Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Ph.D THESIS
BY
BY
GUIDE
CO-GUIDE
DEDICATION
iii
Contents
Dedication.
Certificate .
Declaration
Acknowledgements...
List of Tables
List of Figures
List of Appendices
List of Acronym and Abbreviations.
Glossary of Local Terms..
Abstract.
Layout of Thesis
i
ii
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ix
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xv
Chapter I
Introduction
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
2.1
2.2
2.2.1
2.2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
4
5
7
8
9
9
12
13
13
13
13
14
14
15
15
Chapter II
Review of Literature.. 17
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.3.1
2.3.2
2.3.3
17
21
24
24
25
26
2.3.4
2.3.5
2.3.6
2.3.7
2.3.8
2.4
2.5
2.5.1
2.5.2
2.5.3
2.5.4
2.5.5
2.5.6
2.5.7
2.5.8
2.6
2.7
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27
28
29
30
41
42
42
42
43
43
43
44
45
45
51
53
Chapter III
Methodology....
54
3.1
Sanghar District Profile.
3.1.1 History..
3.1.2 Population, Size, Growth and Distribution...
3.2
Badin District Profile
3.2.1 Population Size, Growth and Distribution
3.2.2 Area and Household Size..
3.3
Socio-economic Conditions in District Sanghar...
3.3.1 Water Availability in Sindh..
3.3.2 Current Water Shortage.
3.3.3 Development Potential for Irrigated Agriculture in Arid Desert Areas.
3.3.3.1 Long Term Strategy
3.4
Socio-economic Conditions in Badin District
3.4.1 Overview of the Farming Sector
3.4.2 Overview of the Fishing Sector.
3.4.3 Vulnerability of Livelihoods.
3.4.4 On Going Development Initiatives
3.4.5 Study Areas
3.4.6 Map of Sindh..
3.5
Data Collection Method.
3.6
Multistage Sampling for Selection of Household..
3.7
General Measures of Poverty.
3.7.1 Head Count Index..
3.7.2 The Poverty Gap....
3.7.3 The Sen Index.
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54
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56
56
57
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60
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68
ii
3.7.4
3.8
3.9
3.10
3.11
3.12
3.13
Inequality Indices.
Determinants of Poverty..
Testing Hypothesis about Coefficients
Partial Correlation
Interpretation of Coefficients Using Odds..
Assessing the Goodness of Fit of the Model..
Methodology for Data Collection and Analysis for
Village Development Organizations
3.13.1 Population
3.13.2 Sample Selection.
3.13.3 Analysis of Data..
3.14 Conclusions..
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69
70
71
72
75
76
76
76
76
77
Chapter IV
Status and Trend Analysis of Rural Poverty in Sindh and
Pakistan .... 78
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
4.11
4.12
4.13
4.14
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81
82
83
85
86
88
89
89
91
91
92
94
94
Chapter V
Poverty Alleviation Initiatives .... 96
5.1
5.1.1
5.1.2
5.1.3
5.1.4
5.1.5
iii
96
97
99
99
100
100
100
101
102
103
104
104
105
108
109
109
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
115
115
116
116
117
117
118
119
120
121
124
124
125
126
126
128
129
Chapter VI
Results and Discussion...
131
6.0
Household Survey Results.
6.1
Household Related Information.
6.1.1 Age of Household Head.
6.1.2 Qualification of Household Head..
6.1.3 Skill of Household Head
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131
131
132
134
iv
6.1.4
6.1.5
6.1.6
6.1.7
6.1.8
6.1.9
6.2
6.2.1
6.2.2
6.2.3
6.3
6.3.1.
6.3.2
6.4
6.5
6.5.1
6.5.2
6.5.3
6.5.4
6.6
6.6.1
6.6.2
6.6.3
6.6.5
6.6.6
6.7
6.7.1
6.7.2
6.8
6.8.1
6.8.2
6.8.3
6.8.4
6.8.5
6.9
6.9.1
6.9.2
6.9.3
6.9.4
6.9.5
6.9.6
Household Size
Household by Members..
Availability of Electricity
Availability of Gas..
Type of House.
Availability of Toilet...
Loan Related Information
Source of Loan.
Institution of Loan
Recovery of Loan/Payment of Installments.
Human / Veterinary Centre Available.
Availability of Human dispensary...
Availability of Veterinary Centre
Househould Income.
Household Income by Profession
Household Income by Profession in district Sanghar..
Household Income by Profession of Badin.
Household Expenditure on Different Items for Sanghar District
Household Expenditure on Different Items for Badin District
Poverty Measurement..
Head Count Ratio.
Headcount Index..
Poverty Gap.....
Sen Index.
Poverty Gap and Sen Index.
Inequality Measurement..
Lorenz Curve of Sanghar.....
Lorenz Curve of Badin.
Logistic Regression Model Analysis...
Logistic Regression Model..
Poverty Status of Significant Predictors in Sanghar
Poverty Predictors Using Logistic Regression Model for Sanghar district.
Poverty Predictors Using Logistic Regression Model for Badin district
Poverty Status of Significant Predictors in Badin
Multiple Linear Regression Model Analysis...
Multiple Linear Regression Model.
Multiple Linear Regression Model Data for Badin.
Normal Probability Plot of Multiple Regression Model
Regression Residuals..
Multiple Linear Regression Model of Transformed Data for Badin..
Normal Probability Plot of Multiple Regression Model
Using Transformed Model
6.9.7 Regression Residual Plot Using Transformed Values
6.10 Results of Hypothesis Testing.
6.11 Conclusions.
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138
139
141
142
143
143
144
146
147
147
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150
150
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152
153
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160
160
161
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171
171
173
174
176
177
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180
180
Chapter VII
7.0 Primary Data Analysis and Discussion.
of Village Development Organization
7.1
7.2
7.2.1
7.2.2
7.2.3
7.2.4
7.2.5
7.2.6
7.2.7
7.2.8
7.2.9
7.2.10
7.2.11
7.2.12
7.2.13
7.2.14
7.2.15
7.2.16
7.2.17
7.2.18
7.3
7.3.1
7.3.2
7.3.3
7.3.4
7.3.5
7.3.6
7.3.7
7.3.8
7.3.9
7.3.10
7.3.11
7.3.12
7.3.13
7.3.14
Introduction
Survey Results of VDOs in District Sanghar.
Activities of VDOs to Alleviate Poverty
Empowerment and Participation in the Community..
Perception about Proper Utilization of Microcredit Loans
Status of Health and Nutrition
Improvement of Living Standard after the Loan
The Role of VDOs in Environmental Degradation.
The Role of VDOs in Establishing Income Generating Business...
Recommendations of VDOs for Effective Poverty Alleviation Programmes.
Rural Community Opinion on Government Poverty Alleviation Strategies...
Services Provided by VDOs to Community to Alleviate Poverty...
Important Services Implemented by VDOs and Problems Encountered.
Increases in Access of Good Quality Water
The Role of VDOs in Constructing a Building for the Community
in District Sanghar
Leadership Style of VDOs in District Sanghar
Perception About Total Credit Disbursed to the Community..
in District Sanghar
Conditions for Successful Use of Microcredit in District Sanghar.
Goals Purpose and Aims of VDOs in District Sanghar...
Specific Areas VDOs are Working to Alleviate Poverty in District Sanghar.
Survey Results of VDOs in District Badin..
Activities of VDOs to Alleviate Poverty.
Empowerment and Participation in Community.
Perception on Proper Utilization of Mciro credit Loans.
Resources of Health and Nutrition..
Improvement of Living Standard after the Loan.
The Role of VDOs in Saving Environment from Degradation
The Role of VDOs/NGOs in Establishing Income Generating Jobs...
Recommendations of VDOs for Improving Poverty Alleviation Programmes...
Rural Community Opinion About Poverty Alleviation Strategies..
Services VDOs Should Provide to Alleviate Poverty.
Important Services Implemented by NGOs/ VDOs
and Problems Encountered
Increase in Access to Good Quality Water.
The Role of NGOs / VDOs in Constructing a Building for the..
Community in District Badin
Leadership Style of VDOs in District Badin..
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185
186
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188
189
190
191
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200
201
202
204
205
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207
208
209
211
213
214
215
217
219
221
222
222
Chapter VIII
8.0 Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations..
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
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224
225
226
227
229
Summary.
Conclusions.
Recommendations.......
Follow up studies.
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230
237
245
References..
Appendices.
Appendix-A Secondary Data
Appendix-B Selection of Villages, VDOs and Sample Respondents ..
in District Sanghar
Appendix-C Selection of Villages, VDOs and Sample Respondents ..
in District Badin
Appendix-D Household Survey Questionnaire....
Appendix-E Village Development Organizations Questionnaire
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268
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285
291
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the research work embodied in this thesis entitled Empirical
Analysis of the Determinants of Rural Poverty in Sindh Province of Pakistan
carried out by Mr. Lawal Mohammad Anka under our guidance and supervision is
original, and be accepted as fulfilling the requirement of the degree of Doctor of
Philosophy (Ph.D) in Development Studies.
___________________________
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this thesis has been composed by myself and that all the work
carried out herein is also my own except where specially stated.
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to express my sincere gratitude and appreciation to my Supervisor
Prof. Dr. Abida Taherani, Director SDSC University of Sindh Jamshoro for her excellent
guidance, brilliant ideas, Scholarly advice, moral support and hospitality during the
course of my study. Dr. Abidas outstanding academic and research skills as well as
dynamic leadership have been instrumental in promoting postgraduate programmes at
SDSC. She is a remarkable individual and a role model.It has been a great pleasure to
work with her.
I am also highly thankful to my Co-Supervisor and Mentor Prof. Dr. Rajab
A. Memon, Eminent Scholar and Consultant Research and Training CRDC University of
Sindh for his moral support, encouragement, brilliant ideas, scholarly advice and
excellent guidance which led to the completion of this study. In fact he made it possible
for me to pursue this programme.
I am sincerely greatful to Dr. Aijaz A Khooharo, Assistant Professor,
Department of Statistics, S.A.U. Tandojam for his scholarly input, regular support and
hospitality. His outstanding skills in data analysis were always detailed, incisive and
reflective of his considerable knowledge of the subject. I appreciate the personal support
and encouragement given to me by Dr. Heman Das Lohano, Associate Professor, IBA
Karachi.
Special thanks are due to Mr. Suleiman Abro, Chief Executive SAFWCO
for providing logistics and transportation during my data collection in District Sanghar. I
am also greatful to his staff Mr. Niaz H. Sial, Mr. Mumtaz Dhari and their team of social
organizers for taking and bringing me back daily during data collection in Sanghar. I
must accord special appreciation to Dr. Akash Ansari,Executive Director Badin Rural
Development Society and all his field staff for supporting my research endeavours in a
sincere and dedicated manner.
I am thankful to Prof. Dr. Rafia A. Shaikh, Pro-Vice Chancellor and Prof.
Dr. Iqbal A. Panhwar, Pro-Vice Chancellor Mirpurhas Campus University of Sindh for
their moral support and encouragement. Sincere thanks are due to Prof. G.H. Khaskheli,
Prof. Iqbal Qazi, Mr. M.A. Talpur, Mr. Z.K. Rind, Mr. G.A. Jariko, Mr. Ghani Soomro
and Mr. Raheel Bughio, Senior Faculty Members at SDSC for their regular support and
encouragement.
Thanks are also due to Mr. Basharat Ali Librarian SDSC, University of
Sindh Jamshoro, Mr. Zafar Javed Naqvi, Chief Librian PIDE, Islamabad, Mrs
Mahjabeen, Reference Librarian PIDE, Mr. Suleiman Khalhoro and Mr. Rajab Channa,
Assistant Librarians, S.A.U. Tandojam Mrs. Amatul Wadood, Librarian AERC
University of Karachi, Librarians of World Bank and Asian Development Bank
Islamabad for providing secondary literature and other relevant information for my
research.
iii
I likewise owe many thanks to Prof. Dr. Lutfullah Mangi Ex Director Far
East and South East Asia Area Study Centre and Dr. S. K. Jamali Assistant Professor
Dept of Economics University of Sindh Jamshoro for providing me accommodation both
in the campus and Hyderabad respectively.Prof. Dr. Pervez Pathan Professor SDSC and
Prof. Shahab Mughal Assistant Professor SDSC extended full support and gave scholarly
advice and brilliant ideas throughout the conduct of my research. I would like to thank
them for their generosity.
Many people outside the university supported my research endeavours. I
would like to acknowledge with thanks the various suggestion given to me by Late Dr A
R Kemal Ex Director PIDE, Islamabad Ms Rizwana Siddiqui PIDE Islamabad Dr
Mohammad Aslam Khan National Planning Commission Islamabad, Dr Sajjad Akhtar
CRIPRID Islamabad, Dr Suleman Shaikh Secretary Board of Trustees SZABIST Karachi
and Mr Aktar A Hai Joint Director Aplied Economic Research Centre University of
Karachi.
I am highly thankful to Prof. Dr. A.Q. Mughal Vice Chancellor of Sindh
Agriculture University Tandojam, Prof. Dr. Umar Mallah Director DASAR and Prof. Dr.
K.B. Mirbahar Faculty of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Sciences, Sindh Agriculture
University Tandojam for their moral support and cooperation during the period of my
research work.
I also acknowledge the true friendship and best companionship of my
friends Mr. Zamir Ujjan, Dr. Ibrahim Radman, Mr. Sohail Qureshi, Mr. Sachal Dino
Sheedi, Mr. Ammar Naqvi, Mr. Naseer Ahmed Chishti, Mr. Kamran Channa and Mr.
Arshad J. Minhas and his wife Mrs Nabila Arshad for the excellent hospitality they gave
me during the period of my study.
I must express my sincere gratitude to Alhaji Ahmad Sani, Ex-Governor
Zamfara State of Nigeria for approving the Scholarship and Alhaji Musa Ibrahim Anka,
Alhaji Halilu Anka, Alhaji Sani Salihu Anka and my brother Alhaji Sani Buhari for
making sure that funds are released in good time for me to continue my studies. Behind
the scene are Mr. Choudhary Asim Hamayun who entered the data from Badin in SPSS
and, Mr. Muhammad Waseem and Muhammad Umar, computer experts I am thankful to
them for computerizing the thesis with great patience.
Finally I would like to express my feelings of admiration to my wife
Maryam daughters Aisha, Asmau and Zainab, parents, brothers and sisters for their love
affection whose prayers have always been a source of inspiration for me. They made a lot
of sacrifices during my four years absence from home.
iv
LIST OF TABLES
1.
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36a
36b
36c
37
38
39
6
8
55
57
58
59
63
65
67
80
81
87
88
89
90
92
93
96
98
99
106
116
117
123
124
126
132
134
135
137
138
139
140
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
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78
79
80
81
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LIST OF FIGURES
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Map of Sindh. 64
Household Income by Profession of Sanghar150
Household Income by Profession of Badin... 151
Household Expenditure on Different Items for Sanghar... 153
Household Expenditure on Different Items for Badin.. 154
Lorenz Curve of Sanghar.. 161
Lorenz Curve of Badin.. 163
Poverty Status of Significant Predictors in Sanghar. 165
Poverty Status of Significant Predictors in District Badin 170
Normal Probability Plot of Multiple Regression Model... 174
Regression Residual Plot.. 175
Normal Probability Plot of Multiple Regression Model Using 177
Transformed Model
Regression Residual Plot Using Transformed Values.. 178
viii
LIST OF APPENDICES
A
B
C
D
E
ix
Deh
Goth
Hari
Tenant or peasant
Kamdar
Katcha
The area adjoining the river which used to bring the fertile silts
and was highly prized for cultivation
Kharif
Mohallah
Naib nazim
Nazim
Panchayat
Rabi
Seth
Taluka
Tehsil
Wadera/wadero
Zamindar
Landlord
Union council
xi
Tapas
Dehs
Ghaznavids
Dhands
Lakes
Sani guni
Canals name
Chew pan
Beeri
Katchriabadis
Katcheries
Open discussions
Pacca houses
Jhorpra houses
Jhorpra
Katcha houses
xii
ABSTRACT
Sanghar district has a population of 1.353 million according to 1998
census. Agriculture employees 70% of the rural people out of which 57% are self
employed. Farming is mostly at subsistence level except for the bigger land holding.
Large number of landless people work on these farms and are mostly paid in cash.
Besides subsistence earning high dependency ratio is another reason of poverty. The
major source of drinking water supply were hand pumps and pipe water in the district,
only 17% of the rural population had access to separate latrines, while 16% have access
to shared latrines.
Badin district with a population of 1.2 million is one of the richest district
in terms of natural resource base but it is the poorest in terms of human development.
Extreme natural disasters had adversely affected the district over the last ten years. This
has resulted in a general disruption of livelihoods, increased their vulnerability and in
some cases led to out migration. Inequality in the distribution of water and lack of basic
social services and infrastructure has further resulted in harsh living conditions and
extreme poverty.
This study was conducted to estimate poverty and inequality in the
distribution of income, analyse the determinants and identify the correlates of poverty in
Sindh. The study also evaluated various government, NGOs and private sector initiatives
towards poverty alleviation.
A total sample of 320 households was selected from two district.
Multistage sampling was used to select households. The primary data collected from
household survey was analysed. For measuring Poverty headcount Index,Poverty gap and
Sen Index were used, while for measuring inequality Lorenz curve and gini coefficient
were used. For analyzing the determinants and identifying the correlates logistic
regression and multiple linear regression models were estimated. The major conclusion
drawn from the study revealed that headcount ratio was 52% in Sanghar district, and in
Badin it was 56%; while Sanghar district has a poverty gap of 373, and in Badin it is 356.
On the same proportion the two districts have a sen index of 0.31 respectively. Logistic
regression was applied to primary data. The results revealed that logistic regression
satisfy the 85% while multiple linear regression accounted for 47% variation. Land
ownership is significant because those who own land will be out of poverty. As the
number of earners increases the proportion of household poverty decreases. All variables
show significant values except household size which shows a positive sign. In the Lorenz
curve and gini coefficient if the gap between the perfect distribution line and Lorenz
curve is high it implies that there is inequality in the distribution of income. If Lorenz
curve goes down this shows that most of the people in the study areas have low income.
It was concluded that land, household size, number of earners and qualification of
household head has a significant effect on poverty.
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xiv
LAYOUT OF THESIS
In chapter one the introduction is divided into three parts. The first part
discussed the international perspective to poverty, the second part describe poverty issues
in Pakistan and the last part discussed the poverty situation in Sindh.
The justification for conducting this research is that both Sanghar and
Badin districts are ranked 10 and 14 among those districts lacking social amenities in
Pakistan, failure to implement poverty reduction programmes properly and the issues of
empirical analysis of the determinants of rural poverty has not been done properly. The
objectives and hypothesis, significance, purpose and limitation of the study has been
discussed. Chapter 2 Provides an in depth review of literature on poverty and inequality
from international perspective, Pakistan perspective and Sindh perspective along with
their critique. Chapter 3 Describes the research methodology that how the research is
going to be carried out. It present an analytical framework that is used for data collection,
data anlaysis and presentation. Chapter 4 Describes the status and trend analysis of rural
poverty in Sindh and Pakistan. The chapter present various data that will help us
understand the nature and dimension of poverty in Pakistan and Sindh respectively.
Chapter 5 Describes the various initiatives taken by governmental organization and
NGOs in poverty alleviation over the years these organizations have made effort to
poverty alleviation in Sindh and Pakistan respectively yet poverty is still increasing.
Chapter 6 present results and discussions on household survey. Chapter 7 present data
analysis and discussion of village development organization in respect of various
initiative taken by them to alleviate poverty in the study area. Chapter 8 present summary
conclusions and recommendations aim at poverty reduction on sustainable basis in Sindh.
xv
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Poverty is as an inability to afford the minimum standard of living.
According to the United Nations (UNDP 2006), a person living under one dollar per day
is considered to be living under the poverty line. Poverty is an issue that requires
extraordinary solution in poor communities, and it become a challenge to the people that
live with it. In view of its severity we should first, identify poverty and then evaluate it
and finally eliminate it (Aslam, 2004)
In economic terms a country, region or household are poor when the per
capita income of a country or the income of a household is very low. In political terms a
country a region or a group of people are poor which are dependent on more powerful
groups or individuals in order to express their own rights or choices.
In social terms the manifestation of poverty is revealed when a country,
region or household breeds all types of socially unacceptable behaviors like drug
addiction, crime, prostitution, violence in a family or in a community and terrorism, all of
which degrade human self respect, moral and social values of the society as a whole,
when more and more people in the community become intolerant of each other and are
rude towards each other in their day to day life (Aslam, 2004).
In its environmental terms poverty destroys the living environment not
only of those who live in poverty but of all other human and non human species that
depend on the same resources and ecosystem on which those living poverty depend and
survive upon. People living in poverty cannot change their behavior easily not only
because of lack of resources, but also because of lack of knowledge about their own
surroundings and survival techniques, lack of education and illiteracy. More importantly
if they do not change their already marginalized living behaviors they might die. Thus by
destroying their own living environment, the poor in reality are destroying their own
resources on which they survive in the long run (Amjad and Kemal 1997).
In its human dimension, poverty means being poor living in pathetic
conditions, in which people die of extreme hunger, malnutrition and starvation (Arif,
2006). Another human dimension to poverty is when the poor sells their siblings into
child labor, due to lack of money to take care of their young ones (Arif, 2006).
Furthermore, poverty has a human dimension when people have no concern towards their
communities. Lack of patriotism to help the poor, who actually need help due to abject
poverty and lack of opportunities for survival (Arif, 2006)
According to World Bank Report of (2001), vulnerability is lack of
protection to the poor, which may lead to other risks such as injury due to violence, from
undesirable elements. The concept of poverty as powerlessness underlines the importance
of economic vulnerability. The poor are separated from non poor, not only by their
current standard of living but also by their greater vulnerability to economic catastrophe.
A vulnerability that limits their choices and hence the freedom of the poor (World Bank,
2001)
Absolute poverty(1) can be eradicated, if there is higher economic growth,
which reduces distribution of income, economic growth is the key determinant of poverty
1. Absolute Poverty is defined as absence of enough food, water and shelter for survival
reduction, when the poor become productive then poverty reduction is possible.
Therefore, we should invest more on human resource development, and expand access to
employment and microcredit (Anwar, 2005). While, sound macroeconomic policies and
growth enhancing structural reforms favor the poor and poverty reduction feed back
positively into growth. Income distribution also matters, reducing inequality will increase
the number of who benefits the same rate of economic growth (Anwar, 2005).
The pace of poverty reduction and human development has been much
slower than the pace of economic growth in Pakistan. Despite impressive economic
growth, around one fourth of the population is living below the poverty line. There are
two major factors that restrict the poor in Pakistan to benefit from rising economic
growth. First, lack of human capital in terms of education, training and health. Second,
the poor are not provided with enough income earning opportunities in terms of jobs. The
government approach has been welfare oriented rather than empowerment of the poor.
No doubt, the long term solution to poverty in Pakistan lies only in accelerated human
development alongwith adequate employment opportunities. Realizing the significance of
poverty alleviation as not an end in itself but also as a critical factor for sustaining future
economic growth, the government of Pakistan has been showing an increasing
commitment to reduce poverty. Over the past five years (2001-2006) alone, the social
sector and poverty related expenditure has been doubled. A number of poverty alleviation
programmes are being implemented to ameliorate the sufferings of the poor and to
improve living conditions in general (Kemal, 1998).
It is important to build assets for sustainable livelihood, natural capital,
social capital, physical capital, human capital and financial capital through social
was high rate of economic growth in the 1960s (Kemal, 2003). The country achieved 6.8
percent growth due to sound macroeconomic policies, and bumper harvesting agricultural
sector. This plays a positive role towards growth, of the private sector. As a result of this
success foreign investment increases in the first quarter of 1960s (Kemal, 2003). In the
mid 1960s the country achieved green revolution. This initiative accelerated agricultural
growth through the use of agricultural technology which resulted in wheat self
sufficiency (Kemal, 2003). The major reason why poverty increases in the 1960s was due
to low level of employment opportunities which affected, the livelihood of the poor in
particular (Gazdar, 2007).
annual growth during 1987-88 and 2004-05 on average. Table 1 indicates a higher
increase in urban poverty during this period. A comparison with 2001-02 and 2004-05
shows that the decline in urban poverty is less than the rural poverty. Rural poverty in
this period has reduced by 4 percent, while the reduction is about 2 percent in the case of
urban poverty incidence.
Table-1
Pakistan
Urban
Rural
Source:
28
25
30
30
25
32
33
30
35
2004-05
30
28
31
Haroon Jamal 2007 income poverty at district level an application of small area
estimation technique research report no.70 page 8 SPDC June 2007.
Poverty Gap is the amount of income required to raise everyone who is below the poverty line upto that line.
Severity of Poverty : when a person is so poor that he is affected by diseases, malnutrition etc. Severity of poverty affects
life expectancy.
coincides with the economic status of 2000-01. The country witness economic growth
and increase in GDP. The government social action programme, is an effort to poverty
alleviation on a sustainable basis (Rizwana and Kemal 2006).
Many research scholars in Pakistan used various methods, applying
various models and other statistical tools so as to come up with positive results. Despite
all efforts and commitments, poverty still remain, high in both rural and urban areas of
the country. To address the root cause of poverty on a sound footing (Jamal, 2003).
Provision of job opportunities to the less privilege near to their homes is very important.
The aim is to discourage migration, of the people to cities and making sure that credit is
delivered, to the poor for self reliant activities (Qureshi and Arif, 1999).
1.3
terms of natural resources, situated between European countries and for east. Sindh has
the potential to become a leading economically viable province of Pakistan with about 40
percent industrial output (World Bank, 2006). Sindh has the highest per capita income,
amounting to 55 percent when Pakistan was created in 1947. During the year 2004-05 its
contribution to the countrys GDP decline, in all important sectors of the economy. In
2003-04 about 610,000 citizens of Sindh are unemployed; it is also possible that a total of
500,000 people will remain unemployed, in the coming decade. If the economy fail to
grow at 7-8 percent yearly then, the rate of unemployment will increase upto 1.6 million
by 2013-14 (World Bank Report, 2006). The overall poverty level in Sindh province is
52.2% (Aftab, 2009).
of the various issues and measures that have been taken by the government and other
organizations such as the NGOs. (Securing Sindh Future, World Bank Report 2006).
Income is one of the basic indicators of social well being. Sindh had the
highest per capita income from 1975-1995 and income in this period had a faster rate of
growth than in any other province. The gap between per capita income in Sindh and
Punjab in 1975 was Rs.1,250 per annum. By 1995 this gap had increased to Rs.2,800 per
year. The gross regional product (GRP) per capita 1995 at 1980-81 prices was the highest
in Sindh at Rs.5,325 per annum.(Sindh Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper, 2003)
Despite the above figures, more than 11 million men and women in Sindh
are unemployed and around 15 million live below the poverty line. According to the
Pakistan Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PPRSP), population below the income
poverty line of one US Dollars per day is 31 percent, which implies that every third
household in Pakistan lacks sufficient income to afford the daily intake of 2,350 calories
per person. The ratio of economically active population to the total population termed as
crude activity or participation rate, is around 22.75 percent in Sindh, but the 1998 census
states a participation rate of 32.73 percent (age 10 and above) in either case it is very low
and indicates a high incidence of poverty (Sindh Poverty Strategy Paper 2003). Since all
sober assessments of Pakistans economic and poverty trends suggest that not only has
poverty returned but it is likely to be a permanent phenomenon. The issues of Empirical
Analysis of the determinants of rural poverty in Sindh have not been addressed properly
by scholars this gave the rationale for conducting the present study.
