
150250 [16,94]
0.52 [16]
Cost
$/kWh
$/kW
/kWh/cycle
7185
6580
7089
4050
5100 [16]
6002000 [16]
0.11.4[16]
250 [16]
330 [16]
400800 [16]
200300 [16]
3060 [16]
10003000 [16],
1503000 [94]
6001500 [16],
1751500 [94]
150300 [16,94]
7002500 [16],
1752500 [94]
5001500 [16]
300600 [16]
24 [16]
24 [16]
15100 [16]
[16], 7580 [93],

[95]
[16], 7085 [95]
[16]
7590 [16], 7090 [94]

up to 85 [16], 6085 [94]
300500 [16],
250500 [94]
1501000 [16,94]
8590 [94]
75 [16], 6075[94],
7585 [93]
72 [93]
7090 [16], 7080 [93]
100200 [16,94]
1501000 [16,94],
500 [93]
8001500 [16]
200400 [16]
100[16], 8589 [94]
6002500 [16],
5002500 [94]
10004000 [16]
10002000 [16]
100,000+[16]
<50 [16]
>97 [16], >95 [95]
9095[16], >80[95], 90[93]
<75>95 [95], 7580 [93]
1060 [16]
100010,000 [16]
10005000 [16]
3002000 [16], 2000 [93]
1200 4000 [16],

1754000 [94]
10,000+ [16]
100250 [16]
200300 [16]
250350 [16]
100300 [16]
100,000+ [16]
6090 [16]
200400 [16]
5001000 [16]
1633 [16]
5002000 [16]
4001500 [16]
5005000 [16],
500010,000 [95],
20005000 [96]
100, 000 [16]
Round trip efciency (%)

W/L
220300 [16]
10400 [16]
820 [16]
580 [16]
510 [16]
580 [16]
20100 [16]
20100 [16]
600020,000 [16]
325 [16]
220 [16]
Table 2
Additional comparison and cost metrics for the storage technologies.
Fig. 15. Characteristics of storage [46].
Table 3
Storage technologies development status.
System
Development
status
Description
PHS, leadacid battery [22]

CAES [22], leadacid [22], NiCd [22], NaS [22], ZEBRA [16], Li-ion [16]
FES [22], adiabatic-CAES [22,103] ZnBr [22], VRB [22], Li-ion [22], advanced lead
acid [22], HTES [16], PHES [104]
Fe/Cr [22]
Zn/air [22], advanced Li-ion [22], NBC
Mature
Commercial
Demonstration
Pilot
Laboratory
Nano-capacitors [22], other novel battery chemistries [22]
Idea
The system is having a signicant commercial experience

The system has a nascent commercial experience
The system concept is being veried by integrated demonstration
unit
The system concept is being veried by small pilot facility
The system concept is being veried by laboratory studies and
initial hardware development
No system, component or device test available
Fig. 16. Market opportunity and price points for application-specic storage options [46,49].
87
88
Integration of renewable energy resources