1.4
shows that Shikarpur ranked 1 with 57.79% urban and 40.28% rural. Thatta ranked 2
with 50.93% urban and 45.73% rural, Larkana ranked 3 with 53.84% urban and 40.87%
rural, Badin ranked 6 with 40.93% urban and 32.42% rural is relatively fair in these
estimates. Similarly Sanghar ranked 14 with 39.66% urban and 20.63% rural is better up
in all the listed districts below. Overall Shikarpur has the highest incidence of poverty
while Sanghar has the lowest incidence of poverty on the basis of these estimates
(Haroon Jamal, 2007).
Table-2
Districts
Badin
Sanghar
Larkana
Shikarpar
Thatta
Source:
Overall
Region
Urban areas
Rural areas
34.83%
24.67%
43.33%
51.03%
46.87%
40.93%
39.66%
53.84%
57.79%
50.93%
32.42%
20.63%
40.87%
40.28%
45.73%
Haroon Jamal 2007 updating poverty and inequality estimates (2005) SPDC Research
Report no.69,
Rural Sindh is one of the poorest areas in the country. The districts Thatta
and Badin were the poorest, according to a nation wide village survey conducted in 2005.
The incidence of rural poverty is high, where about 40 percent of rural people live below
the poverty line. In Thatta and Badin, the figure is considerably as high as high as 70
percent (Sindh Coastal Development Project, 2005 Report).
4.
Ranking is defined as the relationship between two items this means the first can be ranked higher than the second one or
each can be ranked equal or the second can be ranked higher than the first.
10
1.5
as having very high poverty ratio(5). The Kohli of Sanghar were infact the poorest single
group in cross village poverty ranking. The Punjabi 1 were landless tenants, migrants
from southern Punjab. The other relatively poor groups included Baluch 5 and to some
extent the Baluch 2. The Baluch 1 and Sammat 1 were less likely to be poor as were the
two Mir Kinship groups. The Khaskhelis too were among the less poor. The poverty
rankings of groups in Sanghar showed that the Hindus and scheduled castes were among
the poorest. The relatively good position of the Mirs was in line with their historically
privilege status, but historically oppressed Khaskhelis appeared to be doing almost as
well as the Mirs (Gazdar, 2007).
1.6
or sense of well being in Badin. These include food consumption, ownership of livestock,
ownership of durable items and housing condition.
The major problem in the area is the absence of capital or surplus earnings
within the communities; this means that they are excluded from various development
opportunities such as the microfinance scheme. The Badin coastal area needs some form
of protection from periodic cyclones and massive floods or storm surges. Other priorities
are sweet water, health support, small link roads, basic sanitation, support for crops and
livestock and education; because its current benefits in their current environment are
difficult to comprehend (Sindh Participatory Poverty Assessment Report 2003).
5.
Poverty ratio is defined as the percentages of poverty level and its also relationship between two amongs.
11
1.7
province and according to the ranking of those districts lacking social amenities in
Pakistan the incidence of rural poverty is very high. Seventy percent of the people live
below the poverty line. Apart from humanitarian considerations, the high incidence of
poverty becomes a crucial social factor for the governance of civil society.
According to studies conducted by Sindh Coastal Development Authority
in 2005, the important factor in predicting poverty is the proximity and availability of
water. There is no sanitation facilities, 90 percent of residents live in clay wall or plastic
sheet roots structures. The average literacy rate is around 20 percent of the total
population. Poor facilities about roads, power, health and education add up to lack of
access to a range of essential services needed to conduct life beyond survival. The
situation requires emergency rather than development, what is being seen in the area is
the collapse of communities, a situation that requires mitigation before any serious
development strategy can be implemented. The fundamental cause of ill health is lack of
clean drinking water, and the consequence is that people suffer a range of chronic water
borne diseases including hepatitis A,B,C, high blood pressure, kidney failure and joint
disability. Therefore, a huge gap still exists in living standard, education, health and
social amenities in the area. The failure to adequately implement poverty reduction
programmes designed by the government bilateral, multilateral agencies and private
sector initiatives can be seen as the precursor to most of the present causes of poverty in
both rural and urban areas of Pakistan. In view of the above scenario, following are the
justification for conducting the present research.
12
1. Some research scholars have conducted research on poverty in Sindh province but
based on secondary data and they did not use any technique to analyse the data.
2. Similarly, a research was conducted (2005) in Tharparkar area on poverty and
only regression model was used but no other techniques were used, which is being
used in this study to analyse the data.
3. A number of economists had conducted research on poverty in Sindh province but
using a small sample covering a Taluka or Tehsil. But in my own case I am using
a bigger sample of 320 covering 2 districts of Sindh, Sanghar and Badin.
1.8
Sanghar and Badin districts of Pakistan. The assessment provides an overview of poverty
situation in the study areas as well as analysis of its causes and measures to alleviate it.
In the initial poverty evaluation assessment those who are likely to
become poor, are not taken into consideration (GOP PRSP, 2005). Household members
that are clustered near the poverty line, are likely to become extremely poor. The poor in
Sindh have no right to express their opinion, no access to decision making and political
offices as compared to the rich (GOP PRSP, 2005). Poverty evaluations conducted by
various scholars revealed that, without sound economic growth poverty alleviation is not
possible the two are inter linked (Arif and Iqbal 2008). On the otherhand the household
heads working on daily wage in crop sector, engineering, commerce and transport have
the highest level of poverty (Aslam, 2004). Similarly, also in rural areas, the incidence of
poverty is high among share croppers.
13
2.0
Objectives
2.1
Overall Objectives
The overall objective of the study is to assess the level of poverty and to
explore associated factors in Badin and Sanghar districts of Sindh province of Pakistan.
2.2
2.3
Hypothesis
The following null hypotheses are proposed to be tested:
1. Rural poverty does not depend upon respondent characteristics such as
educational status, gender, age, and tenancy and marital status.
2. Rural poverty does not depend upon agro-economic indicators: cropping pattern,
low productivity, high input prices and low output prices.
3. Rural poverty does not depend upon household characteristics such as size,
household quality, dependency ratio, and household assets.
2.4
knowing the extent of poverty and inequality, and identifying the correlates and other
socioeconomic characteristics among the people in the study area. The study also
14
evaluated the activities of NGOs working on poverty alleviation, achievements and short
comings of these NGOs in the delivery of micro credit, which has been an important
ingredient of poverty alleviation programmes. Over the years, Pakistans progress
towards achieving millennium development goals, in respect of poverty alleviation
among the rural population has been slow. This study examined those constraints,
responsible for slow delivery of poverty alleviation programmes in Sindh.
2.5
wheat / Fodder Zone) and Badin (Sugarcane, Rice, Vegetables, Oilseeds Zone). Data was
collected from contact and non contact farmers in the villages both of Sanghar and Badin
Districts. A sample size of 320 was used for data collection. Due to limited time and
financial constraints, one year data were gathered from representative sample of the
target groups.
2.6
Conclusions
This chapter is divided into five parts. The first part discussed poverty at
international level and concludes that the success of poverty efforts is therefore, based on
the integration of the poor through participatory institutions. The second part gave an
overview of poverty in Pakistan and concludes that for addressing the root cause of
poverty on a sound footing. There is a need to create more job opportunities, to the less
privilege near their homes (Jafri, 1997). The third part looks at unemployment in Sindh is
likely to increase, if the economy fail to grow between 7-8 per annum (World Bank
15
Report, 2006). The fourth part discusses the prevailing scenario of poverty in Sanghar
and concludes that the deprivation ranking 1 = least deprived to 16 most deprived gives
Sanghar a ranking of 12 for employment 8 for education 10 for housing quality. Similarly
Badin is ranked 10 for employment 6 for education and 8 for housing quality. The fifth
part discussed poverty issues in Badin and concludes that the major problem in the area is
the absence of capital or surplus earnings with the community; this means they are
excluded from various development schemes such as microfinance.
16
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The objective of this section is to review a number of issues related to
poverty and inequality at international level, Pakistan and Sindh respectively.
2.1
the millennium meeting of the United Nations. Commitment was made there, that
absolute poverty would be reduced by 50% by the year 2015. The World Bank brought a
document in support, pledging to do all it could, to meet the target of taking the poor to a
level of earning that is more than one dollar a day. In doing so, it gave itself a stiff target.
The report lays down that the following was to be done besides the reduction listed
above:
1. Ensure universal primary education
2. Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education.
3. Reduce infant and child mortality by two thirds
4. Reduce maternal mortality by three quarters
5. Ensure universal access to reproductive health services
6. Implement national strategies for sustainable development.
At the current growth rate, the population will increase over 2 billion by
the time the target data is reached. The tragedy is that, all this is analyzed in terms of
commitment of money. Means can never be turned into ends. The attending
circumstances round the world are going to be different, so every country will have to
chart its even course. The objectives by themselves are contradictory and conflicting.
Even in the sub-containment, the differences in culture between India and Pakistan
17
(despite proximity and close links) is so diverse, that some of the options in India are not
workable in Pakistan and vice versa (Zafar, 2004).
The previous strategies that were brought in failed miserably, the amount
of time and resources spent on the quantum and measurement of poverty need not to be
elaborated at this stage, but the fact remains that there seams to be greater effort at
measurements and tangential activities, rather than something direct and tangible. The
decades of the seventies, eighties, and nineties are replete with failures. Had they been
seen as failures, matters could have been put right but that has not been so. The World
Bank is constantly under review to determine its optional working size and it has still not
find one. Lords of poverty and Masters of Illusions are two well documented books
which give a graphic picture of what goes on in the World Bank.
The current strategy of the World Bank enters the high moral ground again
by building on past cumulative experience and in the context of the changed global
situation. The strategy is going to be three pronged.
(1) Promoting opportunity
(2) Facilitating empowerment
(3) Enhancing security
This strategy will be considered in the light of how they will be translated
into action in developing countries. The UNDPs report overcoming poverty was
published in the year 2000. The UNDP considers planning, essential for poverty
reduction. It does not agree with the more radical views expounded by some, that the free
market will allow poverty to be alleviated.
The UNDP links poverty to lack of effective governance and ideally
would like to see that governance is improved and that external assistance is limited to
18
that, but does not address the question of what governance is? The report appears to
assume that developing countries are working under condition of certainty and that the
process of governance is laid down.
There is very little change for developing countries to deliver in terms of
linking the countrys policies to alleviation of poverty. The previous policies that were
followed on the dictates of the international agencies have been discarded and a switch is
now considered necessary by those agencies. The structural rigidities that have developed
have been due to failed intervention by international agencies, but it was the policies of
the developing countries that were made to seem responsible for the inadequacies and the
failures (World Development Report, 2001).
Another point made in the report is with regard to world trade. We now
know that there is massive resistance to the WTO and that the Seattle, Prague and Qatar
conferences ended up in smoke. If trade is to be the leader in development, then the
confusion must end. All that the developed countries would be doing is pushing their
surpluses on the developing world. According to Stephanie black the IMF (and by proxy
the WTO) have been successful in selling Florida tomatoes and potatoes in Jamaica, thus
starring the indigenous small producers by putting an end to their future prospects.
Within a month there were riots in Jamaica and the army was called out. According to the
Prime Minister, the army picked off the opposition with sniper fire.
When a country is unable to link its internal policies to poverty alleviation
how does one expect policy makers to be able to develop polices that would lead to
poverty alleviation?. Given this state of affairs, how does one expect to gain from a world
order. The head start of the developed countries is such that, it is impossible for
19
developing countries to catch up with them. In any case, the developed countries are
targeting the rich and the efficient in developing countries; the rich who are identified in
with and are the successors of the colonialists.
The UNDP Report Overcoming Poverty was published in the year 2000.
The report came out as a result of the social summit 1995. The short coming was that,
despite the urgent need the donor countries were cutting back on financial resources. The
fetish for financial resources is almost the single most valued weapon with the developed
countries. However the critical element in the entire game is not finance at all, but bits
and pieces of relevance that are particular to that culture. The report lists some elements
such as commitment as essential in the fight against poverty. It generally disagrees with
money concept as defining poverty, and visualizes incorporating specific targets like
reducing malnutrition, expanding literacy and increasing life expectancy(UNDP, 2000).
The International Fund of Agricultural development has track record in
dealing with rural poverty much beter than other agencies, linking five cardinal points as
challenges. First that smallholder production and production of staples plays an important
role in the livelihoods of the rural population. Secondly, that reducing rural poverty
requires better allocation and distribution of water to improve production of staples.
Thirdly, that achieving the poverty targets requires resource distribution in favour of the
poor. Fourthly, that particular group merit special attention i.e. women. The problem with
fragmentation is that it displaces policy and one can find all kind of excuses of not
performing.
The fifth challenge is participatory and decentralized functioning.
Participation as the west sees, it is not as strong as it is in the east. The lower the
20
Critique
Our understanding on the international perspective to poverty and
inequality issues was that poverty has two root causes, one is lack of economic growth,
the other inequitable income, wealth and resource distribution. Major components of the
latter are concentration of assets in the hands of few, inadequate schooling, lack of social
services and infrastructure and unemployment problems (World Bank, 2005).
The World Bank in its analysis of a dozen of countries argues that changes
in the incomes of the poor can be explained by decomposing them into that part
attributable to overall economic growth and that part ascribed to differences in the
inequality of income distribution. Our impression was that rural, and urban poor were not
disaggregated a task which must be accomplished some day in the future.
21
Brazil for example, was enjoying a very high rate of economic growth but
inequality was becoming more severe problem. Given the growth rate, it had experienced
between 1980 and 1990 drop of poverty incidence of 34 percent was forecasted by the
World Bank model. But since inequality increased, there was a drop of only 24 percent in
poverty incidence. And if distribution in Brazil had proceeded to the same extent as
Malaysia given Brazils growth rate, poverty reduction would have been in the order of
43 percentage points (Gary and Guy, 2006). So, the pattern of growth and the way the
income effects of growth are distributed as well as its rates are important determinants of
change in the incidence of poverty.
In Malaysia, growth was not as rapid as in Brazil, but income effects from
it were distributed more equitably and while a 19 percent reduction in poverty was
forecasted, actual reduction was 23 percentage points. High growth does not indicate
progress in solving social problems. Pakistan is a high growth, least developed country,
and Brazil, a high growth middle income country. Yet, Brazil has one of the highest
mortality rates for children under 5 years of age among LDCs and Pakistan has one of
the lowest primary school enrolment rates for children (Samaratne, 2005).
Levels and rates of growth of GNP Grass National Product do not always
limit the progress of social indicators. One particular characteristic of development over
the last several decades is the fact, that social indicators have tended to run ahead of
economic ones. And in some low income countries like China, Srilanka and the Indian
State of Kerala, per capita income levels are very low, but other indicators such as infant
mortality, life expectancy, literacy and nutrition exhibit surprising progress, though the
sustainability of that progress is in question, especially when growth rates are slow and
22
expenditures for non social programmes rise. A countrys solution to problems. Depends
not only on its GNP rough indication of its capacity to act, but also on its distribution of
wealth a sign of its public will. One important limitation to poverty alleviation is that,
third world countries spend half of their total annual expenditures for servicing the
national debt.
Growth without a fairly equitable distribution is a very blunt instrument
for poverty reduction. Even so, researchers have recently concluded that in terms of
satisfying basic needs, average real income growth is much more decisive than change in
income shares. But growth can be honed with institutional change and public policy, so
that improvements in distribution channel income gains to lower strata of society,
perhaps the most enduring manner of targeting a solution for groups in poverty; on the
other hand redistribution without growth is equally suspect, in the absence of growth it is
once and for all event.
If we face a moral problem, that is to be dealt with primarily by
redistribution of assets and income within developing countries, then it must be dealt
through growth and broad processes of growth which require a very substantial set of
incremental resources. The capability of providing those resources determines the time
path over which they are provided then it becomes a moral problem of the rich developed
countries in which 95 to 100 percent of the population is above that poverty line. We
maintain that such growth is essential. Thus, it is very much a moral problem of the rich
countries of the world and one that they do not face up to particularly (World Bank,
2005).
23
2.3
2.3.1
created social and regional inequality. It was observed that the main cause of rural
poverty was continued dependence of the poor on landlords. (Saeed, 2005).
The state subsidies provided by the government created a situation, where
by industries were producing low quality products which, cannot generate enough foreign
exchange for the country. The government that took over from Ayub regime went into,
reckless financial allocation for the countrys resources based on, political support instead
of economic efficiency. The Bhutto Regime Nationalise the industries, for better
economic performance and self reliance. This gave the regime more political support
from the masses. (Saeed 2005).
The increase in budget deficit by the Bhuttos administration has added
huge, expenditure to the government. While during the Zias administration financial
resources were used for wasteful political activities instead, of diverting the resources for
development of agriculture and irrigation, as well as human resource development. As a
result of withdraws of support, from foreign donors after the Afghan war investment and
economic growth decreased and budget deficit went up this, increased poverty among the
poor. This period brought about change in structure of the economic growth, as a result of
this development both capital and labour productivity decreased. Similarly, decrease in
capital productivity affects economic growth. Likewise decrease in labour productivity,
affects real wages. Therefore decreased in GDP growth and real wages directly affect the
24
economy and in this situation poverty increase. (Saeed, 2005). The present situation laid
the foundation, of rising poverty and unemployment in the country (Saeed, 2005).
2.3.2
politicians use their position for personal gain, to the detriment of the poor. The law and
order situation, affected foreign investment and economic growth (Shabir, 2004). The
failure of successive governments in this period to address the deteriorating infrastructure
and the emerging financial crisis further exacerbated the unfavourable environment for
investment. During this period the government continued with wasteful expenditure and
decided to reduce development expenditure, which went down from 7.4 percent of the
GDP in (1973-77) to 3.5 percent from 1997-98 to 1999-2000 (Shabir, 2004).
Similarly the GDP decreased from 6.3 percent in the 1980s to 4.2 percent
in 1990s. Increase in employment remain very low at 2.4 percent since 1980s. This shows
that unemployment, increased during 1990s no immediate solution to the problem.
Likewise increase in labour productivity decreased, this bring down real wages which
severely affect the economy (UNDP, 2000).
The regular increase in fluctuations of agricultural output led to increase
in, incidence of poverty among the poor masses. (Hussain, 2004). In view of the adverse
decrease in input productivity small farmers, lacking strong financial resources will face
more problems, than large scale farmers. (Saboor, 2004). Consequently slower and more
unstable growth during the 1990s could be expected to be accompanied by growing
poverty and inequality (Saboor, 2004). The Gini Coefficient which is a measure of the
25
degree of inequality increased from 26.85 in 1992/93 to 30.19 in 1998/99. Similarly, the
percentage of population below the poverty line was 26.6 percent in 1992/93 and
increased to 32 percent in 1998/99 (Saboor, 2004).
2.3.3
based alliance with civil society in the quest to alleviate poverty and accelerate
development. The strategy is being enriched by the on-going process of dialogue with
civil society and the poor. The strategy places considerable emphasis on taking advantage
of the opportunities offered by globalization.
The Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) process has been
completely aligned with the millennium development goals (MDGs) and the medium
term development framework (MTDF). While the MTDF provides a framework for
translating the vision 2030 into action during the period 2005-10. Its emphasis on the
other hand present the strategy to ensure that the growth is broad based and leads to
effective poverty reduction. The detailed policies related to growth promotion are
presented in the MTDF, while the PRSP takes those interventions as given and focuses
on the package of interventions required to ensure that sustained high growth is translated
into effective poverty reduction and the poor and marginalized are protected (GOP
MTDF, 2006).
2.3.4
26
new programme initiative would require Rs. 1500 billion for implementation. The
strategy paper will learn from, the previous experience in implementing PRSP which
failed to deliver (GOP PRSP, 2005). A total of Rs. 1200 million is needed to implement,
various projects targeting poverty reduction among the poor (GOP PRSP, 2005). Foreign
donors agreed to provide financial support, for the proposed PRSP II initiative. World
Bank promise to disburse $ 8 billion, ADB $1.8 million and UNDP will provide $ 200
million for five years (GOP PRSP, 2005).
The poverty alleviation strategy paper II is designed in the light of UN
millennium development goals. The aim is to expand, the private sector which has been,
the engine for economic growth. (GOP PRSP, 2005). Therefore various initiatives are
taken in order, to make PRSP II achieve its goal. (GOP PRSP, 2005). Foreign donor
advised the government to set aside 4 percent of the GDP for the development of
education, which will in the long run plays a positive role towards, poverty reduction.
(GOP PRSP, 2005).
The aim of millennium development goals is to reduce poverty by increase
in enrolment, up to 100%, reduce death rate of children up to 80 percent, by the year
2015. The MDG goals also include reduction of TB, HIV, Malaria, Hepatitis and
provision of good quality drinking water and arrangement, to protect public health
especially by drainage and efficient disposal of sewage. (GOP PRPS, 2005).
2.3.5
Pakistan is a good example of countries, that comparison can be made between economic
growth and poverty reduction. (Israt, 2000). In the year 1969-70 poverty has reached
27
46%. As result of 6 percent economic growth, between 1970 and 1988-89 poverty
declined to 18 percent. For Pakistan to compete in comity of nations, it is important to
maintain 5 to 6 percent economic growth, but this is not enough for poverty reduction,
other factors has to be taken into consideration. The second pillar is large scale
investment in human resource development, this has been ignored for a very long time.
(Israt, 2000). After independence in 1947 literacy target was, expected to be between 9092% instead of 49 percent. Likewise the per capita income presently expected to be more
than 1500 instead of 700. (Israt, 2000). Similarly more investment in human resource
development, would have an effect on economic growth, on a long period of time.
The third pillar also shows that investment in human resource
development is not enough, for poverty reduction it is necessary to target poorest of the
poor directly. If this is not done majority of the poor will not benefit from, various
poverty alleviation initiatives. The fourth element is that even if all the three indicators
were achieved, majority of the poor would need safety nets, to be provided by the
government. It is now the responsibility of the government to generate resources through
various sources, for poverty reduction. (Israt, 2000).
2.3.6
analysis of poverty and the formulation of strategies to reduce it through public policy.
Participatory poverty assessment is a powerful tool, that can be used for poverty
reduction, through various methods. First there is a need for social mobilization, to
enlighten the poor about poverty (GOP PPPA, 2002).
28
2.3.7
conducted, in small villages of poor communities all over Pakistan. The ability to
perceive and understand the true nature, of poverty and how the poor react to its intensity
and possible ways to alleviate it on a long term basis. (GOP PPPA, 2002). The key
conclusion is grouped into six themes.
1. The less privilege people want to have access to land, water and protection from
environmental harzards.
2. The safety nets provided can not protect the poor.
3. Facilities and services provided were not sufficient.
4. Employment opportunities are lacking for the poor in rural areas.
29
Critique
The Pakistan poverty reduction strategy paper-I focusses on employment
generation and poverty reduction. Therefore, in order to achieve the above strategy
employment opportunities, Should be initiated in both rural and urban districts (GOP
MTDF, 2006). In the areas of micro credit, the government agencies that are working for
poverty alleviation through their NGOs must ensure that they identify the actual
vulnerable groups i.e those who really need assistance and disburse credit to them so as to
come out of poverty. It has been observed that the major reason why poverty is
increasing, is because government programmes actually do not go the target communities
mostly in developing countries and if that continues, it will be difficult to reduce poverty
The PRSP process has been completely aligned to millennium
development goals MDG and the Medium Development Frame work (MTDF) while the
MTDF provides a framework for translating the vision 2030 into action during the period
2005-10 (GOP PRSP, 2005). For poverty alleviation to succeed in Pakistan, we need as
detail scenarios of poverty generation as possible, otherwise poverty alleviation
programmes will merely treat the symptoms, rather than the root causes.
The second critique is about the nature of growth process which can play a
significant role in eliminating poverty of an obsolete nature over the long run. We
constantly emphasize that dealing with absolute poverty and not distribution of income as
represented by Gini coefficient. The people concern with poverty in the foreign
assistance community themselves virtually never focus on this issue of the details of rural
30
development strategy which would bring about rapid poverty reduction (GOP PPPA,
2003).
2.5
tons is not picked each day and instead dumped in its natural drains. The traffic
conditions along several major corridors are rapidly approaching situation and levels of
airborne particular matter in the most heavily trafficked parts of central business are
about 10 times the prescribed safe levels. The major constraints to investing in Karachi
are:
An inefficient land market that reduces access to increase the cost of real
estate.
The delay and high cost of enforcing contract and judicial efficiency.
Poor quality of urban infrastructure especially electricity water supply and
sanitation.
Policy uncertainty and lack of strong leadership.
The following land market distortions are the focus of discussion in the
strategy paper.
Lack of competition among the largest landowners.
Unclear property rights and lack of transparency.
Inflexible and non-uniform zoning laws and arbitrarily low floor area ratios.
Pro-tenant legislation and high taxes on property-related transaction
31
2.5.3
neglect of other urban centres is being increasingly questioned in Sindh, this is evident
from the investment climate. Survey indicates that Pakistani business men perceive
Hyderabad and Sukkur as the second and third largest cities in Sindh after Karachi. Sindh
may need to pursue a two fold urban renewal strategy; one that sustain the organism of
Karachi and another that unlocks the growth potential of its second-tier cities.
2.5.4
regions, comparative advantage resources constraints and changes in market place out
line above. The emphasis should be on.
Improving productivity of water through a more effective and transparent
water management system.
Creating the right environment for modernization and diversification with the
crop sub sector.
Diversifying away from the crop sector to livestock fisheries and non-farm
activities.
2.5.5
32
(c) According to government survey, only 23, 16 and 11 percent showed satisfaction
over current water supply, sewerage, sanitation and garbage services respectively
provided by the government.
The major focus of the paper in addressing the above issues are:
Raising the capacity of government institutions tackling corruption.
Creating more competition in provision of public services.
Ensuring effective coordination within the governments (PRSP Sindh, 2003).
2.5.6
areas of Sindh, especially southern districts and urban and Peri-urban areas excluding
some parts of Karachi is amongst the highest in Pakistan
The aggregate estimates of the poverty head count based on the household
income and expenditure survey (HIES) data hide this extreme high growing incidence.
Poverty in overall Sindh based on the latest HIES data is 48.4 percent. This means, nearly
one in every two in Sindh is below the poverty line out side of Karachi and this include
all the people living in Hyderabad and Sukkur.
2.5.7 Factors Responsible for Poverty in Sindh
(1) Access to land is the pre-requisite for direct access to credit. The poor is at
disadvantage in terms of aquiring land and its distribution. This has contributed to
the growing poverty in Sindh.
(2) Lack of poor maintainance water courses, low water rates, poor system of
assessment is responsible for huge wastage of water and lack of irrigation water.
(3) Natural disasters and sea intrusion occurring particularly in Badin and Thatta
districts has directly affected the economy of Sindh.
(4) Unsatisfactory performance in both health and education sectors, issues such as
gender differences in school enrolment, infant mortality and immunization had
not been addressed.
33
(5) The present situation of Judiciary and police may also be the major factors
responsible for poverty in Sindh.
Finally World Bank Report (2006) recommends that poverty reducing
expenditure targets on health, education and drinking water will be transferred to districts
and Tehsil governments. Government of Sindh will also give high priority in allocation of
additional resources for the maintenance and rehabilitation of rural infrastructure.
2.3.8
poor growth in Pakistan. The analysis revealed that governance indicators are one of the
lowest in comparison with other countries. The study further revealed that the dimensions
of pro poor growth which include poverty, inequality and growth indicates that the poor
did not benefit from economic growth. Poverty and inequality increased, while inflation
is much higher for the poor as compared to rich households. Many people believe that in
terms of economic status they were better in 2005 as compared to 2009. The results
shows that there is a strong linkage between indicators of governance and pro poor
growth in the country. Econometric analysis also revealed that a strong relationship still
exist between good governance, poverty reduction and inequality.
Sarah (2009) examine the role of Pakistan poverty alleviation fund on
poverty reduction in Pakistan. The study revealed that 37,500 villages and rural
settlements now have access to microfinance, this means 13.8 million beneficiaries. The
loan recovery rate is 100%. About 9.5 million people have been impacted by water,
health and education projects. By the end of 2008 the fund has conducted 7,700 trainings
to more than 279,000 beneficiaries 45% of them are women. The financial limit of
34
Rs.500,000 per project was raised and the overall cost per person was Rs.5000, in this
way it can reach larger populations.
Riaz Haq (2009) describes the role of microfinance institution in fighting
poverty in Pakistan. The positive impact of loans disbursed by microfinance banks has
been recognized. For example a customer to Kashf Foundation revealed that due to the
success of her business she was able to finance her husbands illness through health
insurance provided by Kashf. Similarly a customer to Asasah claimed that her dairy
business profit doubled due to micro loan she receives. A shopkeeper who received loan
of Rs.35,000 from Tameer claimed that his business increased two times due to the loan.
The banking sector presently gives loan to 6 million borrowers meaning only 15% had
access to credit in Pakistan and that 85% of the population have no access to credit, that
is why they had to rely on local money lenders for their credit needs.
Shahbaz et al. (2009) utilizes data from 1991 to 2007 in their research on
economic growth and its determinants in Pakistan. Logistics regression model was
constructed to identify the linkages. The study concludes that logistics regression model
gives better results than simple or multiple linear regression models.
Burki and Khan (2008) examined the impact of wheat price boom on
poverty distribution and welfare of wheat consumers in Pakistan. The findings of this
research revealed that wheat price brought about a small decrease in poverty in rurul
areas and increased poverty in urban areas. If the international price were imposed on
consumers this will increase the overall poverty to 16% while specifically in urban areas
poverty will increase by 66%.
35
36
household size increases. Food insecurity among the agro -pastoralists is poverty
triggered and not as a result of low crop output.
Asif (2007) investigates factors affecting occupational choices in rural
North West Pakistan. Census data of 2825 households in 6 villages was used for the
analysis. The author compares six district occupations with non farm informal activities.
It was revealed that due to lack of natural, financial and human capital many people in
the study area had to look for employment in the formal sector.
Munawar et al. (2006) assess the impact of small scale irrigation on
agricultural production and poverty in marginal areas of Punjab. They computed head
count index, it was found to be 33 percent in the area. Poverty head count index were
computed to be 50, 34, 20, 37, 4, 42, 33 and 19 percent respectively for Jang, Ghaib,
Fateh Jang, Attock, Gujar Khan, Kahuta, Rawalpindi and Chakwal districts. The analysis
of farm size with access to irrigation was carried out the study revealed that head count
was 44% small farmers, 40% of medium and 12% large scale farmers.
Mallick and Ghani (2005) review the relationship between poverty,
population growth and environmental factors like good governance, literacy and
education, employment opportunities both for men and women, in urban and rural areas,
income distribution, investment in social sector, improvement in contraceptive access and
supply will make it possible to achieve sustainable population in poor countries. The need
is to set priorities. Currently, over half of the world population is living below 2 dollars a
day poverty line according to the UN projections, fertility in developing countries will
drop to an average of 2.1 children by 2050 and eventually to 1.85 children. It was
concluded that higher population growth has implication for natural resources. Pakistan
37
has to incur huge expenses on importing food items like edible oil, wheat and pulses.
Pakistan could not replicate the industrial countries transition because of its inability to
modernise agriculture or develop industrial base. Finally, population growth
environmental degradation and high debt levels are a cause to rural poverty.
Anwar (2005) examines the prevalence of relative poverty in Pakistan. It
was found that 40.3 percent of all individuals were poor in the country. The results
suggest that 60 million individuals were poor in Pakistan, of which 46.1 and 14.4 million
individuals were located in rural and urban areas, respectively. Trends in relative poverty
suggest that poverty rose from 34 percent in 1984-85 to 40 percent in 2001-02. Thus,
relative poverty increased more rapidly than absolute poverty during the above period.
Some policy implication were to formulate pro-poor policies, first the country has been
pursuing a poverty reduction strategy paper (PRSP) over the last five years. Secondly,
there is an increasing recognition that economic growth alone is not enough for poverty
reduction because of the existence of inequalities in the socio-economic structure of the
country. Thirdly, poverty reduction strategy should be based on policies of building up
the assets of the poor. Fifth, focus on agrarian strategies especially those favouring rural
industrialization can lead to pro-poor growth.
Arif (2004) examines the health status of Pakistani children using two
important indictors, mobility and malnutrition measured by weight for age and height for
age. The main data source used in this study is the 2000-01 Pakistan Social Economic
Survey (PSES), which provides sufficient information of child health and poverty.
Findings of the study shows that both exclusive breast feeding during first 4-5 months of
life and immunization can help control the occurrence of illness significantly among
38
young children (0-5) month. The rise in poverty since the mid 1990s has adversely
influenced the nutritional status of children. More resources should be available for
preventive health care aspects. Coverage of childs immunization should be enhanced and
the provision of safe drinking water may be given high priority in the social sector
polices.
Hamayun (2004) investigates gender related interventions introduced by
Aga Khan Rural Support Programme AKRSP in district Chitral. The study findings show
that gender related interventions introduced by AKRSP has played a positive role in the
development of rural women in the area. In addition to the provision of water supply
schemes, health and credit facilities training had also been imparted to local women in
agriculture, livestock and vocational enterprise development. These trainings had made
positive impact and increase the income of respondents. Overall these interventions had
improved the socio-economic conditions of women to a greater extent in the area.
Zaman and Aman (2004) analyse the effects of poverty on community.
They measured poverty in terms of basic needs such as health education and employment
on the most deprived and neglected areas of Dera Ismail Khan district of NWFP. About
16 villages were selected for the study. The results of the study revealed that out of 16
villages only 3 villages have 100% illiteracy rate. While high literacy rates were found in
Mohallah Musazai 32% and Nai Basti Chodwan 12%. Only 2 villages have 100% basic
health facilities while the rest 14 have been deprived from this facility. Langarkot has the
highest unemployment rate 93.04% while the low unemployment rate was found in Gara
Guldad 60%.
39
40
41
in both urban and rural areas. In line with the national picture between 1993 and 1999,
the incidence of poverty increased in the Punjab from 25.2 percent to 33.0 percent in
Sindh from 24.1 percent to 26.6 percent, NWFP from35.5 percent to 42.6 percent and
Baluchistan from 38.2 percent to 45.8 percent. In general, ADB endorses government
poverty reduction strategy for Pakistan and will compliment government efforts.
However, ADB operational strategy will be selective in that, it will focus only on
interventions aimed at addressing critical bottlenecks and promoting growth in sectors or
activities that have maximum poverty impact.
Anwar and Qureshi (2002) evolve a consensus on the use of a consistent
poverty line, sources of data and data adjustment for measuring poverty have come up
with a services for the period 1990-91 to 2001. They conclude that the use of consistent
time series estimates of the poverty line shows that the head count measure of poverty
has increased from 17.2 in 1990-91 to 30.4 percent in 1998-99 and to 35.6 in 2001. They
have also raised serious doubts on the methodology adopted by the World Bank for its
estimates of poverty in the 1990s and concluded that the stagnation and or a slight
reduction, in poverty estimates seems to be a statistical artefact due to overestimation of
poverty in earlier years relative to late 1990s by the World Bank.
Malik et al. (2002) reviewed micro credit as a tool for poverty alleviation
in Pakistan. The poverty profile of Pakistan shows that a quarter to one third (30-50
million) of its population lived below the poverty line, while less than one `third of the
countrys population are poor almost one half (70 million) suffer from deprived
opportunities. The role of micro credit is considered as essential for the uplift of poor and
destitute and thus serves as an effective means of reducing the incidence of poverty.
42
43
methods are employed to select the recipients, then the revenues from zakah may also
increase.
Jafri (1997) presented some information on a number of government
sponsored poverty alleviation measures with a brief discussion about how poverty has
been measured in Pakistan, showing in poverty over the last fifteen years. Saqib (1998)
revealed that agricultural growth can play a vital role in alleviating rural poverty. It was
concluded that agriculture generally performed well. Its average annual growth rate since
1959-60 had been impressive (3 percent) while in the last decade it was about 4.0
percent. However, it has not been consistent e.g. it increased to 11.72 percent in the year
1995-96 but decreased to 0.12 percent in the very next year (1996-97), became 3.82
percent in 1997-98 and again 0.35 percent in the year 1998-9. Even a little shock to
agriculture is bound to affect not only the countrys growth performance, but a large
segment of the countrys population as well. Like many other South Asian countries,
poverty in Pakistan was a rural phenomenon and agriculture will play a critical role in the
fight against poverty in the country.
Malik (1996) concluded that overall poverty trends in rural areas of
Pakistan have fallen. Survey results from villages show a highly skewed landholding
pattern with a Gini Coefficient of 0.56 of the 100 households surveyed. It was found that
only 10 of the 19 in the landless category were categorized as poor although the intensity
of poor was found to be particularly severe amongst the landless and most of the poor in
this village come from the landless category. Conclusions from this research suggest that
a better distribution of assets and access to resources is necessary to eliminate poverty
and the need to promote non farm activities.
44
Shirazi (1994) examines the incidence of poverty and identifies socioeconomic profiles of rural poor in Pakistan. The findings of the study revealed that
majority of the male household head are in the age group of 40-49, similarly majority of
the female household head are in the age group of 30-39. classification of poor according
to marital status revealed that 95% of male household and 75% of female household head
are married.
Ghausi (2006) reported the woes of rural Sindh and observed that given its
feudal traditions, progressive ideas and reforms have always taken more time to take
roots in the interior of Sindh than in most other regions of Pakistan. For the last few
years, Sindh government has been attributing growing poverty in its rural areas to the
damage of crops and livestock caused by continuous drought for three years. The World
Bank too endorsed this view and held water scarcity as number one issue that confronts
the provincial agriculture and reduces crop production. In its rejoinder to the World
Bank, the Sindh Government claimed that except for sugarcane, all the three major crops
(wheat, cotton and rice) have shown growth in output during the last five years
(2001-2006). The Sindh Board of Internal revenue reported that shortage of irrigation
water has reduced cultivated area by 15.59 million acres to hardly half a million acres.
IUCN (2006) argued that in terms of Human Development Index within
Pakistan, the urban areas of Sindh have the highest ranking with a HDI of 0.659, greater
than for Pakistan as a whole. But, rural Sindh has an HDI of 0.456, which is the lowest in
Pakistan. This shows that, there is a gap between rural and urban areas in, comparison to
other provinces (IUCN report, 2006). There are indications that over two-thirds of the
households in rural Sindh may be classified as vulnerable. More than 11 million men and
45
women in Sindh are unemployed and around 15 million live below the poverty line.
Sindhs child mortality rate is 109 per 1000 live birth as compared to a national average
of 103. Sindh had the lowest enrolment ratio for primary schooling compared to other
provinces.The student teacher ratio for Sindh in 1999 was worst falling behind 10 points
as compared to other provinces. With an increase in levels of poverty over the last
decade, more children dropout of school to help their families by engaging in economic
activity. The report concluded that it is unlikely that the targets set by the PPA and PRS
will be achieved in the absence of effective institutions and governance system.
Murtazulhaq and Aziz (2006) mentioned that the incidence of poverty is
high in Sindh for those who depend entirely on livestock. Majority of non-poor depend
on crops while the poor on livestock. Although, the economics of livestock production is
heavily distorted in favour of large scale production yet this sector has enourmous
potential to combat poverty in Sindh and strengthen economic growth. It is recommended
that there is need to improve and extend veterinary services to village level. The animal
breeders at village level should be educated to use urea and molasses with roughages for
improved nutritive value.
Pakistan Participatory Poverty Assessment (PPPA) Sindh (2006) reported
that in many parts of Sindh rural, the single most important problem is the extreme
inequality in land distribution. This creates poverty and inequality among the rural
populace. The PPA confirms that bonded labour is thriving in parts of Sindh and is the
reason for poverty. Landlord dominance also extends to water rights especially in
conditions of scarcity. The decrease in water availability causes chain reactions with
respect to livestock holdings, lower agricultural yields as well as the increasing scarcity
46
of fodder forced many households to sell their animals. Creating an enabling environment
to adapt and strengthen livelihoods through a social protection system is a central
component of a poverty reduction strategy. The possibility of poorest, especially if they
live in remote areas are never reached. Therefore, the possibility of distributing zakat in
the form of food, clothes or housing should be examined. Finally, poverty reduction
strategies need to be both roburst about treating corruption as an issue needing attention,
and realistic about how effective reforms are likely to be (irrigation management, tax
administration, social protection, law and order)etc.
Securing Sindhs Future, World Bank Document (2006) reported that the
incidence of poverty in rural Sindh and the urban and peri-urban areas is among the
highest in Pakistan, based on the latest HIES (2001) data it is 48.4 percent and 36.7
percent when included. This means nearly one in every two in Sindh is living below the
poverty line. In terms of Human Development, Sindh is far behind the rest of the country
with the largest rural urban gap is the key indicators. One out of every ten children born,
dies before his or her first birthday and one out of every nine children, dies before
reaching five years of age. Every 20 minutes a woman dies from complications relating
to pregnancy and child birth. One in five persons in Sindh does not have access to safe
drinking water. The factors responsible for this sad and deteriorating situation in Sindh
are (i) land distribution in Sindh is highly skewed the prevalence of an unequal land
distribution and acquisition is thus a major cause of poverty, (ii) the deterioration of the
irrigation network due to poor maintenance and (iii) the province is a victim of natural
disasters such as draught cyclones and sea intrusion. Finally the World Bank
recommends that poverty reducing expenditure targets on health, education and drinking
47
48
49
Baluchistan from 38.2 percent to 45.8 percent. In general, ADB endorses government
poverty reduction strategy for Pakistan and will compliment governments efforts.
However, ADBs operational strategy will be selective in that, it will focus on
interventions aimed at addressing critical bottlenecks and promoting growth in sectors or
activities that have maximum poverty reduction impact.
According to NHDR report the lowest socially developed districts were
Tharparkar, Badin, Sanghar, Thatta and Dadu. The latest studies conducted, supported the
above ranking, a good example is a survey organized by Agha Khan University covering
seven, districts of Sindh (NHDR, 2002).The survey further revealed that 70-80 percent of
rural household remain poor for very long period of time (NHDR Report, 2002). Skill
based training is recommended to primary school leavers, from poor communities this
can play a positive role in poverty reduction (NHDR Report, 2002).
Bhatti (1999) observed that fishermen in Sindh spend 5.6 percent of their
disposable income on muslim festivals. Averagely, 22 percent of the children are going to
school, their parents spend 6 percent of the their income on education. Health facilities
are not available, according to government figures one doctor is available for 2100
persons, majority of the people are affected by lungs infections and spend 0.5 percent of
their income on medicine. It was concluded that fishermen spend 20.5 percent of their
income on food, 4.0 percent on clothing, 1.7 percent on transport, 3.0 percent on fuel and
6.5 percent on other expenses of their disposable income. This implies that they are living
below the poverty line.
It was recommended that mobile floating health unit may be provided in
every big lake such as Manchhar, Kinjhar so as to provide treatment to fisherman.
50
Potable drinking water may be provided to fishermen in rural areas. Cooperative societies
may be established wherever the inland source of fish exists. Special loan for the
improvement of the living standard, education, medical care may be provided to
fishermen, this will encourage them to work efficiently.
2.6
Critique
Poverty alleviation effort in Sindh province is being sustained through
local initiatives as well as international assistance. There are, however several obstacles
to the effective implementation of poverty programmes. Some of these obstacles hinge on
the fact that many of the programmes were either not well designed / formulated or
implemented in a coordinated manner. Most of them relied solely on government
subvention for their operation, resulting in financial problems during periods of decline in
government revenues, discontinuities and other bureaucratic delays.
Some international poverty alleviation programmes have failed, owing
largely to inadequate financing, particularly lack of commitment on part of the executors
of various programmes has constituted the problems. Also some aspects of public
spending even though conceived with good intention have not been adequately targeted
and judiciously directed to fighting poverty in Sindh.
The problems of inadequate supply of water and poor maintenance of rural
infrastructure including rural roads, electrification and its sustainability have also not
been helpful in the effort to reduce poverty. Similarly, housing is very costly to acquire in
view of exorbitant cost of building materials, which the poor can hardly afford, thus
adding housing problems faced by the rural poor. Some of the present social policies
remain generally unsuitable for addressing the problems of poverty.
51
52
development programmes and inadequate access to assistance for those living at the
margin and those victimised by transitory poverty and all district specific issues identified
by the PPA such as exploitation of poor people, lack of law and order and absence of
security, the constant unrest and fear which has led some families to leave their villages,
the increasing encroachment of sea-water on to the land, extreme insecurity particularly
felt by woman and several other issues must be addressed so as to reduce poverty in the
rural masses of Sindh.
2.7
Conclusions
The review of the literature from international perspective to poverty
concludes that the World Bank three pronged strategy of promoting opportunities for the
poor, facilitating empowerment and enhancing security is yet to be translated into action
in poor countries. In Pakistan, the biggest challenge is achieving the millennium
development goals by 2015 through sound economic growth, greater emphasis on human
resource development, and availability of safety nets by the government for future needs.
(World Bank, 2005). Unless this is done poverty reduction efforts will not succeed in the
near future. While in Sindh province, the poverty reduction strategy paper major focus
was on addressing the problems of Karachi, addressing the problems of non-Karachi
urban Sindh, accelerating shared growth in rural Sindh and improving service delivery;
these issues will play a very good role in sustained poverty reduction in Sindh.
53
CHAPTER-III
METHODOLOGY
3.1
carried out from Tharparkar and Nawabshah districts on 1st July 1953. The district lies
between 25030, to 26-29 north latitudes and 68025 to 70013 east longitudes. It is bounded
on the north by Khairpur district, on the north west by Nawabshah district, on the east by
Jaisalmir and Jodhpur (India), on the South of Mirpurkhas and Umerkot districts and on
the west and South West by Hyderabad district and the district occupies a total area of 10,
728 square Kilometers (District Census Report Sanghar, 1998).
3.1.1 History
Sanghar appeared on the Map of Sindh in the shape of small village during
Talpurs rule in the years 1840-43 and it was renamed after Sanghar stream. It was
through this stream that Sher Muhammad could save his life having escaped from chase
by Sir Charles Napier.
Sanghar district has great importance due to political, cultural and
economic reasons. Its fertile lands are irrigated by irrigation system of river Indus before
the conquest of Sindh by Muhammad Bin Qasim. One can find ruins of Bahmanabad
three miles away to the west of Jhol Town. This place known as Depar Ganghar was
build after the name of Persian ruler Bahman URD Sher (241-246 AD) in fourth century.
Later this town came to be known as Bahmanabad (GOP Sanghar, 1998).
54
3.1.2
the year 1998 in comparison to 917.86 thousand in the year 1981 in comparison to 917.86
thousand in the year 1981. During the last 17 years the population increase to 58.31
percent (District Census Report Sanghar, 1998). In general the annual population growth
in 1998 has reduced from 3.44 percent to 2.74 percent (District Census Report Sanghar,
1998).
Due to population increase at 2.74 percent per year. It is likely to double in
the next 25 years. Table 3 describe the population increase since 1951 (District Census
Report Sanghar, 1998). The area occupies a total of 10,728 sq km with a population
density of 135.4 in 1998 (District Census Report Sanghar, 1998).
Table-3
Description
Population in (Thousands)
Intercensal increase (percent)
Cumulative increase (percent)
Average Annual Growth Rate (percent)
Source:
1951
1961
1972
1981
1998
319.07
-
427.84
34.09
34.09
3.00
689.76
61.22
116.18
4.18
917.86
33.07
187.67
3.44
1453.03
58.31
355.40
2.74
District Census Report of Sanghar Population Census Organization Statistics Div. Govt.
of Pakistan Islamabad October 1999.
Among the six talukas of the district, Shahdadpur taluka has the highest
share of 23.45 percent of the district population, followed by 22.52 percent Khipro
Taluka, 18.23 percent Sanghar Taluka, 15.87 percent, Tando Adam Taluka, 13.73 percent
Sinjhoro Taluka, and the lowest Share of 6.20 percent in Jam Nawaz Ali.
Area: The area of district is 10728 square kilometers, yielding a population density of
135.4 in 1998 which has increased from 86.0 in 1981 (GOP Sanghar, 1998).
55
3.2
which include Badin, Matli, Tando Bago, Golarchi and Talhar. It lies within 6.726 sq km.
with the transfer of power from central government to local government, the talukas(6)
were further subdivided to 49 Union councils, 109 Tapas and 511 Dehs. Badin has the
reputation of being the, headquaters of Indus Valley Civilization. Islam came into formal
existence in the year 711. In the early years of Sindh the area was control by the,
caliphate and later the royal family of Ghaznavids(7) took over. In the year 1592 the
Mughal emperors were in complete control of Sindh (GOP Badin, 2006).
3.2.1
2.6 percent during 1972-1981. On the other hand growth, went up from 2.26 to 2.71
percent in 1951-1961. In the next 31 years the district population is expected to double.
Table 4 describe population increase, this shows both the trend and annual increase since
1951 (GOP Badin, 1998).
56
Table-4
Description
Population
(in thousands)
Intercensal
Increase (percent)
Cumulative
Increase (percent)
Average
Growth rate
(percent)
Source:
1951
1961
1972
1981
1998
256.04
333.81
607.40
776.61
1136.04
30.38
30.38
2.71
81.96
137.23
5.26
27.86
203.32
2.95
46.28
343.70
2.26
3.2.2
of 168.9 in 1998 (World Bank, 2005). The average household size in, Badin was 5.3 in
the year 1998. While in urban and rural areas it was 6.4 and 5.2 respectively (World
Bank, 2005).
3.3
District, which increased to 1.453 million according to the 1998 census. Agriculture
employs 70% of the rural people, out of which 57% are self employed. Women are taken
as unpaid family helpers (56%). The farming is mostly at subsistence level except for the
57
bigger land holding. The large number of landless people work on these farms and are
mostly paid in cash. Cash income is less than Rs.400 per capita per month. Besides
subsistence earning, high dependency ratio is another reason for poverty. The major
sources of drinking water supply are hand pumps and pipe water. In the district only 17%
of the rural population has access to separate and 16% have access to shared latrines. The
separate kitchen facility is available to 21% of the households, while 26% households
used shared kitchens.
3.3.1
reduced every year and the situation becomes worse during the drought period. Yearly
average water availability in the province computed from the data from year 1970 to
2002 is 45 MAF. This information helps us to predict the water security of Sindh.
According to water accord 1991 (table-5), Sindh has been awarded 48.7 MAF for both
Rabi and Kharif seasons. The worst ever drought conditions in Sindh experienced from
1998-2002, show that it received water much less than 45 MAF.
Table-5
Province
Punjab
Sindh
NWFP
(a) Canals
(b) Civil canals
Baluchistan
Total allocation
Source:
Kharif
Rabi
Total
37.07
33.94
18.87
14.82
55.94
48.76
3.48
1.80
2.85
77.34
2.30
1.20
1.02
37.01
5.78
3.00
3.87
114.35
58
3.3.2
Table-6
1999
2000
33.94
25.55
25
2001
33.94
24.47
28
Year
Year
19992000
20002001
20012002
14.82
Rabi
Actual
with
drawals
12.82
17
14.82
8.5
43
14.82
6.84
54
Accord
allocation
Shortages
%
The above data demonstrate the severity in water shortage affecting the
socioeconomic and environmental system in the province. Because of the water shortage
and water logging and salinity, farming situation is being deteriorated fast in the irrigated
agriculture areas, forcing rural people to migrate to the cities for livelihood.
3.3.3
as discussed earlier, the situation can be reversed and the area can be developed
economically. But there is need to devise long term development strategy.
3.3.3.1 Long Term Strategy
59
3.4
Land leveling
60
3.4.1
3.4.2
directly and another 400,000 people are employed in ancillary industries. Out of the
annual fish export of Pakistan worth US$100 million, about 10% originate from Badin
coast.
Additional threats to the inland fisheries come from pollution of lakes and
change in the system of regulating of inland fishing. The Indus delta creeks and dhands
receive agricultural affluent containing pesticides from drains and are affected due to the
61
intrusion of sea water and lack of fresh water flow, thus threatening the fish production in
Badin distrct.
3.4.3
Vulnerability of Livelihoods
Badin district has experienced four natural disasters in the last five years
namely a cyclone in 1999, drought in 2000, earthquake in 2001 and drought and floods in
July 2003. Similar natural disasters have occurred in the past with varying impacts on
livelihood. The drainage infrastructure in central Sindh has lowered and controlled the
ground water level in Nawabshah, Sanghar and Mirpurkhas districts and disposes saline
effluents into the fresh water lakes and coastal areas as it passes through Badin.
In Badin district, the run off from the prolonged and high intensity rainfall
in 2003, together with the high velocity canal flows that breached Sani Guni Canal,
Phulley Canal, Nasir Canal and other distributaries flooded in lower Badin. To make
matters worse a flow of sea water from the opposite direction prevented the flood water
from draining into the sea. Thus the flood water mixed with the sea water accumulated
and formed a pool in the thickly accumulated talukas of Badin and SF Rahu, Golarchi,
Tando Bagho, Matli and Talhar (World Bank, 2005).