Renewable energy technologies are environmentally benign
and abundant. These benets make them an attractive electricity
generation alternative for mitigating climate change and addressing energy crises. The European Wind Energy Association (EWAE)
estimated that the worlds electricity needs could be met by harnessing 10% of the global wind energy resources [26]. However,
renewable energy systems are not load-following because of their
intermittent and unpredictable characteristic. Also, the integration
of variable renewable power sources affects the operation of electrical networks [25,29,30]. It is required that when the input to
power networks from renewable generation (i.e., wind) is up to
10%, balancing supports from other generators of 24% of the
renewable power capacity is required [24,25,37,38]. Thus, the
integration of energy storage devices into the electrical grids is
expected to mitigate the effects of intermittency of renewable
resources, and also facilitate a higher penetration of renewable
electricity. Many scholarly works have unraveled the potentials
of energy storage systems; however, the economic viability of
these systems is also one of the major factors which determine
their deployments. The estimation and recovery of value of energy
storage in the grid still remains a challenge which needs further
research [11].
Vehicle-to-grid application
The concept of V2G focuses on the utilization of the potentials
of a large number of EVs for providing ancillary services to power
networks [11,115]. PHEVs are mobile agents that have the property of operating either with an electrochemical battery which
runs on electric power obtained from the grid, or an internal combustion engine that uses petrol as its main source of fuel [115]; its
plug-in charging system allows electricity from the power network
to be stored in the battery bank during off-peak periods. The stored
electricity is later delivered to the network to reduce demand pressures at peak periods. The type of battery utilized is an important
factor in the operation of PHEVs. A high-energy storage capacity of
these vehicles requires the use of larger battery sizes, thereby creating the possibility of reducing the utilization of fuel [115]. In
BESs, there are trade-offs, mostly between energy and power density [115,116]. For instance, leadacid batteries have a low energy
density for PHEV applications, usually around 30 Wh/kg, while the
NiMH battery has an energy density around 80 Wh/kg [115].
Though NiMH batteries have a better energy density when compared to leadacid batteries, they possess a lower RTE. The power
density of NiMH is 800 W/kg [115,117,118]; however, lithiumcobalt (Li-Co) batteries possess both a high RTE and high energy
density, of 90% and 160 Wh/kg, respectively. Lithium-based BES
technologies are currently leading for BEV and PHEV applications
[119]. However, there is still room to improve their energy storage
capacity. The widespread application of EVs in electrical networks
could provide ancillary services, and also lead to increased utilization of renewable energy. However, the capability of EVs to provide
these services will be limited by storage capacity, capital costs and
shortened lifetime of batteries through frequent charge/discharge
cycles [11,26,29].
Future research
There is need for further improvements in energy storage
systems that will lead to the development of low-cost and high
performance solutions. The emerging technologies will also require
intensive and extensive research for them to gain industrial and
commercial acceptance in the future. The environmental issues
associated with PHS, CAES and NiCd may affect their uptake in
the future, say 1520 years upwards [11,16,24,38], except there
are technological innovations to reduce their environmental
impacts. Therefore, particular attention should be paid to the following storage options by research community: adiabatic-CAES,
isothermal-CAES, and small-medium scale CAES, underwater/
ocean-CAES, sub-surface PHS, seawater PHS and variable-speed
PHS [97109]. The use of adiabatic-CAES will eliminate fuel consumption, lead to signicant reduction in pollutant emissions,
and increased adoption of DERs in the future. Isothermal-CAES
has a potential to eliminate fuel consumption; it also does not
require TES. Small-medium scale CAES with articial pressure vessels will eliminate the need for geological formations and TES, and
allow a widespread application of DGs [121,122] in the future. Also,
the tri-generation capability of small-medium scale CAES systems
will not only reduce energy costs, but will also facilitate signicant
reductions in CDEs. Fundamental research is required in developing
ocean/underwater-CAES. This ESS option does not require an
underground cavern, and can also be integrated with offshore
renewable resources to harvest a greater amount of wind energy.
More work is needed for developing SSPHS systems. It has a potential to reduce environmental impacts of PHS, by positioning either
the lower or upper reservoir, or both reservoirs at sub-surface.
The use of existing sub-surface structures is also a good economic
consideration for building SSPHS plants. Also, more research is
required in bringing about developments in seawater-PHS system,
which offers an advantage of utilizing less land (only one reservoir
is needed on land), and VSPHS which has a capacity to offer ancillary services to electrical grids. There is still much opportunity for
development in recycling of NiCd, and other BES systems [125].
It is expected that FES and SCES technologies will nd greater
power quality and frequency regulation applications. However,
both ESSs need further development. The safety issue with ywheels must also be addressed. There is much opportunity for
research to adopt SCES systems for high-power applications,
because of their exceptional power density. In 2025 years, electricity grids are likely to: have a high degree of smartness, integrate
a greater proportion of RE technologies, EVs and other DERs, which
will require viable, efcient and cost-effective energy storage systems. This will be a road map to actualizing sustainable power networks, by reducing full reliance on capital intensive peaking power
plants that are still been currently used. Future electricity grids are
expected to utilize the potentials of a large number of EVs for ancillary services; however, this aspect still requires intensive R and D.
Further system investigations are also necessary in studying the
temporal characteristics of availability of EVs [11].
Though fuel cells are non-rechargeable and cannot be used for
cyclic storage of energy, they are a potential energy source for
future applications [16,24]. More work is required for developing
fuel cells, including direct methanol, molten carbonate and solid
oxide [16]. Hydrogen is also a non-polluting alternative fuel [60],
which could offer a scalable storage option for renewable power
generation in the future. However, Hydrogen storage currently
suffers from a low RTE (<50%) [16,93]. Thus, more research is
necessary to develop a more efcient HS technology for future
applications. Metal air batteries have the potential to be a costeffective ESS in the future, but R and D will be required to improve
its recharging capacity. More research is also needed in the following systems: PSBB, solar fuels, ATES, concrete storage, PCM, which
are likely to be prominent storage options in the future. PHES is
scalable, and has a relatively low capital cost with less environment impacts compared to PHS. These benets will probably make
it a competitive storage option in the near future, but it also needs
more research.
The increased penetration of RE technologies will probably
require extensive applications of hybrid storage solutions, where
ESSs with different charge/discharge characteristics and timescales