62
Table-7
Description
Badin
Area square KM
Population
Affected population
Number of talukas
Affected talukas
Persons killed
Animals perished
Cropped area affected (acres)
Houses fully damaged
Houses partially damaged
17,475
1.136 million
366,000
5
3
86
5,462
226,000
56,000
135,850
Source:
3.4.4
Study Areas
63
Figure 1
3.5
Map of Sindh
64
In the fist stage, one Taluka was selected from each district; in the second
stage, 2 union councils were selected from each taluka; in third stage, 10 villages were
selected from each union council; and in fourth stage, 8 households were selected from
each village. Thus, a sample of 160 households were selected from each district.
To have a representative sample of the rural area for poverty estimation
and its predictors, it is decided to collect data on households of following major
occupational groups, namely landowners, tenants, wage labourer, artisan, and
businessman. An equal sample size of 64 households was selected from each occupation
group, disproportion to population size since exact population size of each occupational
group cannot be enumerated through available documentation and resources.
Table-8
District
Stages
Second
First
Talukas
Badin
Sanghar
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Badin
Matli
Talhar
Shaheed Fazil
Rahoo
(Golarchi)
Tando Bago
Sanghar
Jam
Nawaz
Ali
Khipro
Shahdadpur
Sinjhoro
Tando Adam
Total
Third
Fourth
Selected
Taluka
UCs
/Taluka
Villages
/UC
Households
/ village
Badin
10
160
Shahdad
pur
10
160
Total
65
320
Checklists will be
3.6
(a) Sanghar
Table 9 shows that Sanghar district has a population of 1.3 million
according to 1998 census. Taluka Shahdadpur was selected. Two union council from
Shahdadpur were selected Barhoon has a population of 31,288 while Lundo has a
population of 27,821. Thus 85 sample size was selected Barhoon UC and 75 sample size
was selected in respect of Lundo UC.
(b) Badin
Similarly Badin district has a population of 1.2 million. Taluka Badin was
selected. Bughra Memon UC selected from taluka Badin with a population of 32,089 and
Seerani has a population of 29,674. Thus 83 sample size was selected for Bughra
Memon. Similarly 77% sample size was selected in respect of Seerani UC. About 160
sample size was selected for each district. The total sample size for the two district was
320.
66
Table-9
Districts
Sanghar
(1.3 million)
Census 1998
Badin
(1.2 million)
Census 1998
3.7
Badin
UCs
Population Proportion
Sample
Barhoon
Lundo
Total
31,2,88
27,821
59,109
53%
47%
100%
85
75
160
Bughra Memon
Sirani
Total
Total
32,089
29,674
61,763
52%
48%
100%
83
77
160
320
collected from the two districts. Head count index, the poverty gap, Sen index will be
calculated to measure the extent of poverty while Lorenz curve will be developed and
Gini coefficient will be estimated for income inequalities in the study area. A brief on
each measure is given as under:
3.7.1
those whose income fall below the absolute poverty line when the head count is taken as
a fraction of the total population (n). The head count index may be defined as;
HCI
Where
HCI =
h
=
n
=
67
h
n
3.7.2
whose income is below the poverty line. The total income short fall or total poverty gap
(TPG) of the poor is defined as:
H
TPG ( y p y i )
i 1
Where
TPG
H
yp
yi
=
=
=
=
3.7.3
Sen (1976) suggested that along with measuring head counts of persons in
poverty a more comprehensive measure of poverty should incorporate the average level
of income of those persons and how far this level is below the poverty threshold. In other
words Sen index will measure the poverty gap of the poor, it is defined as follows:
S H 1 1 i Gp
q 1
Where
H
i
Gp
q
=
=
=
=
68
numerical measure of income inequality ranging from zero (perfect equality) to one
(perfect inequality).
3.8
Determinants of Poverty
Where
y
=
Binary dependent variable (y = 1 if event occurs, y = o otherwise)
e
=
The base of natural logarithms and
Z
=
0 + 1+ 2 X1 + 3 X2 + .. + p X p
With constant 0 coefficient, j are predictors for p predictors (j = 1,2,3p)
Parameters of the model are estimated using maximum likelihood method
the estimates of coefficients are the values that maximize the probability of drawing the
sample actually obtained. Backward stepwise elimination method was applied to select
significant factors. Backward elimination starts with all of the variables in the model.
Then, at each step, variables are evaluated for entry and removal. The score static is
always used for determining whether variables should be added to the model. Just as in
forward selection, the Wald statistic, the likelihood ratio statistic, or the conditional
statistic was used to select for removal.
3.9
Wj
j
S .E j
, (where j=1,2,3,........,p)
3.10
Partial Correlation
71
LL
(
O
)
Where K is the degrees of freedom for the variable (Atkinson, 1980). The
denominator is -2 times the log-likelihood of a base model that contains only the
intercept, or a model with no variable if there is no intercept.
In logistic regression, stated earlier that the parameters of the model are
estimated by using the maximum likelihood method. That is, the coefficients that make
our observed results most likely are selected. Since the logistic regression model is
non-linear, an algorithm is necessary for parameter estimation (Atkitson, 1980). In
multiple linear regression, the interpretation of the regression coefficient is straight
forward. It tells the amount of change in the dependent variable for a one-unit change in
the independent variable.
To understand the interpretation of the logistic coefficients, consider a
rearrangement of the equation of the logistic model, i.e.,
eZ
Yi
1 eZ
72
Where Z 0 1 X 1 2 X 2 ....... P X P
The logistic regression model can be written in terms of the odds of an
event occurring. The odds of an event occurring are defined as the ratio of the probability
that it will occur to the probability that it will not. For example, the odds of getting a
head on single flip of a coin are 0.5/0.5= 1. Similarly, the odds of getting a diamond on a
single draw from a card deck are 0.25/ 0.75= 1/ 3. So, it is obvious that odds simple mean
the probability.
The logistic model in terms of log of the odds, which is called a lo
Y
or log i
1 - Yi
0 1 X 1 2 X 2 ....... P X P
That is, the linear regression equation is the (natural log of) probability of
being in one group divided by the probability of being in the other group. Above
equation reveals that the logistic coefficients can be interpreted as the change in the log
odds associated with a one-unit change in the independent variable.
Since it is easier to think of odds rather than log odds, the logistic
regression equation can be written in terms of odds as
Yi
1 - Yi
e 0 1 X 1 2 X 2 ....... P X P e 0 e 1 X 1 e 2 X 2 .......e P X P
The raised to the power i is the factor by which the odds change when
the ith independent variable increases by one unit. If i is positive, this factor will be
73
greater than 1, which means that the odds are increased, if i is negative, the factor will
be less than 1, which means that the odds are decreased. When i is 0, the factor equals
1, which leaves the odds unchanged. The odds ratio is the increase (or decrease if the
ratio is less than one) in odds of being in one outcome category when the value of the
predictor increases by one unit.
For example, the estimated probability of event occurring is 0.37, while
keeping one of the independent variables (i.e., p) at 0 and other variables constant. The
probability of non-event becomes 0.63 (i.e., 1-0.37). The odds of event occurring are then
estimated as:
Odds
Pr(event )
0.37
74
increased by 1. The coefficients, i are natural logs of the odds ratio; odds ratio = e .
0.7614
For example, the odds ratio = e
= 2.1413, where 0.7614 . The odds ratio is
The confidence interval for the odds ratio is based on the confidence
interval for the corresponding logistic regression coefficient; the confidence interval for
the odds ratio will include 1 whenever the confidence interval for the regression
coefficient contains 0. To calculate the 95% confidence interval for the odds ratio, first
calculate the 95% confidence interval for the regression coefficients by using,
95 % 1.96 ( S .E )
For example, the lower and upper limits are 0.75 and 2.27, respectively,
where 0.7614 and S.E = 0.7708. Likewise, the 95% confidence interval for odds ratio
becomes e-0.75 = 0.47 and e2.27 = 9.7. This confidence interval tells that the values
anywhere from 0.47 to 9.7 are plausible for the population value of the odds ratio for the
variable.
When an independent variable is continuous, such as age, blood pressure,
or years of education, the odds ratio for a unit change in the value of the independent
variable may be less informative than the odds ratio associated with a decade change in
age, or a 5mm change in blood pressure.
3.12
Whenever a model is fitted to the data, the main objective is to know how
well the model fits not only the sample of data from which it is derived, but also the
75
population from which the sample data were selected. A model always fits the sample
that is used to estimate it better than it will fit the population. There are numerous
models in logistic regression i.e., a constant (intercept) only model that includes no
predictor, an incomplete model that includes the constant plus some predictors, a full
model that includes the constant plus all the predictors (including, possibly, interactions
and variables raised to a power), and a perfect (hypothetical) model that would provide
exact fit of expected frequencies to observed frequencies if only the right set of predictors
were measured. For large data sets, it may be feasible to split the data into two parts. A
model can be estimated on one part and then applied to the other to see how well it fits.
3.13
3.13.1 Population
There are 50 VDOs working in each (Sanghar and Badin) district for
poverty alleviation. However due to the limitation of time and financial status of the
researcher only 10 village development organizations were selected from each district.
3.13.3 Analysis of Data
Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS version 16) was used to
analyze the data. The data gathered through survey were analyzed using frequency
distribution and corresponding percentages.
76
3.14
Conclusions
This chapter present the methodology of the study how the research is
going to be carried out. A total sample of 320 households were selected from two district.
Multistage sampling was used to select households thus a sample of 160 was selected
from Sanghar and Badin. Various techniques were used for analyzing primary data
collected from households survey such as headcount index, poverty gap and sen index
formulas for measuring poverty. Gini coefficient and Lorenz curve was used for
measuring inequality in the study area. Logistics regression and multiple linear regression
models were used for analyzing determinants and identifying the correlates. To assess the
various initiatives taken by village development organization to alleviate poverty data
was collected from 10 villages in both Sanghar and Badin SPSS version 16 was used to
analyse the data.
77
CHAPTER-IV
STATUS AND TREND ANALYSIS OF RURAL POVERTY
IN SINDH AND PAKISTAN
4.1
base. Looking across the spectrum of poverty majority of the poor wage employees are
found in the construction sector followed by service sector. Again it will be seen that this
pattern is not common to coastal Sindh where the majority of people work as wage
laborers either in fishing or agriculture.
Unemployment alone fails to present the true picture of the rural labor
market. A very large segment of the labor force is characterized by underemployment.
This phenomenon is most common in the agriculture and informal sectors. In Badin men
work about 15 days in a month and rest at home for the remaining 15 days. While at
home they usually rest and do not contribute in household chores. They play music, chew
pan and visit the market where they take tea and other activities.
According to the report prepared by Sindh Coastal Development Authority
female underemployment has been persistently four times as high as that of male under
employment. Most female work as unpaid family help. Out of the total of working
women, only one percent belonged to professional category and one percent worked as
administrative and managerial workers.Majority of them worked in agricultural (54%)
craft related work (11%) or in elementary occupation (27%). Among Farm household,
one third of households are livestock holders. However 64 percent of the livestock
holders are self employed or obliged to work in the non-farm unskilled labor market
(Sindh Coastal and Community Dev Project 2005).
79
Table-10
Source of Non
Farm Income
Services
Business
Livestock
Remittances
Agric Labor
Non Agric Labor
Rent
Poultry
Others
None
Source:
Farm Households
Non-Agric
Households
22.7
19.5
0.3
1.7
4.9
42.5
0.7
0.2
7.5
0.0
11.9
7.1
3.0
2.9
21.6
18.5
1.6
0.2
6.6
26.5
Livestock Holders
8.0
8.4
9.4
1.3
14.9
46.8
0.9
0.4
9.9
0.0
80
Table-11
1993-94
Farm
Non
farm
21.6
39.9
1998-99
Farm
Non
farm
22.3
33.1
2001-02
Farm
Non
farm
24.9
40.4
19.9
31.4
35.2
44.7
42.1
55.6
33.4
34.2
20.4
32.2
59.3
57.7
25.7
27.1
19.5
14.6
60.8
53.0
NWFP
23.0
32.3
31.7
31.1
45.7
47.6
Baluchistan
33.0
21.1
31.3
26.7
40.4
39.4
Source:
Table-11 shows that cotton / wheat in Sindh recorded the highest of farm
poverty 59.3 and also in respect of rice / others farm poverty has 60.8 making it the
highest farm poverty in rural Sindh.
4.2
The area may be divided into and within the command areas of irrigation
system below the Kotri Barrage and those areas outsides it. Within the commands areas a
so called water course community exists which comprises a group of landholders that
divert the entire stream allocated to their block of land from the canal turn wise have
learnt to follow a distribution all shareholders can rely and do not have to negotiate or
struggle to get water from each other at each turn. Besides organizing to bring reliability
to their every day farming operations these individual water users on one channel unite to
find ways to maintain a reliable supply of water through their outlet in the canal.
Towards the coast and as the availability of sweet water decreases in the
face of encroachment by the sea, there are communities of fisher folk some of whom may
81
be termed coastal and others who are termed island dwellers. These communities are
comprised of fisher folk with little subsistence farming, especially animal husbandry
(camel, cows and goats). They mainly live on coast and Indus delta on a small island or
creeks. Fishing is the only and major means of livelihood adopted by these communities
do not sell fish directly in the market but sell it to a saith near contracts point in the
village (Sindh Coastal and Community Dev Project 2005).
4.3
Villages that are structured in close proximity of Arabian sea are most
frequently subject to periodical disasters. The structured and placement of houses non
availability of disasters resistance physical infrastructures and remoteness come into
alliance to constitute the physical vulnerability of the community at large.
The villages situated at the tail end of the incursion of the sea (Salinization
of their productive land) and loss of sweet water. Land under cultivation have become
saline and degraded due to successive floods and sea erosion further a huge irrigation and
and drainage infrastructure (LBOD and RBOD) have added to vulnerabilities of the area
and communities living therein (eg floods occurred because of the sudden breach of
LBOD which caused huge losses).
Non structural vulnerabilities relate to the way that how ownership of
resources is distributed among communities and how the available resources are used to
cope with any trend, shock and seasonality. The absence of rights ( eg to land), lack of
access to other productive resources and non availability of formal portative resources
and non availability of formal protection and safety nets reduce the social resilience and
coping capacity of communities against vulnerabilities in the both districts of Thatta and
82
Badin. It leaves them to opt for a repressive loaning system and in some cases restoring
to begging as survival strategy. In this context communities of the area are largely
depending upon poor and fragile resource base with no control over and entitlements of
ritual resources like arable land, human rights and small scale entrepreneurship. These
non structural dimension of vulnerability in production depends on improving the
efficiency of the existing irrigation system.
Notably, given the limited scope for major increases in water supply in
and outside the Indus basin, improvement of efficiency of currently available water use
remains the only viable option for increasing productivity of irrigated agriculture in the
area in a sustainable way (World Bank, 2005).
4.4
One of the less anticipated problems encountered was the inability of the
more vulnerable communities to provide for a fund capital and development needs. In
part this was due to the precarious hand to mouth existence that the more vulnerable
communities endure. The absence of seed capital or surplus earnings within the
communities means that they are excluded from various development opportunities such
as the microfinance scheme. In essence the community was not able to take the first few
steps towards helping itself. This means that those communities never reach a point of
critical mass sufficient to help themselves on the road towards economic and social self
sufficiency.
And when there are funding programs they rarely reach much below the
level of district governments or occasionally the taluka and union council level of these a
large number appear to be thwarted by institutional ineptness or indifference or
83
84
costly to acquire in view of exorbitant cost of building materials which the poor can
hardly afford, thus accentuate the housing problems facing the rural poor in Sindh.
Some of the present social sector policies remain generally unsuitable for
addressing the problems of poverty, for instance while education absorbs relatively
medium proportion of federal Government budget over the, years the allocation pattern
indicates that greater emphasis in higher education whereas primary and adult education
seems to be most needed by the poor. Similarly some policy designed to address
problems in the health sector appear inadequate unstable and not targeted to the poor.
It is notable from the above discussion that rural Sindh now faces
enormous development challenges that are key to both welfare improvement for the
general population and to poverty reduction in particular. Given the state magnitude and
dynamics of poverty in the province it is imperative that government makes a firm
commitment to resolve poverty issues in rural areas. To address these challenges,
pursuance of rapid growth must be evolved as an integral part of poverty reduction
programme. Participation in the growth process by the poorest communities is the surest
way of ensuring poverty reduction.
Therefore local community participation in the planning, implementation
process of development programmes should be widened and deepened. (World Bank,
2005)
4.5
85
all these achievements, the incidence of poverty in rural areas of Sindh is among the
highest in Pakistan.
The poor in Sindh can be categorized into five groups, each with its own
attendant and unique problems. The rural poor overall are cut off from access to essential
public services and reasonable means to generate sustainable incomes and are tied to
traditional customs and mode of production and livelihoods. Within this group is a sub
group of ultra poor, who lives in the southern districts and have been a repeated victims
of natural calamities such as drought, followed by excessive rainfall, flooding, cyclone
earthquake of sea intrusion due to increasing soil salinity. This group of the very
vulnerable represents the special requirements of Sindh province in terms of poverty
reduction. In view of the foregoing therefore we shall present the trend analysis of
poverty in Sindh province.
4.6
86
Table-12
Districts
Deprivation
scale
(1-100)
1
2
1
12
1.0
56.3
3
4
5
6
7
8
21
27
28
29
38
39
65.7
69.7
70.4
74.7
75.8
76.3
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
44
47
52
59
63
76
78
84
77.9
78.8
81.0
84.8
85.7
92.4
94.7
100.00
Low deprivation
Karachi
Hyderabad
Medium deprivation
Sukkur
Larkana
N.Feroze
Nawabshah
Khairpur
Dadu
High deprivation
Shikarpur
Sanghar
Mirpurkhas
Ghotki
Jacobabad
Badin
Thatta
Tharparkar
Source:
87
per 40 kg. He pays Rs.2 to the oxen cart owner, as fare and saves only Rs.8 per 40 kgs. A
man sells about 7 to 10 maund (1 maund = 40 kgs) per day. The daily wages of the
construction labourer is 80 to 100 rupees, but they do not get to do this job on a daily
basis. The daily wages of the hawker is Rs.50-100.
A goat worth Rs 1500 sold at the rate of Rs 500 in the time of disaster.
Milk man buys milk from the villages at the rate of 10 to 12 liter kg and sells in the
market Rs. 15-20 per kg (SPDC, 2007).
4.7
Land / poverty
Rural areas
Land ownership
No land ownership
Urban areas
Property ownership
No property ownership
Housing
Rural areas
House ownership
No house ownership
Urban areas
House ownership
No house ownership
Source:
Sindh
Pakistan
20.97
4.26
17.90
31.82
8.72
20.15
16.97
28.14
38.46
32.68
28.97
36.54
22.11
13.31
28.16
25.76
88
4.8
Table-14
Sector
Sindh
Pakistan
Service
Mining and manufacturing
Agriculture
Occupation category agriculture
Own cultivator
Livestock tenderer
Contract cultivator
Share cropper
Occupation category non agriculture
24.37
22.59
43.06
28.08
28.84
32.99
24.45
42.15
19.96
18.83
34.18
36.80
18.12
25.44
26.66
18.19
30.42
30.51
Employer
Self employed
Wage employed
Source:
4.9
Poverty measures for Pakistan are based on the household income and
expenditure surveys (HIES). Poverty in Pakistan has followed cyclical trend in the last
four decades. Poverty increased in the 1960s, but declined in the 1970s and 1980s. But,
89
the trend reversed in the 1990s, lately poverty has shown an unprecedented decline in
short period of four years (from 2002-2006). The government of Pakistan has claimed
that poverty has been reduced from 34.46 percent in 2001 to 23.90 percent in 2005
(CRPRID, 2006).
Table-15 gives the estimates of poverty from 1992 to 2005. It shows that
at present more than one third of population of Pakistan is living below the national
poverty line(9). Poverty has mostly depicted an increasing trend between 1992 and 2001.
It increased from 25.46 in 1992 to 34.46 in 2001. The depth of poverty as measured by
poverty gap also increased from 4.27 percent in 1992 to 7.03 percent in 2001; whereas
the severity of poverty has almost doubled in the same period. The recent figures for
2004-05 show that poverty has declined from 34.46 to 23.9 percent (GOP, 2005-06).
Table-15
1992-93
1993-94
1996-97
1998-99
2000-01
2004-05
25.46
27.63
19.99
28.17
33.54
15.39
25.78
30.17
15.84
31.08
35.13
21.37
34.46
39.26
22.69
23.9
28.1
14.9
4.27
4.6
3.43
5.22
6.25
2.74
4.38
5.25
2.41
6.58
7.55
4.27
7.03
8.04
4.55
4.76
5.64
2.87
1.1
1.18
0.89
1.44
1.76
0.69
1.14
1.39
0.6
2.06
2.38
1.29
2.13
2.44
1.35
1.48
1.77
0.84
CRPRID centre for research on poverty reduction Islamabad 2005, GOP 2005, 2006.
9. NPL: National Poverty Line is the determine by the national planning commission based on the economic
situation prevailing at a certain period of time.
90
4.10
4.11
91
percent increasing over time with that of the lowest twenty percent falling (Mahbubul
Haq, 2005).
Table-16
Year
1963-64
1966-67
1969-69
1969-70
1970-71
1971-72
1979
1984-85
1985-86
1986-87
1987-88
1990-91
1992-93
1993-94
1996-97
1998-99
Sources:
4.12
Rural
0.348
0.314
0.293
0.295
0.273
0.309
0.319
0.345
0.330
0.312
0.307
0.410
0.367
0.40
0.41
0.40
Urban
0.368
0.388
0.370
0.361
0.359
0.381
0.380
0.379
0.354
0.357
0.366
0.390
0.384
0.350
0.380
0.330
MHCHD/UNDP 1999 P 85 Govt of Pakistan 1998-99 Pakistan Economic Survey 200203 P 50.
92
of major crops (wheat, basmati and other rice, cotton, sugarcane, maize), which
accounted for about two thirds of agricultural crop, GDP grew by 2.6 percent per year
over this period. There have been substantial fluctuations in real crop GDP in recent
years due largely to variations in water availability. For example, real crop income fell by
3.6 percent in 2005-06 after it rose by 17.8 percent the previous year due to a record
cotton crop (production increased by 42 percent). Total GDP grew by 2.3 percent
annually, almost entirely due to a 2.1 percent yearly increase in crop GDP/hectare, while
the cropped area increased by only 0.2 percent per year. Livestock which account for half
of agricultural GDP grew by an average of 3.5 percent per year Table-17 (GOP, 200506).
Table-17
Agriculture
Major crops
Minor crops
Livestock
Fishing
Forestry
Industry
Services
GDP (factor cost)
Population
Agri. GDP / per capita (Rs.)
Cropped area (000,000)
Crop GDP / Ha (000 Rs.)
Source:
2005-06
value
added
1055.2
371.1
129.9
523.5
14.2
16.5
1270.1
2554.2
4879.5
155.4
6790
22.5
22.3
93
2005-06
share Agri.
GDP
100.0%
35.2%
12.3%
49.6%
1.3%
1.6%
-
2005-06
share
total GDP
21.6%
7.6%
2.7%
10.7%
0.3%
0.3%
26.0%
52.3%
100.0%
-
2000-06
growth
rate
2.6%
2.8%
0.9%
3.5%
-0.9%
-5.7%
7.9%
5.9%
5.6%
2.1%
0.5%
0.2%
2.1%
4.13
Majority of Pakistans rural poor are neither tenant farmers nor farm
owners. Non farm households (excluding agricultural labourer household) accounted for
57 percent of the rural poor in 2004-05. Farmers comprised only 35 percent of the
households in the bottom 40 percent of rural per capita expenditure distribution. The
remaining 8 percent were agricultural labourer households. This distribution of rural
poverty closely reflects land distribution which is highly unequal in Pakistan. According
to the 2000 agricultural census, only 37 percent of rural households owned land and 61
percent of land owning households owned less than 5 acres or 15 percent of the total
land. Two percent of households owned 50 acres or 30 percent of total land. Moreover,
returns to land are estimated to be about half of incomes (value added) from crop
agriculture, with only about five percent of value added paid to hired agricultural labour.
Moreover, non farm income is a major source of revenue, even for farmers with land.
According to 2004-05 PSLM data, crop, livestock and agricultural wage labour incomes
account for only 25, 8 and 4 percent respectively; of the total rural incomes, 40 percent
remittances 9 percent, and other income 15 percent comprise the reminder even for farm
households crop incomes account for only about half (49 percent) of the total income
(Pervez et al. 2005).
4.14
Conclusions
This chapter presents the status and trend analysis of rural poverty in
Sindh and Pakistan. The analysis has been carried out using different data from secondary
sources. Available information indicates that 54 percent of the population was found
among the poorest category while 79 percent were poor. Poverty was highly correlated
94
95
CHAPTER-V
POVERTY ALLEVIATION INITIATIVES
5.1
Table-18
Community
Services
Human
Development
Rural
Development
Safety nets
Governance
Total
Source:
2002-03
16.57
2003-04
28.53
2004-05
44.71
2005-06
45.25
2006-07
42.5
90.67
105.81
134.05
155.81
196.84
21.4
24.3
34.18
44.52
59.69
68.74
29.7
8.33
32.98
167.25
13.75
38.54
208.84
12.32
41.81
261.3
8.438
50.52
316.24
9.65
58.21
378.81
3.7
15.3
22.7
Human Development South Asia 2006. Poverty in South Asia Challenges and Responses.
Published by Mahbubul Haq Human Dev Centre Islamabad.
96
5.1.1
Zakat Programmes
Adult living below poverty line (Rs.670 per month for 2002) with preference
to widows and disabled.
(ii)
Unemployed and
(iii)
The local zakat committee establishes the eligibility of the person and the
list of recipients has to be pasted outside the local mosque. Three different categories of
educational assistance are also provided under zakat. The payment is made directly to
institutions, where eligible students are enrolled. Stipend are given to students enrolled in
the mainstream public or private sector schools (Table-19)
Table-19
Govt. of Pakistan 2006 B, Zakat Disbursmeent, Mahbubul Haq Centre for Human
Development, 2006 Report.
Zakat is being used to finance health care under the national level health
programmes managed by the provincial and central zakat councils. The zakat council
determines the eligibility of an unmarried woman unable to bear expenses related to her
marriage. Almost one third of the total disbursement under zakat was devoted to PRS
(permanent rehabilitation scheme) benefiting around 10,000 people with the average
value of the grant being Rs.17,000 (MHHDCI, 2006).
98
5.1.2
The Pakistan Baitul Maal (PBM), which operates under the administrative
control of the Ministry of Women Development, Social Welfare and Special Education,
was established as an autonomous corporate body under a special act of 1991. The PBM
was set up to help the destitute, needy widows and orphans, invalids and other such
people who are in dire need of assistance. The two main benefits that it provides are the
food support programme and individual financial assistance. As shown in (Table-20),
majority of the beneficiaries (52 percent) belongs to Punjab, while less than 5 percent of
the recipients are from Baluchistan, signaling with the population share of the provinces.