are combined for some particular applications. More studies
should target the consideration of synergy of two or more storage
options for power applications (i.e., high-power devices + highenergy devices, etc.). Investigations into the capability of hybrid
storage technologies to provide two or all the three services: PQ,
BP and EM, will also be necessary. Such research is required to utilize the combined potentials of the high-power and the highenergy systems for better performance [13,24,25,29]. As suggested
in [10], one single solution will probably not be the most costoptimal solution, a mix of all solutions is needed for achieving
efcient energy storage. Attention must also be paid to power
conversion systems for storage applications. This is necessary to
improve their reliability and control, and also ensure their
efcient integration of storage systems into power networks.
A next-generation smart grid without energy storage is like a
computer without a hard drive: severely limited [123].
Conclusion
This work has presented a comprehensive review of energy

storage technologies which are currently engaged for electrical
power applications. The technological progress, performance and
capital costs assessment of the systems have been discussed, and
directions for further research have also been emphasized. Also,
the discussion of some new storage systems such as: adiabatic-,
underwater/ocean-, isothermal- and small-scale CAES systems;
sub-surface, seawater and variable-speed PHS systems, and
pumped heat electrical storage has been of interest in this paper.
Based on this study, the following conclusions are made:
Energy storage technologies have potentials to offer exibility

and ancillary supports to electrical networks, and they have
been classied as follows: PHS, CAES, VRB, ZnBr, NaS, ZEBRA,
TES and large-scale (Leadacid, Li-ion, NiCd, NiMH) technologies, are applied for energy management purposes, because
of their long discharge timescales (up to 24 h); CS, SCES, FES
and SMES systems have a short discharge timescale (milliseconds to minutes), and are suitable for power quality and frequency regulation supports, while battery technologies (Lead
acid, Li-ion, NiCd, NiMH and Metalair) are employed for
bridging power applications, because of less cycling requirement, and they possess a discharge duration of (seconds to
hours).
PHS remains a mature storage option currently engaged for
large-scale applications. However, the environmental concerns
(i.e., destruction of plants and requirement for a large land
mass) may likely affect its uptake in the future. New technologies such as sub-surface and seawater storage systems are
expected to receive much attention, due to their potentials for
reducing the environmental impacts of PHS, and increasing
the utilization of renewable electricity. Also, the use of variable-speed electrical machines in PHS will offer ancillary supports to power networks in the presence of a high percentage
of variable renewable energy input. Pumped heat energy storage is also scalable, and has a relatively low capital cost with
less environmental impacts compared to PHS, which will probably be found a competitive storage option in the future.
Conventional CAES technologies have gained commercial
acceptance for large-scale applications. However, their requirements for geological formations and fossil fuels are major concerns. The utilization of heat produced by air compression
and/or heat generated from renewable energy resources for
air expansion will offer an emission-free storage solution, by
eliminating fossil fuels. This will yield a better system
89
performance, and will likely give adiabatic-CAES option an edge

in not-too distant future. Apart from this, adiabatic-CAES systems are scalable. This makes them a suitable option for
microgrids. However, further research is needed for their widespread applications in the future. Efciency of 70% is being
targeted by RWE Power for its AA-CAES plant. Small-medium
scale CAES is also a promising version of CAES technology; it
offers a exible solution and eliminates the need for geological
formations. This storage system is likely to thrive in the near
future because of its tri-generation capacity, which could facilitate signicant savings on carbon emissions and energy costs,
and increased distributed electricity generation.
Offshore power systems hold promise for signicant electricity
generation in the future. This is because of the availability of
huge wind energy resources in offshore sites. An underwaterCAES system will be an attractive option for offshore power
applications, because of its capability to facilitate a higher penetration of wind energy without the need for underground
caverns.
Li-ion, FES, SMES, and SCES technologies possess a very high
round trip efciency, above 90%; Lead acid, NiCd, NiMH,
NaS, ZnBr, ZEBRA, VRB and conventional electrolytic capacitor
technologies have a high round trip efciency, between 60%
and 90%. CES, HES and Metalair technologies have a low round
trip efciency, below 60%.
The possession of a very low self-discharge loss by PHS, CAES,
VRB, ZnBr and Metalair systems makes them a suitable option
for stationary applications, requiring long storage duration
(hours to months). Leadacid, NiCd, Li-ion, HTES and CES systems have a low energy dissipation of (<1%), and are utilized
for storage applications within minutes to days; capacitors,
SMES, NaS and sodium nickel chloride have a high energy dissipation of (1040%), and are used for storage duration of seconds
to hours; FES has a very high self-discharge loss of about 100%
and this has limited it to applications with a relatively shorter
storage duration. PHS, CAES and FES have a high cycling capacity compared to battery energy storage technologies.
Capacitors, FES and SMES systems have a high-power capacity
and this makes them to be suitable for high-power applications.
There is much opportunity for extensive use of supercapacitor
energy storage devices for high-power applications in the
future, because of their exceptional power density. Li-ion is
likely to replace NiCd in the future, due to toxicity of
cadmium and its complicated recycling process.
V2G concept has the potential to provide ancillary services to
electric power networks and enabling higher utilization of
renewable energy resources. However, further development is
required to bring this application to the limelight.
Although CAES has the lowest cost among storage technologies
with commercial status, metalair and CES systems have shown
to have the least energy costs of all the technologies. However,
there is a compromise between the performance and cost metrics (energy and power density, system efciency, capital cost)
of energy storage systems. For instance, Li-Co battery has a better energy density (160 Wh/kg) and round trip efciency (90%),
compared to NiMH battery which has 80 Wh/kg and 70%,
respectively. However, NiMH battery has a higher power density (800 W/kg). Therefore, the operating characteristics and
performance, and the capital costs are some of the factors which
determine the choice of an energy storage device for a specic
application.
Though energy storage systems are duration-constrained, their