Table-20
5.1.3
Baluchistan
52
44
36
21
26
25
18
10
20
4
11
12
ICT AJK x
NA
5
10
6
53
0.50
27
0.49
19
99
5.1.4
5.1.5
The PPAF was established six years ago and provides soft laons to 65
different partner organizations, which, in turn lend to individuals and groups within their
target communities. It also provides grants on a cost sharing basis for development of
100
5.1.7
Khushhali Bank
101
scale. For long term sustainability, it is therefore, imperative to achieve high repayment
rates while charging interest rates that cover the cost of lending (Microfinance in
Pakistan, 2005).
5.1.8
102
quality improvement and export marketing in the short to medium term. SME led
economic growth is expected to reduce poverty through
(1) Income generating activities in rural and urban areas.
(2) Creating employment opportunities
(3) Providing forward linkages to the micro-enterprices benefiting from the
availability of micro credit.
5.1.9
The Government of Sindh has announced grant of state land to the poor in
all districts, where state land is available with primary objective of reaching out to the
most marginalized segment of Sindh population. Grant of the state land to the poor Haris
is one of the central poverty reduction strategy of the new government. The policies of
land grant followed by different governments have however been more or less a routine
affair and there has been no attempt to target the landless in transparent manner.
Similarly also there was no attempt to facilitate institutional support to the poor
beneficiaries in terms of connecting them to rural credit markets etc for enabling them to
move to sustainable livelihoods. The broad policy framework has been evolved on the
basis of past lessons and major weaknesses of the past policies. What has basically
surfaced, is the fact that the past land grant were primarily implemented through a
mechanism provided under the land revenue act. In view of the above, the government
has drawn out the framework of a policy that builds upon past mistakes and oversights
for ensuring sustainability of reforms. The major feature of the framework are presented
below:
103
The third major policy component is that the beneficiaries of state land
would be fully supported through a support package for at least a period of two years, till
the time they attain sustainable livelihoods. The support package would depend on the
type of land, however in general it encompases availability of water, provision of
essential inputs including seed, fertilizer and pesticides. The policy is to formulate
cooperatives of Haris, wherever possible and to extend this support package to them on
the basis of economies of scale.
104
1. Eradicate Extreme Poverty and Hunger, Social Protection Strategy: The long
term objective of social protection strategy of Pakistan is to develop an integrated
and comprehensive social protection system covering all the population,
105
especially the vulnerable poor and the vulnerable non-poor. The immediate focus
is on providing cash/conditional cash transfers to the poorest, the poor and
vulnerable, who constitute about 20% of the population. The number of
beneficiaries is expected to increase from 2.2 at present to 3.2 million in the next
five years.
Literacy Centres
Learners
Punjab
20.0 (34.0)
Number
9139
Share
43.1
Number
207,709.0
Share
43.8 (57.0)
Sindh
13.0 (24.0)
4367.0
20.6
106.034
22.4 (24.0)
NWFP
24.0 (24.0)
5498
25.9
114,460.0
24.2 (4.0)
Baluchistan
9.0 (29.0)
2198
10.4
45.597.0
9.6 (5.0)
Total
66.0 (101)
21,202.0
100.0
473,800.0
100.0
Source:
106
4. Reducing Child Mortality: In the case of Sindh, among the top 5, the top most
ranking district Larkana lost its first place and is replaced by Hyderabad in 2005.
Sanghar District lost 11 places and slipped from position 15 in 2005 ranking.
Among the bottom, 3 districts improved their ranking in 2005. Thatta, Ghotki and
Badin moved up to middle ranks.
5. Improve Maternal Health (MCH): The lady health workers programme was
initiated in 1994 to provide health care services to women on their doorsteps,
thereby bridging the gap between the community and institutionalized services.
The government has also introduced the national maternal and child helath
(MCH) programme. It is aimed at improving access to high quality and effective
services for all. There are nine years left for the achievement of the MDG on
maternal health, this has proved very difficult to achieve. What is required now is
increased commitment and priority action, so that the desired goal can be
achieved by 2015.
107
5.1.11 Targeting the Poor in Sindh Using the Poverty Score Card
The poverty score card for Pakistan has been developed as a tool to
measure change in poverty in an effective way and to support the management of
development programmes in microfinance and also in other development sectors. It is
also a useful tool for social investors that need to measure their results according to the
triple bottom line objectives i.e. financial, social and environmental results.
Poverty scoring is a tool for measuring poverty mainly developed for
giving practitioners a simple, effective and low cost tool for observing the progress
targeted by projects. It is useful to donors for improving transparency and accountability
with regard to the income related MDG. The score card uses the 2001 Pakistan Integrated
Household Survey to construct an easy to use objective, it estimates the likelihood that a
participant has expenditure below the national poverty line.
However, over a period of time, some of the most frequent questions
asked; include who are the poor? How many poor are there? Where do they live and what
is their social and economic profile? In order to answer these questions, the RSPs with
the help of Grameen foundation USA, developed a poverty score card that answers all the
questions.
108
5.2
5.2.1
109
5.2.2 Contributions
110
responses to each new problem on the ground. The second factor in the success of small
NGOs, which engaged in social mobilization is the identification, training and fostering
of village level activists who gradually begin to manage existing community organization
(COs) enabling NGO staff to give more time to develop new COs. The third factor in the
success of small NGOs is the ability of level leadership to devolve responsibilities
acknowledge their achievements and to learn from them just as much as it is necessary
for leadership to learn from the poor.
The fourth factor in the success of small NGOs in reaching significant
scale is the development of credible accounting procedures and a regular monitoring and
evaluation exercise on the basis of which donor funding can be sought when it is
required. In each case successful NGO apart from devising some modes of reflection and
action with the village communities also develops formalized recording and reporting
system.
5.2.3
Like other sectors, the NGO are not exceptional in having strengths and
weaknesses. Some strengths and weaknesses are as follows:
a. Strengths: NGO have special ability to reach the poor and other segments of society
overlooked by public and commercial sectors. NGO facilitate local resource mobilization
and have programmes of local participation in development. Service delivery at low cost
and innovative solutions to novel problems are their strengths. The biggest strength of
these organizations is the openness in thought. They are said to be learning organizations
their capacity grows from small size with administrative flexibility and have relatively
more freedom from political constraints.
111
b. Weaknesses: Due to the small size and budget, NGO lack in technical capacity
because the highly trained technical and professional people do not find much attraction
for career jobs in this sector. NGO have limited ability to scale up successful projects to
achieving regional or national impact. This is due to their small size and resources, that
there are unscientific administrative system, intensive focus on a few committees, the
difficulties in maintaining their essential value consensus; soon as the staff expands
interaction to developing real efficiency and expertise in a well defined technological
environment and even living with their own commitments to their beneficiary
populations (Shireen, 2002).
112
consciousness raising, combined with skills and tools development. The natural resources
management and agriculture and economic development programmes are aimed at
consolidating the social organization process that gives people a sense of accomplishment
and confidence in the process. SAFWCO MicroFinance Programme is a part of
agriculture and economic development sector (SAFWCO Annual Report, 2005).
5.2.5
113
5.2.6
Since it began, 13 years ago the Aga Khan Rural Support Programme
(AKRSP) has transformed the remote Northern areas and Chitral in Pakistan into rural
development success stories. Its distinctive approach has provided the inspiration for
other programmes in Pakistan and elsewhere.
The key element of the programme is institutional development at village
level, which provides the framework for community members to take advantage of
outside assistance as well as to use their own resources more productively. AKRSP
started the process by providing an agent to help villagers form a village organization and
undertake a significant investment in productive infrastructure of their choice, such as
irrigation facilities or a local road that will benefit their community. The programme
provides a one time grant to complement villagers contributions to the infrastructure
projects. The grant process helps village organizations to mobilize savings and acquire
agricultural technology and production inputs. As benefits accrue, AKRSP facilitates
links with other entities providing health and education services.
5.2.6.1 Strategy
114
village organizations and other providers. In future most of the basic infrastructure and
social service investment in the region is likely to come from the government.
In Pakistan AKRSP has been successfully spread over three districts under
separate day to day management and its replication has begun in two adjacent districts
with support from Asian Development Bank and government of Pakistan. The prospects
of replicating the AKRSP model on a broad scale depends partly on the macro and
sectoral policy environment including the regulatory system for finanace, natural
resource and commerce as well as state support services. Experience over the past 50
years, for example in Brazil, Kenya, Korea, Malawi, Malaysia, Taiwan and China
suggests that most successful governments sponsored rural development programmes
have been run by autonomous and accountable parastatals bodies with carefully crafted
institutional development strategies (AKRSP, 2007).
5.2.7
115
with 160,893 active loans totaling, Rs.1,779 million (US $29.6 million), now provides a
significant proportion of NRSPs operating funds (NRSP, 2006).
District
Badin
Tehsil / Taluka
* Badin
* Golarchi
Tando bago
Talhar
Matli
Thatta
Sajawal
Mirpur Bathro
*Mirpur Satro
Thatta
Source:
Field Unit
Badin
Golarchi
Tando Bago
Talhar
Matli
Thatta
Sajawal
Mirpur Bathro
Mirpur Satro
NRSP records
* Project areas
116
Table-23
Completed projects
Total cost in
(Rs. Million)
Donor share
Community share
Source:
Badin
Thatta
Total
322
111
433
84,337
14.29
98.647
60.936
23.421
11.326
2.964
72.26
26.36
NRSP records
5.2.8
Badin Rural Development Society (BRDS) has been working for the
upliftment and community participation in development initiatives at district level since
last one decade. It aims at strengthening the standard of health, food security, water and
sanitation better participation of women, creating equal opportunities for vulnerable
groups and poverty alleviation in the targeted areas of District Badin especially the
coastal belt. These communities face devastation and catastrophies like earthquake,
117
droughts, drenchers and other fatal calamities. Badin Rural Development Society has
adopted its integrated social mobilization strategy for the development of area, ensuring
women participation or giving preference to women in all its activities.
b. Achievements
118
1. 1500 women and 2800 men in 60 villages are engaged in development process
2. 10 villages are registered for being part of development in district government
initiatives.
3. All women council seats are filled by competitive process in recent local bodies
election.
4. 35 mother committees are formed for girls enrolment and school management.
5. Female group members are sending their children in schools and accepted equal
right of education for both girls and boys.
6. 10 youth groups are functioning properly at community level.
5.2.9
YSWO came into being in the year 1987 with determination, commitment
and dedication of the poor Sheedi people under the distinguished leadership of Faiz
Mohammad Bilali. This organization has become the silver lining for the poor and
marginalized communities of Badin District, particularly those living along the coastal
belt. In 1989, it was registered with social welfare department government of Sindh,
under social voluntary organization act, 1961.
119
a. Achievements
(1) 58 Villages in 5 union councils of Ahmad Rajo, Bhugra Memon, Abdullah Shah,
Lunwari Sharif and Kadhan have been selected for disaster preparedness and
management project.
(2) 116 Community organizations have been formed.
(3) 9 clusters of the target villages have been formed.
(4) 01 Emergenccy centre has been established and equiped with necessary
emergency items.
(5) 04 Trainings have been given to the officials of community organizations.
(6) Site has been selected for construction of 2 demoraised platforms in 2 cluster
locations in Tehsil Badin.
(7) 12 TBA Training participants have been selected, while contents have been
discussed with lady doctor.
(8) 3 Radio Programmes have been broadcasted out of 10 programmes.
(9) In poverty Alleviation and income generation activities, 431 goat / sheep have been
distributed to 143 beneficiaries in Badin.
(10) 600 goats have been given to 200 beneficiaries in tehsil Johi, district Dadu
through local partner village Shadabad Welfare Organization.
(11) 200 beneficiaries have been finalized in Tehsil Diplo, District Tharparkar through
local NGO (Young Sheedi Welfare Organization Annual Report, 2007).
5.2.10 Sindh Microfinance Network SMN
121
hands build awareness amongst commercial banks, to move down the market for direct
lending and on the other open avenues for existing MFPs to leverage their balance sheets
by entering into commercial transaction with banks. This will build confidence between
microfinance players and the commercial sector and will diversify the funding options
available to the sector. However, for MFPs to achieve this, they will need to improve
their performance by showing a posture bottom line, a healthy balance sheet and strong
cash flow. The microfinance institutions will be required to provide hard numbers, the
rough improved disclosures, audits by high quality firms and credit ratings in the future.
The availability of different kind of products and value added services is also becoming
increasingly important (SMNR, 2005).
122
Table-24
District of
Sindh
Badin
Dadu
Hyderabad
Khairpur Mirs
Matiari
Mirpurkhas
Nawabshah
Sanghar
Tando
Alllhyar
Tharparkar
Umer Kot
Sukkur
GSS
LSRDA
MRD
SAFWCO
OWPRA
VDO
OPPOCT
SRSP
GSF
12
60
292
631
344
729
701
895
7256
47
82
135
434
61
434
Source:
BWA
292
60
909
24
655
8,880
123
47
82
7688
1328
344
12
60
292
975
729
701
895
7385
135
434
61
24
20.791
Table-25
Districts
Badin
Dadu
Ghotki
Hyderabad
Jacobabad
Jamshoro
Karachi
Source:
Micro Savings
Gross Loan
Portfolio
71,052,551
92,511,878
81,415,062
267,858,171
115,099,522
21,530,508
768,106,687
Active
Savers
44,529
30,390
590
12,441
218
50,541
Value of
Savings
31,918,271
26,622,000
3,037,000
52,637,239
8,378,000
1,429,734,228
Potential
micro fianc
market
294,781
447,305
248,442
517,652
361,146
1,329,990
Micro watch journal of the Pakistan microfinance network issue No5 quarter 3 (July-Sept
2007) Page13.
124
SAFWCO initiated this programme in 1994, buying loans for low cost
housing and goat rearing. The major part of the lending was for construction of low cost
houses damaged due to flooding in the year 1992. The affected people were provided
with long term (7 years repayment period) loans ranging from Rs. 5,000 to Rs. 35,000; a
total of Rs. 4, 227, 653 was disbursed to 199 affected families in 13 villages. They charge
12% lumpsum service calculated on a one year one time base to recover the operational
cost. Majority of this loan was later adjusted or written off as the agricultural income
declined and unemployment increased due to drought conditions. The funding for home
reconstruction was provided by International Development and Refugees Foundations
(IDRE), Canada through the South Asian Partnership (SAP) Pakistan. In the same year
SAFWCO started lending to help women of poor household to purchase goat kids that
they could rear and then sell for a profit. This was called the goat rearing programme
(GRP). The Trust for Voluntary Organizations (TVO) provided a revolving and
institutional support for this.
In this programme 1,218 women received Rs. 2,562,000 as loans at an
average of Rs. 2,000 per borrower, 15% per annum service was collected to recover
125
operational and inflation costs. The repayment period was for one year. The project
ended in 1997 and was very successful as most of the beneficiaries made profit from goat
rearing, this has changed their lives.
Product Name
Agricultural Loans
Regular Monthly Loans
Half Installment Loans
Buffalo Purchasing Loan
Festival Loans
Eud Azha Loans for Mal Goats
Small Enterprise Loan
Source:
5.3
Min Rs
5,000
2,000
5,000
10,000
8,000
8,000
35,000
Max Rs
30,000
30,000
30,000
30,000
30,000
12,000
100,000
Period
6 months
3-18 months
6-18 months
12-18 months
12 months
3 months
18-24 months
equality and it is mainly due to these reasons that various international forums and
declarations have pledged improvements in quality of education. National commitment
towards quality education has become significantly visible since late eightees. Since then,
various stakeholders have started taking initiative and interventions for improving quality
with national and foreign funding (PPAF, 2005).
Responding to a long standing demand of rural communities, Pakistan
Poverty Alleviation Fund (PPAF) is committed to improving the living standards of poor.
It has introduced a health and education component in their programme in 2004. The
educational programme is significantly designed to provide quality learning at primary
levels. It aims at empowering poor families / group communities through improved
access to quality education. It is expected that through this, children from marginalized
communities would be mainstreamed. Main features of the PPAF education programme
include.
-
Ensuring that deserving students are given scholarship to meet the expenses.
127
In line with these beliefs, one of the initial partners that PPAF selected
was SAFWCO in Shahdadpur Sindh, where literacy rates are very low especially in case
of girls. The project was initiated in july, 2005; one of two pilot schools was established
in village Maqsoodo Rind. SAFWCO held several deliberations with the community and
finally after acquiring every ones consent, a primary school was established.
128
Improved health status of target communities with a special focus on maternal and
child health.
5.4
Conclusions
129
interventions. The Agha Khan Rural Support Programme (AKRSP) provides a one time
grant to complement villagers contributions to the infrastructure projects. The grant
process helps village organizations to mobilize savings and acquire agricultural
technology and production inputs. As benefits spread the AKRSP facilitates links with
other entities providing health and education services. The National Rural Support
Programme (NRSP) success show that poverty levels were lower in member households.
According to UNDP report 2003, 68 percent of the NRSP respondents ate daily 68
percent ate better than before, 50 percent felt improvements in health and 82 percent
experienced a sustainable increase in income after disbursement of credit. The Pakistan
Poverty Alleviation Fund (PPAF) educational programme provide quality learning at
primary levels through this, children from maginalised communities would be
mainstreamed. Similarly PPAF ventured into preventive health care in order to improve
the health status of the target community through provision of comprehensive quality of
basic health services. The major strength of NGOs was their special ability to reach the
poor and other segments of the society. While their weaknesses was small size and
budget limited ability to scale up successful project achieving regional or national impact.
130
CHAPTER-VI
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
This chapter presents the results of household survey on the basis of
primary data collected in both Sanghar and Badin districts of Sindh province.
6.0
6.1
6.1.1
131
certain positive impact on the households living standards; and older the household
head, better will be the living conditions.
Table-27
District
Minimum
Maximum
Mean
Sanghar
160
18
70
40.38
Standard
Error (SE)
1.01
Badin
160
22
85
43.85
1.17
Overall
320
18
85
42.12
0.75
Source:
6.1.2
132
poor households heads are educated upto primary level or below matriculation. Similarly,
the farm level survey estimates provided by NFDC (2002) indicate that about 34% of the
farmers were illiterate, while proportion of farmers under matric, intermediate,
graduation and post-graduation were 29, 23, 11 and 3 percent, respectively. Furthermore,
the above findings are further supported by Cruces and Wodon (2007), who reported that
a high job qualification of the house hold head has positive impact on the life of the
household as a whole. Little et al. (2008), reported that having a family member with
secondary and university education with stable employment in the formal sector can
increase the income of the household in general. Amara and Sial (2009) argued that lack
of education is one of the major factors which lead one to become poor. Generally, it is
recognized that healthy and more educated adult members in a household contribute their
income levels and reduce poverty. If household members are not adult and educated they
can become the cause of poverty. Choudhary et al. (2009), reported strong and significant
association among educational attainment and rural poverty; household with no
educational attainment have the highest incidence, depth and severity of poverty. There is
evidence that with a rising level of educational attainment all the three measures fall.
Furthermore, Nguyen (2007) reported that education has a very strong effect on the living
standards of households and more the education of household head, higher will be the
households living standards.
133
Table-28
Qualification
IlliteratePrimary Matric IntermediateGraduatePostgraduate
Sanghar N
48
63
21
68
44
23
116
107
44
6.1.3
Total
12
157
5.10%
7.60%
3.20%
100.00%
13
158
8.20%
5.10%
1.30%
100.00%
21
20
315
6.70%
6.30%
2.20%
100.00%
134
9.70 percent plumber, 6.90 percent mechanic, 11.60 percent mason, 7.50 percent mat
making, 9.40 percent carpenter, 6.30 percent blacksmith and 7.20 percent barber.
Table-29
Districts No any Electri Plum Mechanical Mason Mat Carpen Black Barber
Skill cian
ber
making ter smith
Sanghar N
31
28
19
%19.38%17.50% 11.90%
Badin N
61
13
12
16
41
31
%28.75%12.81% 9.70%
Source:
6.1.4
14
8.80%
8
5.00%
22
6.90%
19
20
11
Total
160
15
10
11
12
160
24
30
20
23
320
Household Size
135
has been stated that the average household size in Sindh was 6 members. In rural areas, it
was 5.5 members; while in urban areas it was 6.8 members. According to Pakistan
Integrated Household Survey (PIDE, 1991), there was a bigger mean household size of
7.5 members in Pakistan. Amara and Sial (2009) stated that it is likely for one to be poor,
if there is large number of persons (household size), dependency ratio is another factor of
being poor. A high dependency ratio decreases the level of earning in relation to needs
and therefore, increases the risk of poverty (Lipton, 1983; Baluch Bob and Mc Collough,
1998). The chance of a household being poor increased due to its household size and
dependency ratio, while more male household head means less poverty. The above
findings are in agreement with those Choudhary et al. (2009), who reported that families
that live in larger households with an average family size of 8 persons are in the poorest
quantile as compared to 6 persons in the non poor quantile; and similar pattern has been
found in many developing countries Mailk, 1991). It is hypothesized that the larger the
household size, higher will be the level of poverty incidence and vice versa. Malik (1991)
further reported that a household size of 7-8 members was found to be most prone to
poverty. On average, 8 and above members in a household imply the highest incidence,
depth, and severity of poverty. The analysis concluded that an optimal household size is 3
members as it experiences a lower depth and intensity of poverty. Furthermore, Nguyen
(2007) reported that household with more dependents especially with more household
members (larger household size) means they have lower living standards.
136
Table-30
Household Size.
District
Sanghar
160
30
9.12
0.37
Badin
160
18
7.62
0.28
Total
320
30
8.37
0.24
Source:
6.1.5
Standard
Error (SE)
Household by Members
It was noted from the survey results (Table-31) of district Sanghar that the
highest proportion (32%) of people had household size 7-9 members; while the lowest
proportion of household members (5%) was upto 3 members. Similarly, 26.9 percent
households had family size of 4-6 members. However, 15.60, 10.60 and 10.00 percent
households had 10-12, 13-15 and 16 family members, respectively.
In Badin district, the highest proportion (36.90%) of households had
family of 4-6 members, while 2.54% of household had the family size of 16 members.
Similarly, household by members upto 3 were 9.40%, between 25% 7-9 members, 18.80
% between 10-12 members and 7.50% between 13-15 members, respectively.
The comparative study of the two districts showed that Sanghar district
had 11 household by members between 7-9, 13-15, 5 and above 16, 12 members more
than Badin district.
137
Household by Members.
Members
District
Up to
3
Sanghar N
8
4-6
7-9
10-12
43
51
25
13-15 above 16
17
16
15
59
40
30
12
23
102
91
55
29
Source:
6.1.6
Total
160
100.00%
160
2.50%
100.00%
20
320
6.30%
100.00%
Availability of Electricity
villages. Similarly, Badin district has the highest number of respondents than Sanghar,
who reported that there was no electricity in their villages. The overall total number of
respondents was 318, 58.80% had electricity, while 41.20% had no electricity in their
houses. The above findings are in agreement with Nguyen (2007), who reported that
having access to electricity means better living standard.
Table-32
Availability of Electricity.
Electricity available
District
Sanghar
Badin
Overall
Source:
Yes
No
Total
140
19
159
88.10%
11.90%
100.00%
47
112
159
29.60%
70.40%
100.00%
187
131
318
58.80%
41.20%
100.00%
The data regarding the availability of gas in the study area is summarized
in Table-33 and the results revealed that in Sanghar district, 5.20 percent of the
respondents agreed that gas was available, while 94.80 percent indicated that gas was not
available in their village. In Badin district, only 0.60 percent of the respondents had gas
139
facility, while 99.40 percent of the people in Badin district had no natural gas facility for
cooking.
The comparative study of the two districts showed that more people in
Sanghar district were availing gas facility as compared to those living in district Badin.
Overall number of respondents was 315 and 2.9% had gas facility, while 97.10% were
without gas facility. These findings are in concurrence with those of Zaman and Aman
(2004), who reported that the poor are characterized by inadequate access to public
services in general. Only 52.2% poor households had electricity connections compared to
76% non-poor households; and gas connections existed in 10.9% of poor households
compared to 22.9% for non-poor households.
Table-33
Availability of Gas.
Gas is available
District
Sanghar
Badin
Overall
Source:
Yes
No
Total
147
155
5.20%
94.80%
100.00%
159
160
0.60%
99.40%
100.00%
306
315
2.90%
97.10%
100.00%
140
6.1.8
Type of House
11. Jhorpra
12. Katcha
141
Table-34
Type of House.
District
Sanghar
Badin
Overall
Source:
6.1.9
Type of House
Total
Pacca
Semi Pacca
Katcha
Jhorpra
61
38
51
157
38.90%
24.20%
32.50%
4.50%
100.00%
16
12
111
21
160
10.00%
7.50%
69.40%
13.10%
100.00%
77
50
162
28
317
24.30%
15.80%
51.10%
8.80%
100.00%
Availability of Toilet
142
open space toilets. The above findings are partially supported by Nguyen (2007), who
reported having a better toilet facility means better living standard.
Table-35
Toilet.
TOILET
District
Sanghar
Badin
Overall
Source:
Total
10
59
88
157
6.40%
37.60%
56.10%
100.00%
34
124
160
1.30%
21.30%
77.50%
100.00%
12
93
212
317
3.80%
29.30%
66.90%
100.00%
6.2
6.2.1
Source of Loan
Loan plays a great role in the livelihood of people living in the areas
having no certain sources of income to manage their households. (Table-36a) revealed
that in Sanghar district 84.38 percent of the respondents obtained loans from various
sources to manage livelihood, while 15.63% had no credit facilities.
Similarly, in Badin district, 45.63 percent of the respondents obtained
loans from different credit agencies, while 54.38 percent respondents did not obtain credit
facilities. This indicates that more people in Sanghar (84.38%) had access to credit
143
Table-36a
Source of Loan
Loans obtained
District
Sanghar
Badin
Overall
Source:
6.2.2
Yes
No
Total
135
25
160
84.38%
15.63%
100.00%
73
87
160
45.63%
54.38%
100.00%
208
112
320
65.00%
35.00%
100.00%
Institution of Loan
Table-36b
Institution of Loan.
District
Sanghar
Badin
Overall
Source:
Institution of Loan
Total
Bank
NGO
Local
Lender
42
32
61
135
31.10%
23.70%
45.20%
100.00%
32
17
24
73
43.80%
23.30%
32.90%
100.00%
74
49
85
208
35.60%
23.60%
40.90%
100.00%
145
6.2.3
The respondents in both the districts were also enquired for recovery of
loans and the results (Table-36c) showed that in Sanghar district, 96.30 percent of the
respondents paid their loans regularly, while 3.70 percent could not pay the installments
regularly. Similarly, in Badin district 97.26 percent respondents paid by installments
regularly, while 2.74 percent could not pay their loan by installments. This shows that
majority of the respondents both in Sanghar and Badin districts paid by installment
regularly.
The overall number of respondents was 208, out of them 96.63 percent
paid their loans by installments regularly, while 3.37 percent could not pay their
installments of loan as per the devised recovery schedule. The above findings are in line
with Padia (2005), who reported that repayment of loans offered by Dhan Foundation for
womens empowerment was 98%.
Table-36c
District
Sanghar
Badin
Overall
Source:
Total
No
130
135
96.30%
3.70%
100.00%
71
73
97.26%
2.74%
100.00%
201
208
96.63%
3.37%
100.00%
146
6.3
Availing health facility of the state is the fundamental right of the people.
During survey, the respondents were asked to perceive on this aspect and responses are
summarized in Table-37. In Sanghar district, 31 percent of the respondents showed
positive perceptions on availability of human dispensary and 69.1 percent reported that
there was no human dispensary in their village. Similarly, in Badin district only 7.6
percent agreed that dispensary was available, while majority 92.40 percent perceived that
they had no dispensary facility. The overall number of respondents was 309, of which
19.1 percent reported the existence of human dispensary.
The findings of the present investigations are well comparable with those
of Zaman and Aman (2004), who reported that health facility is an important factor
which has direct influence to contribute to poverty and lack of health facilities leads to an
unhealthy society.
Table-37
Sanghar
Badin
Overall
Source:
Total
Yes
No
47
105
152
30.90%
69.10%
100.00%
12
145
157
7.60%
92.40%
100.00%
59
250
309
19.10%
80.90%
100.00%
147
6.3.2
Table-38
Sanghar
Badin
Overall
Source:
Total
Yes
No
22
134
156
14.10%
85.90%
100.00%
157
159
1.30%
98.70%
100.00%
24
291
315
7.60%
92.40%
100.00%
148
6.4
Househould Income
Income of the household is the key element that affects living status of
people. Information presented in Table-39 shows that the average household income in
Sanghar district was Rs.9926639 per month, while the income per person was
Rs.1231.00 per month. Similarly, in Badin district the household income was Rs.7463.00
494.00 per month, with average per person income of Rs.1194.00 per month. This
indicates that the people in Sanghar district had higher household and individual income
than those in Badin district.
Table-39
Household Income.
Particular
DISTRICT
Sanghar
Mean
9,926
Standard Error
639
Household Income
Badin
7,463
494
Total
8,687
408
Sanghar
1,231
76
Badin
1,194
91
Total
1,213
59
Source:
149
6.5
6.5.1
150
6.5.2
151
152
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
6.5.4
Poor
Not Poor
Overall
Misc.
17%
10%
14%
Phone
2%
3%
2%
Electricity
4%
6%
5%
Clothing
6%
11%
8%
Education
4%
9%
8%
Transport
7%
8%
8%
Health
12%
8%
9%
Food
48%
45%
46%
153
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Poor
Not Poor
Overall
Misc.
18%
11%
22%
Phone
2%
4%
3%
Electricity
2%
4%
3%
Clothing
6%
11%
4%
Education
3%
8%
6%
Transport
7%
9%
7%
Health
13%
7%
8%
Food
49%
46%
47%
154
6.6
Poverty Measurement
HCI
h
n
Where
HCI
Number of poor
Population
155
around the poverty line. Likewise, Hussain et al. (2006) identified poverty and head
count index, it was found to be 33.00 percent in the area. However, poverty head count
indices were 50, 34, 20, 37, 43, 33 and 19 percent for Jand Pindi Ghaib, Fateh Jang,
Attock, Gujar Khan, Kahuta, Rawalpindi, Talagang and Chakwal areas of the Punbjab
province, respectively.
Jamal (2006) correlates household consumption or poverty using the latest
household survey in Pakistan by Logistic regression and found that 55.01% people in the
study area are poor, while 89.19% are not poor. Baye (2005), stated that the poverty
profiles in 1996 show the spread, death and severity of poverty in Cameroon was higher
in rural than in urban areas. Thus, policy measures to assist the poor in Cameroon should
focus on rural areas. The above findings are partially supported by Gelbard et al. (2005),
who reported that in 2003 poverty was only 22 percent in urban areas while in rural areas
it was 38 percent, suggesting that poverty is more in rural areas than in urban areas.
Similarly, Bayu et al. (2007) predicted poor and non poor using Logistic model, and
found that 58.7% people in the study area of Indonesia are poor, while 32.3% are not
poor. The above findings are partially supported by Sharma (2007), who reported that
lack of alternatives opportunities significantly increased poverty in the country. The
intensity of poverty was more in rural areas than in urban areas. These findings were
further supported by Siddique (2000), who reported that head count ratio of Bangladesh
was 53.1% for rural areas, while for urban areas it was 36.6%. This shows that the
incidence of poverty is more in rural areas than in urban areas. The present findings are
partially supported by Mitra (1993), who reported that 54% of families in rural areas of
Arunachal Pradesh were poor in 1993. These figures are likely to increase in the coming
156
years if poverty alleviation measures were not adopted. Similarly, findings were also
reported by Kabann et al. (2009), that in rural areas of Ugunda female headed household
are more likely to be poor than their male counterparts. The older the household head the
greater the chance that he will be below the poverty line. More children in household
appear to be associated with poverty and poverty appears to be associated with greater
number of households.
Table-40
District
Sanghar
Badin
Overall
Source:
Total
Poor
Non Poor
83
77
160
51.9%
48.1%
100%
90
70
160
56.2%
43.8%
100%
173
147
320
54.10%
45.90%
100%
157
Where
TPG
H
yp
yi
=
=
=
=
yp
yi
= Rs. 1000
= Rs. 628
yp
yi
= Rs. 1000
= Rs. 644
Sanghar
Badin
where:
P = number of people below the poverty line
N = total number of people in society
B = poverty line income
A = average income of those people below the poverty line
Sanghar
83
1000 627
160
Badin
90
= 0.31
627
x
1000 644
160
644
158
= 0.31
Poverty gap and sen index were summarized and presented in Table-41,
which showed that in Sanghar district the average poverty gap was Rs.373 only, while in
Badin it was reported to be Rs.356 only. This shows that the amount of income required
to remove the poor out of poverty is much higher in Sanghar than in Badin district. The
Sen index both for Sanghar and Badin districts was equally 0.31. The sen index shows
that the intensity or severity of poverty in the two districts remained the same. The
overall poverty gap and sen index was reported to be 364 and 0.31, respectively.
The results of the present study are in agreement with Jamal (2006), who
reported that, the incidence, depth and severity of poverty is high in rural areas as
compared with urban areas.
Table-41
Source:
District
Sanghar
Poverty Gap
373
Badin
356
0.31
Overall
364
0.31
159
6.7
Inequality Measurement
6.7.1
Figure-6 shows Lorenz curve and Gini coefficient, for district Sanghar. To
compute the Gini coefficient, first the area of lower triangle and area under curve was
calculated. The shaded area was further divided by area of lower triangle. This gives that
0.37, the quotient is the Gini coefficient, a measure of inequality. In other words, the Gini
coefficient is the shaded area in Black. Lorenz curve shows the cumulative share percent
of income earned on the vertical axis against the cumulative share percent of people from
lower income. Quadratic model was developed to estimate the area under Lorenz curve
y = a x + b x + cx2, which is the requirement for computing Gini coefficient. If the gap
between the perfect distribution line and Lorenz curve is high, it implies that there is
inequality in the distribution of income. If the Lorenz curve goes down, this shows that
most of the people in the study area have low income, only few possessed most part of
the income.
Similarly, Saboor (2004) estimated income inequality in rural Sindh to be
0.386 in 1998-99 and 0.387 in 2001-02. This indicates that the impact of inequality in
increasing poverty is somewhat greater than the growth in average income in reducing
poverty. Sharif (2003), in his poverty analysis in Cholistan Punjab, concluded that land
distribution is highly unequal with a Gini coefficient of 0.68. The degree of inequality in
income distribution is lower than a Gini coefficient of 0.36. It was found that the
estimates are very close to Lin et al. (2008), who reported that rural inequality was still
higher than urban inequality with Gini coefficient of 0.349 and 0.341, respectively.
160
6.7.2
income. Quadratic model was developed to estimate area under Lorenz curve y = ax + bx
+cx2, which is the requirement for computing Gini coefficient.
More accurate results can be obtained by using other methods to
approximate the area B, such as the Lorenz curve is approximated with quadratic function
between intervals, or can build on the right approximation to the distribution function that
goes with the known data. If the population mean and boundary values are known, it can
be used to improve the accuracy of the approximation (Gini, 1921 and Xu, 2004).
The above findings presented in Figure-6 and 7 are in accordance with
Malik (1996), who have worked on the overall poverty trend in rural areas of Pakistan.
Survey results from villages show a highly skewed landholding pattern with a Gini
coefficient of 0.56% of the 100 household surveyed. It was found that only 10 of the 19
in the landless category were categorized as poor, although the intensity of the poor was
found to be particularly severe amongst the landless and most of the poor in this village
come from the landless category. These results are partially in line with the report of
Mahbubul Haq Centre for Human and Development, Islamabad, reported that the overall
trends in gini coefficient in Pakistan in 1979 was 0.37, while the Gini coefficient was
0.31 and 0.38 for rural and urban areas, respectively. The results of the present study are
also in agreement with Siddique (2000), who reported that the gini coefficient of
Bangladesh in 1996 was 0.38, for rural areas it was 0.364 and urban areas 0.381; urban
inequality increased from 0.381 to 0.45.
162
6.8
6.8.1
ez
Pr( y )
1 ez
Where
163
6.8.2
164
6.8.3
family members educated upto primary level, 58% were poor and 42% were non poor.
Similarly, those educated above primary level, 40% were poor and 60% were non poor.
The analysis concludes that family members who were owners of land had higher living
standard than those without land. Similarly, of family members upto 6 members, 73%
were living above the poverty line, while 28% remained in poverty. On the other hand,
those earning upto 25%, 64% of them remained in poverty, while 37% were living above
the poverty line. However, those earning above 25%, 59% of them live above the poverty
line; of the household members educated upto primary level 58% live below the poverty
line, while 42% live above the poverty line. Likewise, those educated above primary
level, 40% of them live below the poverty line and 60% have gone out of poverty.
The above findings are in concurrence with those of Saboor (2004), who
reported that the non-farm households in Sindh suffer more from poverty as compared to
farm households. The average income is important parameter in explaining the variation
in the incidence of poverty. All factors such as land ownership, literacy rate, family size
etc influence the poverty significantly. The above findings are in similarity to those of
Sharif (2003), who reported that in Cholistan province of the Punjab, 69.54 percent
household are extremely poor, and 75.77 percent in terms of population, bulk of the
extreme poor is found among the small farm owners and landless households. Similarly,
Zaman and Aman (2004) argued that education is the most important factors
distinguishing the poor from non poor in Pakistan, poverty declines as education of
household head increases. HIES household income expenditure survey data 1998-99
showed that 42% of the population living in households with illiterate heads are poor as
compared to 21% of households with literate household heads.
166
SE
Wald
Sig
Constant
0.461
0.557
0.686
0.407
Land Ownership
(No land =0 & Land Owner = 1)
1.613
0.462
12.203
0.000**
Household Size
(up to 6 members = 0 & Above 6 Members = 1)
-1.381 0.439
9.878
0.002**
Number of Earners
1.046
Up to 25% of HHs = 0 & Above 25% members = 1)
0.461
5.150
0.023*
0.379
4.522
0.033*
0.806
Poverty Status:
Poor = 0 Non poor = 1
Correctly Define
85%
Ns= Non Significant; * = Significant at 5%; **=Significant at 1%
6.8.4
167
Similar analysis were reported by Kemal (2003) for the HIES data (2001-02), who found
a higher incidence of poverty among non farm households in all zones except in Barani
Punjab in 1993-94 and 1998-99.
SE
Wald
Sig
Constant
1.059
.877
1.458
.227
Land Ownership
(No land =0 & Land Owner = 1)
2.763
1.341
4.242
.039*
Household Size
(up to 6 members = 0 & Above 6 Members = 1)
Number of Earners
Up to 25% of HHs = 0 & Above 25% members = 1)
Qualification of Household Head
(Up to Primary = 0 & Above Primary = 1)
-2.829
.455
38.628 .000**
2.126
.856
6.170
.013*
.963
.511
3.553
.050*
Poverty Status:
Non poor = 0 & Poor = 1
Correctly Define
= 84%
Ns= Non Significant; * = Significant at 5%; **=Significant at 1%
6.8.5
168
upto primary level, were poor, while 38% were non poor. Similarly 4% those of educated
above primary level were poor and 59% were non poor.
The analysis concluded that the respondents without land were living life
below the poverty line, while those who own land majority of them escaped the poverty
menace. Similarly, among the families upto 6 members, majority were living above
poverty line, while families above 6 members, majority were living life below the
poverty line. Those earning upto 25%, majority of them were poor, while those earning
above 25%, a small proportion of them were under the poverty line. On the qualification
of household head majority of the respondents educated upto primary level, remained
below the poverty line, while majority of those educated above primary level were living
life above poverty line in the study area. The above findings are in agreement with
Bastin and Nicola (2007), who reported that lack of full land ownership acts as a double
constraint on agriculture productivity and increase the number of household likely to
become poor instead of escaping the poverty menace.
These results are further in line with those of Ashraf et al. (1999), who
estimated the incidence and determinants of rural poverty in the Punjab with special
reference to non farm household category. Similar results have also been reported by
Javed and Khilji (2008), who reported that as education level of head of the family
increases, he will go out of poverty and the education of other family members increases.
Furthermore, Khan (2008) reported that poverty status is clearly related to land holdings.
This means that those who have access to land ownership will go out of poverty and
those who have no access to land are likely to remain in poverty. Amara and Sial (2009)
169
also reported that ownership of land reduces the risk to enter into poverty. These findings
are also in line with Quasem (2004), who reported that majority of the landless household
remains poor and their children has no access to education in comparison to landowners
in the study area. In a study, Emtage et al. (2007) reported that lack of access to land as
the major cause of poverty. Households that are below the poverty line cannot be
expected to devote time and resources to non profitable business.
170
6.9
6.9.1
171
o+1X1+ 2X2+3X3
Intercept
1 2 3
Slopes
X1
LO
Land Ownership
X2
HS
Household size
X3
NE
Number of earners
957.171+2510.967LO+61137HS+547.934NE
172
Table 44
(Constant)
Land Ownership
(No land =0 & Land
Owner = 1)
Household Size
(up to 6 members = 0 &
Above 6 Members = 1)
Number of Earners
Up to 25% of HHs = 0 &
Above 25% members = 1)
957.171
Std.
Error
230.818
Standardized
Coefficients
Sig.
4.147
.000
Beta
2510.967 343.895
.471
7.302
.000**
-611.372 159.655
-.261
-3.829
.000**
547.934
.184
2.711
.007**
202.116
R-square = 0.380
Dependent Variable: Per Capita Income
Ns= Non Significant; * = Significant at 5%; **=Significant at 1%
6.9.3
173
Assumption 1:
Remarks:
6.9.4
Regression Residuals
174
Assumption 2:
Remarks:
175
(Constant)
Land Ownership
(No land =0 & Land
Owner = 1)
Household Size
(up to 6 members = 0 &
Above 6 Members = 1)
Number of Earners
Up to 25% of HHs = 0 &
Above 25% members =
1)
Sig.
.000
.000**
Beta
6.353
.818
Std.
Error
.131
.194
.253
48.369
4.219
-.440
.090
-.308
-4.891
.000**
.779
.115
.425
6.760
.000**
R-square = 0.46
Dependent Variable: Per Capita Income
Ns= Non Significant; * = Significant at 5%; **=Significant at 1%
176
6.9.6
Fig.12.
177
6.9.7
Fig 13 shows the regression residual plot using transformed values. After
transformation it is normally distributed. The variance errors becomes the same.
Assumption 2:
Remarks:
178
Logistics regression model for both Sanghar and Badin revealed that
dependent variable (poverty status) is correlated with independent variables viz. land
ownership, household size, number of earners and qualification of household head.
Logistic regression is assumption free model while Multiple linear
regression has two assumptions to be tested for valid conclusions.
Logistic regression model defined 85% cases correctly about poverty
status (poor or non poor) while multiple linear regression reported R-square 0.46, which
revealed that about 46% variation in dependent variable (per capita income) were
accounted for by independent variables. (Shahbaz et al. 2009) utilizes data from 1991 to
2007 in his research study on economic growth and its determinants in Pakistan.
Logistics regression model has been constructed to find the required linkages. It provides
better results than simple or multiple linear regression models. Chaudhary et al. (2009)
also reported that logistic regression model was used in analyzing the determinants of
rural poverty. The results shows that household size, dependency ratio, the presence of
female household head and residence in a katcha house was positively and significantly
correlated with the probability of being poor. Variables that were negatively and
significantly correlated with the probability of being poor were educational attainment of
households head, literate household head whether the household head is a farmer or
labourer, age of household head, household visit to health centre and landlholdings.
179
6.10
6.11
Conclusions
This chapter present the results of house hold survey data analysis.
Various statistical models were used in the analysis of data. The comparative analysis of
the two districts shows, that Sanghar district is better up in almost all the indicators used
in this analysis, than Badin district. The major reason why Badin district remain
underdeveloped for a very long time was, the extreme natural disasters had adversely
affected the district. This has resulted in general disruption of livelihoods, increased
vulnerability, and in some cases led to out migration.
It is concluded that household size, number of earners and qualification of
households head has a significant effect on poverty.
180
CHAPTER-VII
Introduction
181
182
b. Badin District
7.2
to improve their knowledge, exactly the same proportion (29%) of the representatives
agreed that self employment leads to prosperity. About one fourth (24%) of the
respondents were in favour of activities about savings launched in their village (Table49). According to 12.9% of the respondents empowerment activities were not
satisfactory, and suggested further improvement.
Similarly, self reliant and development work were implemented with
success according to 11.3% and 9.7% respondents; regular meetings were held and
participation was satisfactory as perceived by 8.1% and 4.8% of the respondents,
respectively. Overall, social mobilization has proved to be the most important activity in
the area, while regular meeting was the least important activity considered by the
respondents in the study area. The above findings are in line with Rajivan (2005) who
reported that awareness building and empowerment are the most important tools in
poverty alleviation.
Table- 46
S.No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Source:
Particulars
Social Mobilization
Microcredit
Awareness
Trainings
Self Employment
Savings
Empowerment
Self Reliant
Development work
Regular Meetings
Participation
Number
38
35
27
18
18
15
8
7
6
5
3
184
Percent
61.3
56.5
43.5
29.0
29.0
24.2
12.9
11.3
9.7
8.1
4.8
7.2.2
185
Table-47
S.No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
Source:
7.2.3
Particulars
Progress of Empowerment Satisfactory
Funds are Needed to Implement Project
Team Building / Leading
Progress of Empowerment not Satisfactory
Technical Skills for Self Reliance
Effective Leadership
Number
31
23
10
8
7
1
Percent
50
37
16
13
11.2
1.6
186
Table-48
Perceptions
7.2.4
Number
Percent
41
16
66.1
25.8
12.9
187
Zaman and Aman (2004), reported that relatively poor communities have
inadequate access to public health services. It was further noted that 45% of children in
poor households aged 1-5 years have been fully immunized as against 58% in non-poor
households. Similarly, 83.9% children with recent problems of diarrhea belonging to poor
households are less likely to have had medical consultation compared to non poor
households (22.9%)
Table-49
S.No.
6
3
5
4
7
1
2
Source:
7.2.5
Particulars
Health facilities are in bad shape and need improvement
Status of Health Nutrition is good / improved due to
establishment of health centre
Establishing a dispensary on self help basis
After the formation of VDO nutrition and health improved
Health condition is fair and nutrition is simple
Awareness Seminars / Training conducted on Health and
Nutrition
Minor cases are treated here and major cases send to
Shahdadpur
Number Percent
33
53.2
13
21
8
5
5
3
13
8.0
8.0
4.8
3.2
188
changed the lives of 3.2% borrowers and now they are self reliant, this means that the
major goal of credit agencies has been achieved. According to 16% of the respondents
engaged in farming, seed is available to them now due to availability of the loan facility,
this will lead to self sufficiency in agriculture in the study area. Overall, the loaning
facility has improved the living standards of the people in the study area.
Table-50
S.No.
1
Particulars
Income increased and living standard improved due
to the loan
The loan was very small and its impact was very
little
The loan improved our income partially
3.2
16
Source:
7.2.6
Number
62
Percent
100
4.8
4.8
189
Air and water pollution have been a serious environmental threat in the
study area for a very long time as perceived by 9.7% of the respondents. Only 3.2% of
the respondents are working with the district government to address deforestation
problem that is harmful to their environment, while the overall tree planting campaigns
were organized by the majority so as to improve the environmental conditions in the
study area.
Table- 51
S.No. Particulars
Number
Percent
40
64.5
21
33.9
17
27.4
9.7
3.2
Source:
7.2.7
The local NGOs like VDOs has an effective role to motivate the people of
the locality for a particular purpose. Information collected regarding the role of VDOs in
establishing income generating business is summarized in Table-55 and the data showed
that 64.5% of the respondents were found to have established some income generating
business for the youth, while 53.2% had no concern with such activities. Likewise, 9.6%
of the respondents helped the poor of the area to establish embroidery and knitting
business, while 8.0% supported some women to start tailoring and embroidery business
so as to raise their income and improve their socio-economic condition; and 4.8%
190
respondents claimed to have money for financing future projects to improve welfare in
the area.
Sindh Agriculture and Forestry Workers Coordinating Organization
(SAFWCO), a local NGO is training youth graduates and junior professionals for self
reliance; some enterprise development packages were included in the training as
perceived by 3.2% respondents. These trainings are important for their professional
development as they will learn various technical, professional, administrative,
interpersonal skills that will help them perform their duties excellently well for
achievement of organizational goals and objectives. Overall income generating business
established by majority of the VDOs has helped people to become self reliant.
Table-52
S.No.
1
2
4
3
5
6
Source:
7.2.8
Particulars
Number Percent
Establish some income generating jobs for youth
40
64.5
No effort is made
33
53.2
Established embroidery and knitting business for the poor
6
9.6
Support some women to sart rally and embroidery business
5
8.0
Money is available for future projects.
3
4.8
Safwco is training junior professionals for self reliance
2
3.2
enterprise dev packages were included in the training.
Survey Results 2007.
191
for their livelihood. Similarly, 11.3% of the respondents argued that government should
provide irrigation water so as to alleviate poverty in the area and address all outstanding
issues concerning water problems. Moreover, 9.7% of the respondents perceived that
vocational training centers should be established so as to train young and middle age
people for various skills to become self reliant citizens. Likewise, 8.1% of the
respondents were of the view that small projects/small factories should be established in
the area to address unemployment issues, while provision of income generating business
was suggested by 4.8% respondents.
Road and transport facilities are essentially needed so that the farmers and
businessmen can transport their goods from their village to cities with easy access. It was
observed that 3.2% of the respondents suggested quality education at low cost and social
mobilization/technical advice should be provided so as to have an egalitarian and
enlightened society. Overall, majority of the respondents perceived that provision of
agricultural loans with low interest rate will help to increase agricultural production in the
study area.
Table-53
S.No. Demands
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Source:
192
Number
Percent
37
7
6
5
3
2
2
2
59.7
11.3
9.7
8.1
4.8
3.2
3.2
3.2
7.2.9
193
Table-54
S.No.
1
2
4
5
3
Source:
Particulars
Govt. poverty programme is good in principle
It has less impaction the poor or not reaching the
poor
They dont know about it/not implemented/not better
for us
It is not a good policy as we are not benefiting from
it
No response
Number
33
18
Percent
53.2
29
17
27.4
9.6
4.8
projects were implemented in the community, solutions to various problems would have
been achieved with success.
Table-55
S.No. Particulars
NumberPercent
1
Sustainable projects at community level
17
27.4
2
Skill/need based training should be given to the poor for self
13
21.0
reliance
3
Funds should be provided to the community through VDOs
11
17.7
4
Establish vocational training centres for male and female youth
7
11.3
5
6
7
8
Source:
6
5
3
2
9.7
8.1
4.8
3.2
Survey results in Table-56 showed that the VDOs are rendering important
services. The results revealed that 58% of the respondents agreed that they disbursed
micro credit to the community, while 48.35 and 25.8% delivered health facilities and
conducted awareness seminars, respectively. Similarly, 16.1% of the respondents
launched awareness and social mobilization programmes to increase the perception of the
poor about programmes implemented in their area. Likewise, income generating business
and vocational training centers were established as reported by 9.6% and 8.0%
respondents, respectively. According to 4.8% respondents, agricultural inputs, livestock
and hand craft facilities were provided to them at their doorstep. Equally on the same
proportion, 4.8% of the respondents agreed that drinking water supply was provided in
195
196
Table-56
Important Services
Encountered.
Particulars
Implemented
by
VDOs
S.
No.
IMPORTANT SERVICES IMPLEMENTED
1
Micro credit
2
Health facilities
3
Awareness seminars
4
Social mobilization
5
Income generating jobs
6
Establish vocational centre and provide training to youth
7
Agriculture inputs livestock and hand craft facilities provided
8
Drinking water supply was provided
9
Empowerment
10
Provide support during emergencies
11
No response
12
Financial aid was provided
13
Community conflict
MAIN PROBLEMS EXPERIENCED
14
Lack of cooperation form land Dept
15
Lack of coordination from officials
16
Lack of interest by people to address their problems
17
Shortage of irrigation water
Source:
and
Problems
N
36
30
16
10
6
5
3
3
2
2
2
1
1
58
48.3
25.8
16.1
9.6
8.0
4.8
4.8
3.2
3.2
3.2
1.6
1.6
2
2
2
2
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
respondents, reported that few houses have no access to quality water and sweet water
was available only to 4.8% respondents. Likewise, 4.8% respondents opinioned that they
have established water supply scheme to the village on self help basis, while 3.2%
claimed lack of access to quality water. Furthermore, it was noted that 3.2% respondents
adviced people to boil water before use, because in general, water in this area is polluted
and unhygienic. Installation of hand pumps by SAFWCO has tremendously increased
access of good quality water for the community.
Table-57
Increase in Access to Good Quality Water.
S.No. Particulars
1
Provide hand pumps with help of sawfco
2
Working with safwco and PPAF to provide access to
sweet water.
3
Some NGOs build a water tank that supplied quality
water
4
Only few houses dont have access to quality water.
5
Sweet water is available everyone access to it
6
Able to provide drinking water supply scheme to the
village
7
Some people dont have access to quality water
8
Advice people to boil water because water here is not
good
9
No response
Source:
Number
28
15
Percent
45
24.1
10
16.1
10
3
3
16.1
4.8
4.8
2
2
3.2
3.2
3.2
7.2.13 The Role of VDOs in Constructing a Building for the Community in District
Sanghar
198
aspect of the building such as ensuring that the project is executed according to layout
plan, monitoring the project has been completed successfully, satisfying all the
requirements. Technical advice proved to be the best that helped in constructing a
building in the area.
Table-58
S.No.