integration into future power networks will facilitate greater
renewable electricity generation. Also, they are important for providing exibility and ancillary services, which could assist in han-
90
dling future electricity supply/demand challenges. The development of low-cost and high performance energy storage solutions
will therefore require intensive and extensive R and D efforts.
Acknowledgment
The authors wish to acknowledge Victoria University of Wellington for its support for this work through its Research Trust.
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Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 8 (2014) 7491

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments

Original Research Article

Review of energy storage technologies for sustainable power networks

Corresponding author. Tel.: +64 223891364.

characteristics [6]. This development will restrict renewable

aquiferous thermal energy storage

applications. One of such is a technical report in [11] by NREL on

An overview, applications, technologies and economical evaluation

intelligent home energy management system for the purpose of

Fig. 1. Components of an energy storage system [38].

Discharging: it ensures the delivery of the stored energy when

EEST include CS, SCES and SMES systems.

However, energy storage technologies are also classied based

Peak demand for power

Fig. 3. Classication of storage technologies based on time scales.

(6) Primary frequency regulation: This involves the provision of

capacitors, referred to as supercapacitors. SCES systems possess

Estorage 0:5 CV2

The energy storage capacity of a capacitor is directly proportional to

Fig. 4. Schematic diagrams of three types of capacitors [41].

Superconducting magnetic energy storage

current induces a magnetic eld in the superconductors, thus,

Energy storage for bridging power

Fig. 5. Beacons Gen 4 Flywheel system [43].

Fig. 6. Components of SMES system [120].

are suitable for BP applications due to less cycling requirements

and ignition and uninterruptible power supplies [25]. A Leadacid

C xLi xe $ Lix C

LiMO2 $ Li1x MO2 xLi xe

Fig. 7. Leadacid battery storage [50,52].

Nickel cadmium batteries

2NiOOH Cd 2H2 O $ 2NiOH2 CdOH2

with capacity of >100 MW1GW; NaS batteries are utilized for

Fig. 9. Schematic diagram of CAES [20].

Estorage a VHupper Hlower

Fig. 10. Diagram of adiabatic-CAES [100].

Eq. (11) is re-written as: E = qgV(Hupper Hlower), where q, g and V

the near future, from a proposed 400 MW wind turbines

Fig. 11. Schematic diagram of pumped-hydro system [56,57].

Fig. 12. Schematic diagram of a sub-surface pumped hydro storage [106].

at periods of peak energy demand; CES involves boiling liquid

pump, which pumps thermal energy from cold to hot store

component of ZEBRA batteries may be recycled and processed

Br2 aq 2e $ 2Br aq

2NaCl Ni $ NiCl2 2Na

Comparison of characteristics of storage technologies

Power rating (MW)

Discharge losses (day)

Suitable storage duration

Life time (years)

It is evident that Li-ion, FES, SMES, and SCES technologies

Energy and power density

100 120 [16,94]

[16], 7580 [93],

7590 [16], 7090 [94]

100[16], 8589 [94]

1200 4000 [16],

Round trip efciency (%)

Fig. 15. Characteristics of storage [46].

PHS, leadacid battery [22]