1
3
2
Source:
Particulars
Gave Technical Advice
Gave financial support
Assist in construction management
Number Percent
62
100
32
51.6
17
27.4
The data in Table-59 showed that all the respondents (100%) agreed that
the leadership style adopted by their VDOs was participatory, and 17.7% reported that
democratic leadership style was adopted by their VDO; NGOs using participatory
leadership style should ensure that maximum participation of the people at all levels in
planning, implementation and evaluation of projects are strictly adhered to. There was no
response from 3.2% of the respondent regarding participatory and democratic leadership
styles; participatory leadership proved to be the best style adopted by the VDOs in district
Sanghar.
199
Table-59
S.No.
1
2
3
Source:
Particulars
Leadership style is participatory
Leadership style is democratic
No response
Number Percent
62
100
11
17.7
2
3.2
200
Table-60
S.No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Source:
Particulars
Rs.140,000 was disbursed to 22 female clients
Rs.140,000 was disbursed to 22 clients
Rs.375,000 was disbursed to the community
Rs.200,000 was disbursed
Rs.536,000 was disbursed to 73 clients
Rs.90,000 was disbursed to 12 clients
Rs.351,000 was disbursed to 40 clients
Rs.175,000 was disbursed to 24 clients male and
female
No credit was disbursed
Rs.210,000 disbursed to 110 clients
1st loan disbursed Rs.8,000
2nd loan disbursed Rs.10,000
SAFWCO disbursed Rs.300 million to 40,000 clients
Number
10
8
7
7
7
7
7
6
Percent
16.1
13
11.2
11.2
11.2
11.2
11.2
9.6
6
6
1
9.6
9.6
1.6
1.6
201
respondents. These figures may be increased in view of regular demand for credit and the
current inflationary trends in the country. Overall, majority of the respondents perceived
that micro credit was properly utilized by the beneficiaries for establishing sustainable
business in the area of study.
Table-61
S.No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
Particulars
Number Percent
Proper utilization of the loan
41
66
Conditions are that agric loan be recovered in 6 month and
16
25.8
small business loan one year
Loans were not utilized properly
8
13
Microcredit was disbursed for establishing small shops and
7
11.2
for livestock
Recovery loan should be on installment basis
2
3.2
SAFWCO loan ceiling is between Rs.5000-30,000
1
1.6
Source:
202
The results further show that 17.7% respondents had their goals and
objective of poverty alleviation in the area, while 9.6% believe that to establish
vocational training centre for income generating business has always been the goal they
wanted to achieve. Likewise, 4.8% of the respondents thought that empowerment of the
poor is the aim of their VDO. Similarly, 3.2% respondents agreed that their goal was to
establish capacity building for their VDO to become sustainable and strong enough.
Provision of micro credit facilities to the poor in emergencies and welfare at the time of
floods and cyclone was the goal of their VDOs as reported by 3.2% each of the
respondents, respectively. However, according to only 1.6% of the respondents the
advocacy and mobilization was the goal of their VDO; this shows that awareness
campaign has been the most important goal for most of the VDOs in the study areas.
Table-62
S.No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Source:
Particulars
Number Percent
Awareness campaign
30
48.3
Community participation
26
42
Development of village helping people to help themselves
26
42
Access to Education and Health
20
32.2
Poverty alleviation
11
17.7
To establish vocational training centre for income
6
9.6
generating jobs
Empowerment
3
4.8
Capacity building of VDO to become sustainable
2
3.2
Provision of micro credit facilities to the poor
2
3.2
Emergencies and welfare in time of flood etc
2
3.2
Advocacy and mobilization
1
1.6
Survey Results 2007.
203
7.2.18 Specific Areas VDOs are Working to Alleviate Poverty in District Sanghar
The study results regarding specific areas VDOs are working to alleviate
poverty is shown in Table-63, which revealed that majority (80.6%) of the respondents
indicated that their VDO is working in areas of social development and community
infrastructure, while 66% of the respondents were working in areas related to issues of
young generation. Likewise, 64.5% respondents reported that they are working on areas
of health and awareness; 51.6% showed that they are working to provide micro credit and
finance to the poor to help them establish their own business for self reliance. On the
status of on going projects in the area, 69.3% respondents perceived positive for on-going
projects relating to poverty alleviation, while 35.4% respondents indicated that there was
no such on-going project at the moment in the study area. Overall, the majority of the
VDOs are working in social development and community infrastructure; this has proved
to be the most important area for most of the VDOs.
The above findings coincide with VDO Assessment Report District
Sanghar (2007) which indicates that 56% of the local organizations have coordinated
with SAFWCO in different programmes and the highest is micro credit and finance
programme in which nearly 96% of them have been involved.
204
Table-63
S.No.
1
2
3
4
Source:
7.3
Particulars
AREAS
Social development and community infrastructure
Education
Health and Awareness
Micro credit and finance
STATUS OF PROJECT
Ongoing project
No on going project
Number Percent
50
41
40
32
80.6
66
64.5
51.6
43
22
69.3
35.4
205
The above findings are in agreement with those of Jalaluddin (2003), who reported that
social mobilization promotes democratic activities and help the local authorities to
alleviate poverty and improve the livelihoods of the rural farmers in particular. Similarly,
these findings coincide with Parthasarathy (2005), who reported that their NGO has
generally adopted social mobilization to increase the perception of their members on
various programme for poverty alleviation.
Table-64
S.No.
1
3
9
2
4
5
7
8
6
Source:
7.3.2
Particulars
Awareness
Social Mobilization
No Response
Savings
Empowerment
Microcredit
Training
Regular Meetings
Self Reliant
Number
36
20
15
2
2
2
2
1
1
Percent
58
32.2
24.1
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.2
1.6
1.6
206
society in peace and tranquility. The above findings are partially supported by Little et al.
(2008), who reported that progress towards pastoralist empowerment is satisfactory and
pastoralist should become more politically empowered. Furthermore, Amjad (2005)
reported that government of Pakistan has taken many bold steps to empower women and
the result was satisfactory. It also ensured that the policies on improving the status of
women are carried out. Sankar (2005) concluded that empowerment and participation
was done with success as women at the collective level began to participate in
community activities, this helped in poverty alleviation.
Table-65
S.No.
1
2
3
4
5
Source:
7.3.3
Particulars
Progress of empowerment satisfactory
Progress of empowerment not satisfactory
Lack of cooperation
Team building / leading
Technical skills for self reliance
Number Percent
40
64.5
23
37
5
8
2
3.2
2
3.2
respondents. Similarly, 3.2% think that they had no credit from banks and NGOs should
give them credit facilities to become self reliant. Overall, majority of the respondents
agreed that credit becomes successful when it is utilized properly and paid back by the
beneficiaries, followed by the opinion that credit should be given to only those, who
deserve to avoid waste of resources.
Table-66
S.No. Particulars
1
2
3
4
5
6
Source:
7.3.4
Number Percent
40
64.5
13
2
10
2
11
21
3.2
16.1
3.2
18
The data pertaining to status of health and nutrition are reported in Table67 which display the summarized information on the status of health and nutrition of the
people in the study area. Survey results revealed that majority (69.3%) of the respondents
reported very poor status of health in their area; likewise 19.3% reported that status of
health was satisfactory. Similarly, 9.6% of the respondents agreed that immunization and
polio vaccination activities were implemented with success. There was lack of
cooperation from the poor and no effort to address health care problems as reported by
8% respondents. Similarly, 4.8% of the respondent organized seminars on Hiv/Aids
208
Table- 67
S.No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Source:
Particulars
Status of health is very poor in our area
Status of health is satisfactory
Immunization and polio activities were
implemented with success
Lack of cooperation from the poor and no effort to
address health care problems in the area
Organize seminars on HIV / Aids prevention
No response
60 schools start health and nutrition programme
through our NGO
No funds to start work on health and nutrition
Survey Results 2008
209
Number
43
12
6
Percent
69.3
19.3
9.6
3
3
2
4.8
4.8
3.2
3.2
7.3.5
210
Table-68
S.No.
2
3
8
6
1
7
4
5
Source:
7.3.6
Particulars
Number
Income remain stagnant because we have no credit
26
facilities
Only 30% of people living standard improve about
15
70% still live below the poverty line
No response
15
Living standard will improve only if people get credit
12
Income increase through agriculture and livestock
11
farming
Need vocational training and credit to become self
5
reliant
Floods and cyclone destroyed our land that was why
3
we remain poor
If water is available income will increase shortage of
3
water is our major problem
Percent
42
24.1
24.1
19.3
18
8
4.8
4.8
The opinions regarding the role of VDOs in saving the environment from
degradation are shown in Table-69 and the results revealed that 40.3% of the respondents
advice people to conduct general cleaning of houses, streets and drainages on regular
basis, while about 29% are working to address deforestation and air pollution problems.
Similarly, 24.1% respondents informed that tree planting campaigns were organized on
environmental day. Badin LDA law Development Association has introduced new
smokeless store to reduce pollution problems in the area as reported by 18% respondents.
Similarly, 13% respondents believe that their VDOs gave regular awareness to the people
211
S.No. Particulars
1
Advice people to do general cleaning of houses,
streets and drainage on regular basis
3
Working to address deforestation and air
pollution problems
2
Plant trees and observe weekly environmental
day
5
Law development association (LDA) Badin has
introduce new smokeless stove to reduce
pollution problems
7
VDO gave regular awareness on environmental
degradation
8
No response
4
Badin based NGO is working on environmental
health programme in our village
6
Working in collaboration with UNDP to address
environmental issues
Source:
212
Number
25
Percent
40.3
18
29
15
24.1
11
18
13
7
2
11.2
3.2
3.2
7.3.7
213
7.3.8
214
poverty among the poor in the study area. The above findings are in concurrence with
those of Badini (2006), who suggested that government may consider jobs skill training
center in partnership with NGOs for human resource development, while conducting a
similar study in Quetta district of Balochistan.
Table-71
S.No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Source:
7.3.9
Number
Percent
35
8
7
6
56.4
13
11.2
9.6
3.2
3.2
1
1
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
215
13. Rozgar Schemes: is a micro credit scheme giving to the poor for self reliance.
216
Table-72
S.No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Source:
Rural Community
Strategies.
Opinion
About
Govt
Particulars
Good strategy but government should make it work
properly.
Community is not benefiting from poverty programmes
of the government.
Strongly support government poverty alleviation
strategies.
This strategy has never worked for the poor.
Government is not working in any poverty reduction in
our area.
Not aware of government poverty programmes.
Communities should be involved in formulating poverty
alleviation programmes and strategies.
In principle government poverty programmes are good
but mostly they fail due to poor implementation.
Rozgar scheme is a good initiative aimed at poverty
alleviation.
NCHD is a good initiative we hope it will continue.
This strategy cannot succeed unless it aims at changing
the lives of the poor and vulnerable.
Government should give us credit to purchase inputs,
seeds and livestock for self reliance.
Poverty
Alleviation
Number
38
Percent
61.2
17
27.4
10
16.1
3
3
4.8
4.8
2
1
3.2
1.6
1.6
1.6
1
1
1.6
1.6
1.6
217
on the same proportion, 9.6% perceived that VDOs should focus on awareness campaign,
and 3.2% favoured the VDOs on supply of agricultural inputs and seeds to farmers.
Likewise 3.2% respondents reported that VDO should give sewing machines to the poor
women to make them self reliant, while 1.6% respondents believe that NGOs/VDOs
should liaise with government to establish skill acquisition centre for women. According
to respondents opinion, 1.6% were of the view that NGOs/VDOs should work to
increase access to water for their communities; while NGOs/VDOs should create
community savings being very important for poverty alleviation as demanded by 1.6%
respondents. Similarly, 1.6% respondents advised that VDOs should develop the
institutional sector in collaboration with bigger NGOs, and 1.6% were of the opinion that
VDOs/NGOs should develop the capacity of individuals and provide basic infrastructure
for the poor. Majority of the respondents favoured provision of microcredit to the poor,
mobilization and empowerment of the poor and establishment of livestock rearing
programme, coupled with provision of credit to sustain it as the major solution to
lingering poverty problems in the area.
218
Table-73
S.No.
1
3
7
8
2
5
4
12
6
9
10
11
13
Source:
Particulars
Number Percent
Provide microfinance to the poor
25
40.3
NGOs/VDO should mobilize and empower the poor
11
18
VDOs should establish livestock rearing programme and
11
18
give credit to the poor to sustain it
NGOs / VDOs should create income generating jobs for
8
13
the poor
NGO / VDOs should work in areas of education and health
6
9.6
Give awareness to the poor
6
9.6
NGOs / VDOs supply agriculture inputs and seeds to
2
3.2
farmers
VDOs should give sewing machines to poor women to
2
3.2
become self reliant
NGOs / VDOs should liase with the govt. to establish skill
1
1.6
acquisition centre for women
NGOs/VDOs should work to increase access to water for
1
1.6
their communites
NGOs/VDOs should create community savings this is very
1
1.6
important for poverty alleviation
VDOs should developed the institutional sector in
1
1.6
collaboration with bigger NGOs
VDOs/NGOs should develop the capacity of individual and
1
1.6
provide basic infrastructure for the poor
Survey Results 2008.
Implemented
by
NGOs/
VDOs
and
Problems
219
respondents gave social mobilization to the poor, while 4.8% perceived that they
established saving programme and increased membership fees. Through self efforts they
also constructed a mosque as reported by 3.25% respondents and only 1.65% respondents
believed that they addressed various problems such as provision of inputs to farmers and
credit facilities to women for income generating business. However, 1.6% VDO
representatives believed that they are working on reproductive health, human rights and
environmental issues of the study area. Similarly, 1.6% respondents admitted that they
did little for the community; but at the same time they are looking for ways to address
lingering poverty issues in the area. Equally on the same proportion, 1.6% respondents
reported that they achieved gender equity in the area, while the overall majority of the
respondents believed that their greatest achievement was installation of water pumps,
made efforts to empower the poor and created awareness to establish income generating
business.
Table-74
S.No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Source:
220
Table-75
S.No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Particulars
Establish some tube wells on self help basis
Ten hand pumps were installed with the help of BRDS
Plan to build a water tank in addition to water pumps
Underground water is salty we are working to provide
sweet water to the poor
Badin based NGOs are working to increase access to water
to the poor
Made small savings and purchase few water pumps
VDO provide advisory role on how to address water
problems
221
Number Percent
21
34
17
27.4
15
24.1
11
18
4.8
2
2
3.2
3.2
7.3.13 The Role of NGOs / VDOs in Constructing a Building for the Community in
District Badin
Table-76
S.No.
1
2
3
4
Source:
Particulars
Gave technical advice
Assisted in construction management
Gave financial support
No response
Number
51
30
3
1
Percent
82.2
48.3
4.8
1.6
the respondents followed the democratic style of leadership and within the VDOs,
decisions are made by consensus on the basis of shared opinion, especially in the
preparation of annual development plans.
Table-77
S.No.
1
2
3
Source:
Particulars
Leadership style through democratic style
Leadership style by participation
No response
Number
52
25
-
Percent
84
40.3
0
223
was not sufficient, they need to increase the loans and give it a wider coverage ensuring
that those who deserve actually get the loans.
Table-78
S.No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Source:
No credit facilities
No any NGO / Bank is working in our area on
microfinance
25 women got livestock credit from BRDS this
increase their income
Credit from private money lenders with high interest
rate was given to us
The poor has no credit to become self reliant
15 male and 5 female members benefited from credit
Contacted microfinance banks to give us credit
VDO gave 20 members credit Rs.5000 each but it is
not sufficient
NGOs gave us credit ranging from Rs.8000 to
Rs.12,000
No response
Number
30
10
Percent
48.3
16.1
13
11.2
5
5
3
2
8
8
4.8
3.2
1.6
20
32.2
224
back and credit should be given on merit only to those beneficiaries who deserve it, this
will help credit agencies recover their loans from reliable beneficiaries. The above
findings are in agreement with Baye (2002), who reported people in areas are in poverty
because of lack of credit facilities, education and institutional arrangement that influence
rural activities and asset accumulation.
Table-79
S.No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
Source:
Particulars
The condition is that the credit has to be utilized
properly and paid back
Microcredit should be given to those who deserve it
Select and identify competent groups
Conditions are determined when the credit is
disbursed
No credit banks and NGOs should give us credit
No response
Number
40
Percent
64.5
13
10
2
21
16.1
3.2
2
11
3.2
18
225
infrastructure. Equally on the same proportion, 3.2% believe that they are working to
establish a vocational training centre for training both male and female on various skills
that will help them become self reliant. Only 3.2% reported that they are working in areas
of peace and human rights for their respective communities, but majority of the
respondents reported that they are working to improve the standard of education and
health, while others mobilize the people to help themselves and the third most important
was the awareness campaign. These four goals proved to be the most important factors
for the development of any society on a long term basis.
Table-80
S.No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Source:
Particulars
Working in areas of education and health
Development of community, helping people to help them
selves
Awareness campaign
Social mobilization
Working in areas of empowerment and community
participation
Provision of microfinance and credit facilities
Creating income generating jobs and building community
infrastructure
Working to establish a vocational training centre for both
male and female
Working in areas of peace and human right
Number Percent
33
53
20
32.2
20
18
16
32.2
29
26
15
2
24.1
3.2
3.2
3.2
7.3.18 Specific Areas NGOs / VDOs are Working to Alleviate Poverty in District
Badin
The survey results in Table-81 revealed that 68% of the respondents are
working in areas of microcredit and finance for the poor in study area, while 64.5%
reported that they are working in areas of social development and development of
226
S.No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Source:
7.4
Particulars
Microcredit and finance
Social development and community infrastructure
Education
Empowerment and social mobilization
STATUS OF PROJECT
Ongoing project
No ongoing project
Number Percent
42
68
40
64.5
2
1.6
2
1.6
27
62
43.5
100
Conclusions
227
228
CHAPTER-VIII
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
8.1
Summary
229
poverty head count index, poverty gap and sen index formulas were used. For analyzing
the determinants and identifying the corelates of poverty logistic regression and multiple
linear regression models were used.
In all, fourteen hypothesis were grouped into three. They were tested using
logistic regression model and null or alternate hypothesis were accepted or rejected on
the basis of significant levels of coefficients. The first hypothesis that poverty depend
upon respondents or household characteristics that is educational level. The second
hypothesis was that poverty depends upon agro-economic indicators that is land
ownership. The third hypothesis was that poverty depend upon household characteristics
that is household earners to that of proportion of earners total household size. All the
three hypotheses were tested and results showed that they were positively correlated with
poverty, thus null hypotheses were rejected and alternatives hypothesis were accepted. In
assessing the activities of village development organizations in the study areas. Data was
collected from 10 village development organizations in each district. Statistical packages
for social sciences SPSS version 16 was used to analyse the data. Secondary information
collected from various NGOs and VDOs helped us to critically assess the performance
of these NGOs and VDOs. Estimates obtained from the study were interpreted and
attempts were made to justify the findings of the present study with that of earlier studies.
8.2 Conclusions
230
1. Data revealed that the average age of household head in Sanghar district was 40
1.01 years, while in Badin district the average age was 44 1.17. This implies that
majority of the household heads are middle age people.
2. Data shows that majority i.e. 40% of the respondents in Sanghar district were
educated upto primary level and 30.6% were illiterate. In case of Badin district 28%
of the households heads were educated upto primary level.
3. Survey data confirms that respondents in Sanghar were more skill full than those
living in Badin district. This situation is closely associated with poor literacy rate in
Badin district.
4. Results revealed that the average household size in Sanghar district was 9.12 0.37
members while in Badin district it was 7.62 0.28 members.
5. Sanghar district has the highest number of respondents 88.1% compared to Badin
29.6% that agreed electricity was available in their respective villages. Similarly
Badin district has the highest number of respondents than Sanghar who reported that
there was no electricity in their villages.
231
6. In Sanghar district 5.20 percent of the respondents agreed that gas was available,
while 94.80 percent agreed that gas was not available in their village. In Badin district
only 0.60 percent of the respondents had gas facility. While 99.4 percent had no gas
facility for cooking. This shows that majority of the people do not have gas facility in
Sanghar as compared to Badin.
7. Data confirms that in Sanghar majority of the respondents (38.90%) live in Pacca
houses, while the lowest (4.50%) live in Jhopra houses. About 24.20 percent and 32.5
percent live in semi pacca and Katcha houses respectively. In Badin district the
highest number of respondents 69.40% live in Katcha houses, 10.00 and 13.10
percent live in pacca and Jhopra houses respectively. This shows that sample
respondents in Sanghar district enjoy better housing facilities than those in Badin.
8. In Sanghar, 84.38 percent of the respondents obtained loans from various sources to
manage livelihood, while 15.63% had no credit facilities. Similarly in Badin 45.63%
percent of the respondents obtain loans from various sources, while 54.38 percent
respondents did not obtained credit facilities. This indicated that more people in
Sanghar (84.38%) had access to credit facilities as compared to Badin (45.63%).
9. Data revealed that in Sanghar district 96.30% of the respondents paid their loans
regularly, while 3.70 percent did not pay by installment regularly. While in Badin
district 97.26 percent respondents paid the installment regularly, while 2.74 percent
did not pay. This shows that majority of the respondents both in Sanghar and Badin
paid their loans regularly only a small fraction of respondents could not pay regularly.
10. Survey results in Sanghar district revealed that 31 percent of the respondents agreed
that human dispensary was available. About 69.1 percent reported that there was no
232
human dispensary in their village. Similarly in Badin district only 7.6 percent agreed
that dispensary was available, while majority 92.40 percent perceived that they had
no dispensary facility.
11. In Sanghar district 14.1 percent of the respondents agreed that veterinary centre was
available whereas the majority 86 percent of the responded negatively. Similarly in
Badin district 1.3 percent of the respondents reported the existence of veterinary
centre while 98.7 percent of the respondents reported no existence of veterinary
centre in their village. This shows that people need veterinary hospitals/ centers so as
to improve the health and nutritional status of their animals.
12. Results in Sanghar district show that the average household income was Rs. 9926
639 while the income per person was Rs. 1231 similarly in Badin district the
household income was Rs. 7463 494 with average per person income of Rs. 1194.
This shows that the people in Sanghar have high household and individual income as
compared to Badin district.
13. Data confirms that in Sanghar district 52 percent of the respondents come under the
category of poor, while 48.1% were not poor. Similarly in Badin district head count
index was 56.2 percent while 43.8 percent were not poor. This shows that Sanghar
district has the highest number of people living above the poverty line as compared to
Badin which has the highest number of people living below the poverty line or ultra
poverty.
14. Survey results showed that in Sanghar district the average poverty gap was Rs. 373
while in Badin it was reported as Rs. 356. This shows the amount of income required
to remove the poor out of poverty is much higher in Sanghar than in Badin district.
233
The sen index for two district was 0.31. Sen index show that the intensity or severity
of poverty in the two district remain the same.
15. Lorenz curve and gini coefficient for Sanghar and Badin districts were computed to
be 0.37 and 0.38 respectively.
16. Logistic regression model was applied to primary data from Sanghar district.
Dependent variable was poverty status and independent variables were land
ownership, household size, number of earners and qualification of household. The
empirical results shows that land ownership and household size were significant at P
> 0.01. Similarly number of earners and qualification of household heads were
significant at P < 0.05. This indicates that the number of earners and qualification of
household head has higher significance level than the land ownership and household
size.
17. Logistics regression model was applied to primary data for Badin. Dependent variable
was poverty status, while independent variable were land ownership, household size,
number of earners and qualification of household head. Empirical results shows that
land ownership, number of earners and qualification of household head were
significant at P< 0.05.on the other hand only number of earners were significant at P<
0.01.This indicates that land ownership,number of earners and qualification of
household heads, has a better significance level than the number of earners.
18. Multiple linear regression model was applied to primary data for Badin only to show
the superiority of logistic regression model over multiple linear regression model. The
dependent variable was per capita income, while independent variable was land
ownership household size and number of earners. Empirical results shows that land
234
ownership is significant at P < 0.01. Similarly household size and number of earners
were also significant at P < 0.01 each respectively. The analyses revealed that the
qualification of household head was excluded because the probability is more than
5% of the P value. This shows satisfactory results and provide better basis for policy
formulation and suggested future in-depth research in the study area.
19. Logistics regression is assumption free model while multiple linear regression has
two assumptions to be tested for valid conclusion. Logistic regression model defined
85% cases correctly about poverty status (poor or not poor) while multiple linear
regression reported R2 0.46, which revealed that about 46% variation in dependent
variable (per capita income) were accounted for by independent variables. As stated
in the results and discussion many studies have proved the superiority of logistic
regression over multiple linear regression model in terms of predicting who are poor
and not poor.
20. It was further observed that our coefficient of determination (R2) value was high
because most of the regression coefficient showed significant results.
21. It is concluded that land ownership, household size, number of earners and
qualification of household head has significant effect on poverty. On the basis of the
above null hypothesis is rejected and alternate hypotheses are accepted.
b. Conclusions Based on Analysis from Village Development Organizations
235
empowerment was satisfactory, while 13% respondents did not agree. It was noted that
66% of the respondents had positive perception on proper utilization of mcirocredit loans.
Due to these loans a substantial increase in household income was reported. About 53.2%
of the respondents were of the view that health facilities were in bad shape in their village
while 21% perceived that status of health and nutrition has improved. According to data
regarding improvement of living standard after the loan all the sample respondents 100%
agreed that their income increased and living standard improved due to the loan. Only
4.8% of the respondents believed that the loan had little impact on their living standards
due to small amount disbursed. Survey data further revealed that 64.5% of the
respondents were found to establish some income generating business for the youth,
while 53.2% had no concern with such activities. Similarly 45% of the respondents
perceived that hand pumps provided with the help of Sindh Agricultural and Forestry
Workers Coordinating Organization (SAFWCO), a local NGO had helped alleviate their
water problems. According to 24.1% respondents, they were working with Pakistan
Poverty Alleviation Fund (PPAF) to provide easy access to sweet water for the
community.
Survey results in Badin district indicated that 20 out of 62 representatives
of VDOs were of the opinion that awareness programmes were organised to increase the
perception of the people on various programmes. About 32.2% of the respondents
showed that social mobilization activities were adopted by the VDOs.
According to data regarding empowerment and participation in the
community 64.5% of the respondents perceived that the progress of empowerment was
satisfactory, while 8% respondents believed that there was lack of cooperation in
236
Recommendations
237
1. Supply of quality agricultural inputs at reasonable rates may be ensured and rates of
agricultural produce may be equated to inflation.
2. Micro credit facilities should be provided to the poor house holds.
3. Public spending on basic social and economic services should be increased.
4. Poor communities may be encouraged to participate in planning and development
dialogues.
5. Local entrepreneurs and business men should launch a massive effort for job creation
and employment generation in both Sanghar and Badin this will reduce high level of
poverty.
6. Delivery of essential services and basic necessities of life would reduce the burden of
poverty in both Sanghar and Badin.
7. It is recommended the government should introduce new housing schemes through
public private partnership so as to support those in ultra poverty.
8. Head count ratio shows that the number of poor are more than non poor. One of the
measures to alleviate this extreme poverty, would be establish vocational skill
training centers in both districts through the public private partnership, so as to train
youth and women for self reliance.
9. Rural leadership and community organization developed programmes may be
launched by major NGOs and public sector organization.
10. It is recommended that VDOs should encourage the formation of service cooperatives
at village level by channeling short and medium term credit through this agency. This
will reduce reliance on money lenders.
238
11. Majority of the respondents in Badin revealed that for the last 3 years NGOs are not
working for poverty alleviation in their villages. It is recommended that government
should start implementing new poverty alleviation pogrammes to support the poor.
12. Majority of the respondents in the study area lauded the policies of the previous
government such as Rozgar Scheme and NCHD National Centre For Human
Development. In view of the above it is recommended that the new government
should continue with the above programmes to alleviate poverty.
13. The rice growers of Badin district are of the opinion that local government should be
involved towards improvement of market facilities in their area.
14. There is a need to encourage active participation of rural women in income
generating jobs through a very strong social mobilization.
15. There is a need to increase the volume of zakat and other social safety nets and
improve targeting of beneficiary and efficiency in distribution. This will surely
contribute to poverty alleviation particularly in Badin district.
16. There is a need to improve health and nutrition, preventive hygiene provision of safe
drinking water to support the rural poor.
17. Microcredit institutions working to help the rural poor in Sindh should examine
operational procedures of partner organization through whom the credit is disbursed
for better targeting the poor.
18. Network of institutional credit may be widened in rural areas.
239
240
12. A Pragmatic interventions by NGOs and other government aid agencies would reduce
reliance on child labour.
13. Government should restrict children from performing hazardous jobs such as hawking
and should protect the right of a child in the study areas.
14. Micro Finance Banks should introduce micro saving and micro insurance schemes
through creativity and innovation so as to provide better services to poor borrowers in
Sanghar and Badin.
15. Rural women NGOs already working in Sanghar and Badin be strengthened, they
should include in their charters training of women for income generating jobs.
16. There is need to investigate the socio-cultural and economic reasons of low female
participation in agricultural activities in the study area.
17. VDOs and NGOs should develop working relationship between different agencies for
smooth functioning of poverty alleviation programmes.
18. Donor Agencies should establish more trainings in partnership with VDOs and NGOs
for upgrading and improving human resources through better medical services,
nutrition and environmental conditions.
19. Government should give support price to farmers in the study area and motivate them
to adopt recommended practices this will reduce poverty among the poor.
20. VDOs and NGOs should ensure that new agricultural technologies are introduced to
help farmers to improve and increase production so as to improve their living
standards.
21. VDOs and NGOs should ensure that farmers get fair prices of their product through
out the year this will help them in raising their income and go out of poverty.
241
22. Both Sanghar and Badin districts should improve their drainage system and keep their
environment clean. This is for their betterment.
23. It is recommended that a committee should be constituted in the study areas to
manage the sanction of loans to rural women and recovery of installment as well.
24. Trees make the environment clean and protect the industrial pollution. In this regard
there should be a sharp campaign about growing trees in the study area.
25. Government should provide facilities for institutional building to the local VDOs /
NGOs. This will encourage them to work sincerely towards poverty alleviation.
d. General Recommendations
1. There is need for a very strong monitoring and evaluation of NGOs so as to make
sure that their services reach to the poorest of the poor in the study area. The
monitoring and evaluation should be carried out by independent research
organizations.
2. Empower the poor with the objectives of providing them with a voice within their
society so that empowerment is linked back to the economic performance of the poor.
242
243
12. Active and committed women engaged in poverty alleviation in rural areas should be
guaranteed loans for promoting cottage industries.
e. Strategy for Self Employment in Sindh to Alleviate Poverty Among the Poor
The rural areas of Sindh has a very good scope for promoting self
employment and income. The desired results could be achieved if a comprehensive
longterm strategy comprising of various programmes and policies should be evolved and
implemented with sincerity. The strategy should combine the following:1. Proper and regular supply of farm inputs with reasonable prices for outputs.
2. Cooperative farming for small farmers.
3. Penalty for leaving land uncultivated for more than one year.
4. Adequate credit facility with guidance and supervision.
5. Provision of information, with proper guidance and counseling.
6. Proper manpower training and re-orientation of education system.
7. Provision of socio-economic infrastructure
8. Decentralization and community participation.
244
8.4
Follow Up Studies
This research work should be repeated time and again to identify the number,
intensity dimension and nature of poverty problems which may arise with passage
of time in both Sanghar and Badin districts.
There is a need for research that will create a better understanding of the linkage
between growth and poverty and help to formulate policies that seeks to maximize
the effect of growth on poverty.
245
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APPENDIX-A
SECONDARY DATA
A1
Rank
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Source:
A2
Rank
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Source:
Rate
56.9
38.4
36.2
35.9
33.5
32.2
30.3
24.9
28.7
28.5
24.4
21.8
18.4
18.2
16.3
13.0
Rank
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
2005
District
Karachi
Sukkur
Nowshero Feroz
Shikarpur
Ghotki
Badin
Tharparkar
Hyderabad
Khairpur
Larkana
Mirpurkhas
Sanghar
Nawabshah
Dadu
Thatta
Jacobabad
Rate
65.0
55.0
54.0
52.0
50.0
48.0
46.0
45.0
44.0
42.0
42.0
42.0
41.0
40.0
33.0
25.0
Pakistan Millennium Development Goals Report 2006. Centre for Research on Poverty
Reduction and Income Distribution Planning Commission Islamabad.
Rate
65.3
46.6
44.3
39.1
36.0
35.6
35.0
35.0
34.1
32.0
31.0
29.0
24.6
23.7
22.1
18.3
Rank
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
2005
District
Karachi
Sukkur
Nowshero Feroz
Shikarpur
Hyderabad
Ghotki
Khairpu
Dadu
Nawabshah
Sanghar
Mirpurkhas
Badin
Larkana
Tharparkar
Thatta
Jacobabad
Rate
78.1
63.3
58.1
55.9
52.5
50.8
48.1
47.3
45.2
45.1
44.0
41.8
38.2
36.2
34.6
33.8
Pakistan Millennium Development Goals Report 2006. Centre for Research on Poverty
Reduction and Income Distribution Planning Commission Islamabad.
260
A3
Rank
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Source:
A4
Rank
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Source:
Rate
0.94
0.79
0.76
0.75
0.74
0.74
0.73
0.73
0.72
0.72
0.71
0.68
0.67
0.64
0.64
0.62
Rank
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
2005
District
Karachi
Sukkur
Shikarpur
Nowshero Feroz
Dadu
Hyderabad
Ghotki
Sanghar
Badin
Tharparkar
Thatta
Khairpur
Mirpurkhas
Nawabshah
Larkana
Jacobabad
Rate
0.97
0.86
0.86
0.84
0.78
0.76
0.75
0.75
0.74
0.72
0.71
0.71
0.69
0.65
0.63
0.47
Pakistan Millennium Development Goals Report 2006. Centre for Research on Poverty
Reduction and Income Distribution Planning Commission Islamabad.
Rate
0.92
0.72
0.59
0.58
0.51
0.46
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.43
0.42
0.39
0.39
0.37
0.29
0.23
Rank
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
2005
District
Karachi
Sukkur
Hyderabad
Mirpurkhas
Shikarpur
Nowshero Feroz
Dadu
Nawabshah
Khairpur
Badin
Larkana
Thatta
Sanghar
Ghotki
Tharparkar
Jacobad
Rate
0.98
0.75
0.69
0.65
0.65
0.61
0.58
0.56
0.55
0.55
0.48
0.45
0.43
0.42
0.42
0.32
Pakistan Millennium Development Goals Report 2006. Centre for Research on Poverty
Reduction and Income Distribution Planning Commission Islamabad.
261
A5
Rank
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Source:
A6
Rank
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Source:
Rate
69.8
65.0
64.3
63.7
63.1
62.5
59.9
59.2
58.8
55.7
55.4
54.5
53.6
51.9
51.8
43.6
Rank
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
2005
District
Hyderabad
Nowshero Feroz
Karachi
Shikarpur
Larkana
Dadu
Ghotki
Sukkur
Badin
Mirpurkhas
Thatta
Khairpur
Tharparkar
Nawabshah
Sanghar
Jacobabad
Rate
87.9
87.6
83.4
82.9
82.1
78.4
78.1
75.3
75.0
70.6
63.7
61.7
53.6
51.5
45.8
35.2
Pakistan Millennium Development Goals Report 2006. Centre for Research on Poverty
Reduction and Income Distribution Planning Commission Islamabad.
Rate
98.2
97.1
96.8
94.9
94.5
94.2
93.1
89.6
89.6
84.9
71.2
68.9
49.5
41.4
40.3
4.2
Rank
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
2005
District
Shikarpur
Ghotki
Hyderabad
Nowshero Feroz
Nawabshah
Khairpur
Sukkur
Larkana
Jacobabad
Sanghar
Karachi
Badin
Dadu
Thatta
Mirpurkhas
Tharparkar
Rate
99.7
99.6
99.0
99.0
98.9
98.3
98.1
93.1
93.0
90.3
88.8
88.0
73.7
64.0
58.2
28.3
Pakistan Millennium Development Goals Report 2006. Centre for Research on Poverty
Reduction and Income Distribution Planning Commission Islamabad.
262
A7
Rank
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Source:
A8
Rate
95.8
73.3
71.4
71.0
67.2
58.4
57.6
52.0
52.0
50.8
44.1
43.7
43.4
35.6
26.7
22.1
Rate
98.5
97.6
96.0
95.1
94.9
94.1
88.8
86.0
82.5
81.1
76.4
72.1
70.0
63.9
50.0
33.2
Loans disbursed
Clients served
Source:
As at December
2005
75,443,456
65,480,227
140,923,683
9,187
9,127
18,314
Male
Female
Total
Male
Female
Total
Current year
2006
74,344,000
53,405,000
127,749,000
7,729
5,157
12,886
As at December
2006
147,787,456
118,885,227
268,672,683
16,916
14,284
31,200
Loans
Heads
Agricultural
Development
Livestock
Management
Retailing
Handcraft
Development
Other
Business
Total
Source:
2005
District
Nowshero Feroz
Larkana
Nawabshah
Karachi
Sanghar
Dadu
Hyderabad
Ghotki
Sukkur
Shikarpur
Jacobabad
Khairpur
Badin
Thatta
Mirpurkhas
Tharparkar
Pakistan Millennium Development Goals Report 2006. Centre for Research on Poverty
Reduction and Income Distribution Planning Commission Islamabad.
Description
A9
Rank
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Male
Female
Total
1135
14,707,000
121
1,404,000
1,256
16,111,000
1841
17,362,000
3419
38,266,000
5,260
55,628,000
3410
128
30,996,000
1,116,000
914
509
8,178,000
3,880,000
4,324
637
39,174,000
4,996,000
1215
10,163,000
194
1,677,000
1,409
11,840,000
7728
74,344,000
5157
53,405,000
12886
127,749,000
263
A10
NGOs
KK
OPP
PIEDAR
KASHF
NRSP
OWP
ASB
Source:
A-11 Proportion of people below poverty line between 1990 and 2015
Indicators
Definition
1990/91
2001-01
2010 MTDF
Targets
26.1%
32.1%
21%
Proportion of
people below
the calorie
based food plus
non-food
poverty line.
Source:
Total %
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
2015 MDG
Targets
13%
MTDP frame work 2005-10 planning commission Govt of Pakistan May 2005 P58.
A-12 Proportion of people who suffer from hungar have between 1990 and 2015.
Indicators
Definition
1990/91
2001-01
2010 MTDF
2015 MDG
Targets
Targets
13%
15%
30%
25%
Proportion
Proportion of
of people
people below
minimum level below 2350
per day
of dietary
energy
consumption.
Prevalence of
under weight
children under
5 years of age
Source:
Proportion
of people
below 2350
calories per
day of food
intake
41.5%
40%
28%
<20%
MTDP frame work 2005-10 planning commission Govt of Pakistan May 2005 P58.
264
Prevalence of
under weight
children under
5 years of age
Source:
40%
41.5%
MDG Targets
15%
2015 MDG
Targets
13%
28%
<20%
MTDP frame work 2005-10 planning commission Govt of Pakistan May 2005 P58.
0.80
0.72
0.94
0.90
MDG Targets
88
89
87
100
100
100
1.00
0.94
MTDP frame work 2005-10 planning commission Govt of Pakistan May 2005
P 76.
265
Mithi
Thatta
Badin
Gotki
Sanghar
Parts of
Mirpurkhas
Part of
Khairpur
Parts of
Sukkur
Rajanpur
D.G. Khan
Layyah
Bhakker
Mazaffargargh
Bahawalfur
Bahawalnagar
Khushab
Source:
BALUCHISTAN
Charsadda
Bannu
Lakki Marwat
Tank
Batgram
Musa Khel
Kharan
Kohlu
Awaran
Zhob
Upper Dir
Jhal Magsi
Shanglapar
Panjgur
Kohistan
Khuzdar
MTDP frame work 2005-10 planning commission Govt of Pakistan May 2005
P 219
1998
30
1852
1646
1440
1029
2002
34
1634
1452
1271
908
2010
43
1292
1148
1005
718
2020
56
992
882
772
551
2030
75
741
658
576
412
Source:
266
A18
A person is considered to have moved out of poverty if his family fulfils the followings:
1. The family lives in a house worth Rs. 20,000 or a house with a tin roof and
each member of the family is able to sleep on bed instead of on the floor.
2. Family members drink pure water of tube wells or water purified by using
alum, arsenic free, purifying tablets or pitcher filters.
3. All children in the family over six year of age going to school or finished
primary school.
4. Family members have adequate clothing for every day use warm clothing
for winter such as sweaters, blankets etc mosquito nets to protect
themselves from mosquitoes.
5. Family has sources of additional income such as vegetable garden, fruit
bearing trees etc so that they are able to fall back on these sources of
income when they need additional money.
6. The borrower maintains an average annual balance of Rs. 5000 in his/her
saving account.
7. Family experiences no difficulty in having three square meals a day
throughout the year i.e. no member of the family goes hungry any time of
the year.
8. Family can take case of their health if any member of the family falls ill,
family can afford take care of all necessary step to seek adequate health
care.
Source:
267
APPENDIX-B
SELECTION OF VILLAGES, VDOS AND SAMPLE RESPONDENTS
IN DISTRICT SANGHAR
B1
B4
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Sukhio Rind
Lakladino Rind
Madad Ali Rind
Gul Bahar
Ranam Ali
Sobdar Khan
Allah Wadayio Rind
Kamal Khan Rind
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
269
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
270
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
B5
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Kurban Ali
Abdul Hadi shah
Mumtaz Ali
Mohammad Hussain
Abdul Alim shah
Abdul Raheem Kario
Ali Hassan Talpur
Ashil Ali Sayad
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Mohammad Isa
Dholio Khan
Dilbar Hassan
Mohammad Yusuf
Abdul Rauf
Niaz Hussain
Allh Warayo Sanjrani
Asghar Ali
272
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Ghulam Mujtaba
Shankhar Bheel
Ali Sher Shah
Ghulam Shabir Bahanojo
Abdul Sattar Bahanojo
Tik Mio
Mohammad Sachal
Mir Ahmed
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Ahmed Solangi
Gul Mohammad Sanjrani
Suleiman Sanjrani
M Juman Solangi
Ali Bux Solangi
M. Mithal Solangi
Khuda Bux Sanjrani
Hussain Bux Solangi
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Photo Kerio
Munawar Ali Kerio
Mohammad Idress
Manzoor Ahmed Kerio
Mitho Khan
Abdullah Kerio
Mohammad Khan
Lakhadino Kerio
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Jani Bheel
Mohammad Yusuf
Hurchand Bheel
Atam Bhul
Allah Bux Dhari
Sokhsijo Bheel
Arbab Ali Dhari
Ali Mohammad Dhari
273
B6
1.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
2.
Mohammad Miral
Abdul Latif
Wahid Ali
Ghulam Mohammad
Amir Ali
Atta Muhammad Khaskhelli
VILLAGE DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION MUA CHORA
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
3.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
4.
DEVELOPMENT
ORGANIZATION
SHAH
Abdul Nawaz
Ali Hassan
Shah Nawaz
Abdul Haq
Nur Muhammad
Ali Nawaz
FEMALEs WELFARE DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION AHMED
KHAN KHASKHELLI VILLAGE
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Salim Katoon
Ms Hanifa
Khatoon Bibi
Bilayat Khatoon
Sadori Bibi
Ms Habib Khatoon
274
5.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
6.
Abdul Ghafoor
Jaga Ram
Ran Faisal
Rashid Hussain
Tajmal Hussain
Ran Abid
VILLAGE WELFARE DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION MURAD ALI
RIND
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
8.
Mohammad Yaqoob
Khan Mohammad
Ghulam Nabi
Abdul Rahman
Nazeer Ahmad
Mohammad Pinjal
VILLAGE DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION SHER KHAN LASHARI
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
9.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Karim Bux
Mohammad Malook
Mohammad Ilyas Mahar
Daoo
Mr Kheto
Mr Neebo
275
10.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Bahadur Thahim
Mohammad Thahim
Gul Mohammad Thahim
Anwar Ali Thahim
Hazoor Bux Thahim
Ghulam Hyder Thahim
APPENDIX-C
SELECTION OF VILLAGES, VDOs AND SAMPLE RESPONDENTS
IN DISTRICT BADIN
C1
276
C3
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Dhano Meghwar
Bhoro Meghwar
Bheemo Meghwar
Sakrio Meghwar
Anb Meghwar
Kachro Meghwar
Mircho Meghwar
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Ali Ahmad
Ramzan Khaskheli
Dr Abdul Aziz
Mohammad Khaskheli
Mehram Khaskheli
Abdul Razak Khaskheli
Ibrahim Khaskheli
Juman Khaskheli
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Khali Ahmad
Abdul Basit
Shabbir Hussain
Amanullah Bashar
Ghulam Ali
Muhammad Imran
Saleem Akhtar
Shamim Ahmad
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Galo Bheel
Baghai Bheel
Soomar Bheel
Hameer Bheel
Photo Bheel
Dodo Bheel
Bachayo Bheel
Narain Bheel
278
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Sajan Meghwar
Sakrio Mal
Manghal Meghwar
Soomar Meghwar
Soomar Meghwar
Mangi Meghwar
Kirshan Meghwar
Poem Meghwar
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
C5
Abdul Razak
Talha Mehmood
Akbar Ali
Ghulam Murtaza
Arshad Javed
Aslamm Mustafa
Muzafar Ahmed
Abdul Jabbar
LIST OF SAMPLE RESPONDENTS BUGHRA MEMON UC TALUKA
BADIN DISTRICT BADIN
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Zubair Khaskheli
Mohammad Sharif Khaskheli
Khuda BBux Khaskheli
Abdul Satar Khaskheli
Ali Mohammad Lakho
Mohammad Iqbal Mandhro
Allah Bux Talpur
Ali Ahmad Lohar
279
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Ramzan Khaskheli
Ghulam Mohammad Khaskheli
Mohammad Umar Khaskheli
Zahoor Ahmad Khaskheli
Mohammad Haroon Khaskheli
Gul Hassan Khaskheli
M-Warayo Khaskheli
Mohammad Rahim Khaskheli
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
280
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Khamoon Mallah
Noori Mallah
Mithoo Mallah
Abdul Hakeem Mallah
Allah Dino Mallah
Abdul Karim Mallah
Ramzan Mallah
Hassan Mohd Mallah
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Majeed Mallah
Ramzan Umar Mallah
Tahir Mallah
Mohammad Ismail Mallah
Mohammad Sharif Mallah
Ramzan Ali Mallah
Abdullah Hussain Mallah
Ibrahim Master Mallah
281
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Ayoob Khaskheli
Allah Bachayo Khaskheli
Amir Ali Khaskheli
Zameer Ali Khaskheli
Ghulam Shabir Khaskheli
Allah Jurio Khaskheli
Bashir Ahmad Khaskheli
Aijaz Ali Khaskheli
C6
1.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
2.
Num Sheedi
Ramzan Sheedi
Achar Sheedi
Kandero Sheedi
Allah Bachayo Sheedi
Taju Sheedi
VILLAGE DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION (MALE AND FEMALE)
BUGHRO MALL
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
3.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
DEVELOPMENT
Dr Abdul Aziz
Abdul Razak
Mehram Khaskheli
Mohammad Khaskheli
Ahmad Ali
Ramzan Khaskheli
282
ORGANIZATION
ISHAQ
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Kachro Mall
Gulb Rai
Walam Gee
Prem Chand
Khajo Mal
Ghuman Das
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Mohammad Ibrahim
Mohammad Sharif
Abdul Hafeez
Mohammad Uris
Mohammad Saleh Mallah
Mohammad Ramzan Mallah
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Muzafar Talpur
Abdul Aleem Talpur
Mohammad Khan Talpur
Mohammad Iqbal Talpur
Abdul Raheem Talpur
Rajab Ali Talpur
283
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Muneer Ahmad
Meen Wasayo
Mohammad Haroon
Mohammad Rahim Khaskheli
Zahoor Ahmad
Mohammad Umar Khaskheli
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
284
APPENDIX-D
HOUSEHOLD SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE
EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS OF THE DETERMINANTS OF RURAL
POVERTY IN SINDH PROVINCE OF PAKISTAN
Questionnaire No____________
Semi-structured questionnaire for household survey
I
Address
Name of village________________________________UC______________________
Deh_________________Taluka___________________District______________
I
Respondent
1 Name_____________________________ 2. Caste__________________________
3.Age_______________________________ 4. Gender: Male / Female
5. Qualification______________________6. Profession___________________
7. Relation with household head________________________________________
1 = self 2 = husband 3 = son / daughter 4 = son / daughter in low
5 = son / daughter 6 = father / mother 7 = brother / sister
8 = other relatives 9 = other non-relatives
8. Family language________________________________________________
9. Total family members_____________________________________________
10. Skills_________________________________________________________
1 = electrician 2 = plumber 3 = mechanical / technical 4 = mason
5 = mat making 6 = carpenter 7 = black smith 8 = barber
9 = other specify
III
Household Head
1. Name________________________________________ 2. Age__________
3. Gender : Male / Female 4. Qualifications___________________________
285
IV
Family profile
Age groups
17-25 years 26-65 years
Total
>65 years
Male
Female
Total
Education
Sources of income
1. Family income
S.No Gender
1
Male / Female
Male / Female
Male / Female
Male / Female
Male / Female
Male / Female
Major profession
Profession
Income /
month
286
Crop
Area
sown
(acres)
Production
Rate per
(mds)
Total
revenue
(Rs) in
share
Total cost
(Rs) in
share
A
Rabi
crops
B
C
A
Kharif
crops
B
C
5. Livestock available
Buffaloes
Male
Total Female
Cows
Milking
Male
Total female
Milking
Goats:
Sheep:
Total cost on annual feed (Rs) / month
Local
consumption
(liters)
Buffaloes
Cows
287
Milk sold
literes
Price / litre
7. Wages by profession
Profession / No. of
skills
family
members
engaged
Agricultural
labour
Artisan
Black smith
Carpenter
Electrician
Embroidery
Fishing
Hat making
Mat making
Mechanic
Poultry
Rilly making
Shops
Stone
minning
Wood cutter
Other
specificy
Wages /day
Work days /
month
VII
Assets household productive assets
Assets
Number
Assets
Cycle
Sewing machine
Radio
TV
Computer
Distance
from work
place
Number
288
Satisfied
with wages
Income in
cash
IX
Expenditure
Head of expenditure
Amount
(Rs.)
Pocket money
Kitchen expenditure
e.g. vegetables, meat, fish
species
Cereals
Wheat
Rice
Maintenance
Others
Grain mills (grinding
cereals)
Clothing
Shoes
Education
Transport
Usable items (towel, soap,
etc)
Health
Doctors
fees
Medicine
Others
Total
X
Head of expenditure
Amount
(Rs)
Children
House wife
Old age
Motor
cycle
Car
Tractor
Utility bills
Electricity
Gas
Phone
Maintenance of house
Servant(s)
Recreation & religions
activities
Others
Loans
Have you receive loans? Yes give details
Name of
institution
Amount
Interest
Purpose
of loan
Year
Wheather
installments
are regularly
paid
If no
reasons
1. Do you think the amount borrowed increased household income? Yes / No.
2. If no tick the most appropriate reason
Low amount
Small duration
289
Not properly
utilized
XI
Facilities in village
1. Education
Schools
Gender
Primary
Boys
Girls
Boys
Girls
Boys
Girls
Middle
High
Yes / No
If no nearest school KM
Yes / No
If no nearest one KM
Source of energy
House type
No. of rooms
Toilet facility (please tick)
(1) Non flush toilet / wc
XIV
Semi pacca
Katcha
Jhopra
Source
Pump
Well
Quality
1. Braclish
2. Drinkable
3. Sweet
290
Water supply
Others
specify
APPENDIX-E
Name ___________________________________________________________
Address _________________________________________________________
Registered under act________________________________________________
Staffing
1.Professional / Technical
2. Office (Clerks, Typists etc)
3. Non Office (Chowkidar etc)
Paid staff
[
[
[
]
]
]
(B)
Type of organization
1. Non Government Organization
2. Coordinating NGO
3. Community Group
4. Social Welfare Group
5. Service Organization
6. Any Other
2.
[
[
[
]
]
]
Volunteer
Full time x Part time
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
(NGOS) Association
[
]
[
]
[
]
[
]
[
]
[
]
3
Geographical area activities (please identify)
1. Local Community
2. Taluka
3. District
4. Division
5. Province
6. Country / National
291
[
[
[
[
[
[
]
]
]
]
]
]
4.
Target population
i. Types_________________
ii. Numbers_________________
5.
In what area does your organization provide raining to the community.
i. Staff Development
[
]
ii. Community Health
[
]
iii. Road Construction
[
]
iv. Income Generation
[
]
v. Marketing
[
]
vi. Poverty Alleviation
[
]
6
7
8
10
11
12
13
292
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21.
Do you think that the income of the people has increased and their living standard
has improved after the loan.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
What is the leadership style of your organization.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
What is your NGO doing in saving children engaged in hazardous occupations?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
What is your organization doing to increase access to good quality drinking water
for the community?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
What is your NGO doing in areas of environmental degradation?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Does your organization establish or help to establish any employment generating
business Yes / No.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Purpose aims, goals objectives (please described briefly)
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Did your organization assisted in the construction of building for the community.
How?
1. Financially
2. Technical Advice
3. Construction Management
[
[
[
293
]
]
]
22
23
24
25
26
Describe the most important services and facilities available to this organization
and the main problems experienced in achieving your goals.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
What are your suggestions in developing and promoting poverty alleviation
programmes?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
What is your opinion about the government poverty alleviation strategy?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
In your opinion what kind of services NGOs personnel should provide in order to
achieve the goals of poverty alleviation
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Personel interviewed
Name__________________________________________Age_____________
Address___________________________________________________________
Telephone No._______________________________________________
Day_________________Month____________Year__________________
294