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Introduction
During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the Inca
Empire expanded to incorporate many ethnic groups over
a vast area of the Andes and coastal South America. This
large territory was frequently managed through a series of
planned centres where buildings used for Inca state administrative and ceremonial functions were imposed on the
local settlement hierarchy.
The Inca structures called ushnu were located on the
main square of provincial centres distributed along the
Inca road system. The variability of shapes and functions
of Inca ushnu platforms have been described in detail
by Graziano Gasparini and Luise Margolies (1977), Tom
Zuidema (1989a [1980], 1989c) and John Hyslop (1990:
7072). They can be considered the architectural symbols
of Tahuantinsuyu in the provinces, representing an Inca
throne and seat, and they had enormous political and ritual
importance (Zuidema 1989a [1980]).
This research focuses primarily on the highlands of Piura
(8003900 m above sea level), northern Peru, where four
Inca centres were identified and recorded. This region,
located close to the modern frontier between Peru and
Ecuador, is shaped by the Chira-Catamayo, Alto Piura,
Huancabamba and Alto Chinchipe river basins. Aside from
some early pioneering archaeological research (Humboldt
1991 [1802]; Tello 1916), the region has been the focus of
research by Mario Polia (1972, 1973, 1995) Anne-Marie
Hocquenghem (1989b, 1998) and Csar Astuhuamn
(1998, 2008).
The aim of this chapter is to analyse the imperial
infrastructure developed by the Inca to control and
administer the highlands of Piura, in particular as manifest
in the ushnu platform. Through an analysis of the state
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Table 20.1 Inca buildings at the major Inca centres within the highlands of Piura. The numbers refer to the mapped sectors within these sites. Historic
sources have been used for buildings now destroyed under modern Huancabamba: (a): Xerez (1968 [1534]: 212); (b): Cieza de Len (1973 [1553]:
154); (c): Garcilaso de la Vega (1967 [1609]: 847); (d): Tello (1916); (e) Humboldt (1991 [1802]).
Suggested function
Bridge
Storage/portazgo
Storage
Cultic/temple
Cultic monolithic
Ceremonial fountain
Acllawasi
Kallanka
Rectangular plaza
Residential
Residential/ administrative
Ceremonial/administrative
Palace
Another acllawasi
Temple of the Sun
Trapezoidal plaza
Ushnu platform
Access control
Metal workshop
Agricultural terrace
Drying area/tendal
Funerary/chullpas
Unclear
Aypate
Caxas
2
1
12
Mitupampa
10
16
14
3
17
5
6
7
4, 13, 14, 15, 22, 30, 35, 36
9
10
11
16
19
20
21
32
33
27
8, 27, 28, 30, 31, 35
1736
Huancabamba
(b)
5, 6
15
13
8
4
9
3
2
7
11
10, 12
3
9
9
1, 2, 4
5
5
8
7
(b), (c)
6, 11
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Figure 20.2 Ushnu of Aypate: hypothetical reconstruction (image Cristian Campos and Csar Astuhuamn).
Table 20.2 Dimensions of Inca ushnu at Aypate (adapted from Astuhuamn 1998, Cuadro No.78).
Component
Upper terrace
Intermediate terrace
Inferior terrace
Main stairs
Lateral stairs
Drain
Length (m)
23.0524
26.7527.7
44.934.6
13.2
3.5
6.55
Width (m)
19.8519.2
2524.4
31.4531.83
4.3
0.9
2.05
0.650.8
Height (m)
1.21.6
2
1.2
0.85
Number of steps
24
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Structure
a
b
c
d
External
length (m)
7.7
7.6
6.4
8.1
External
width (m)
4.1
2.6
5.5
5.7
Aypate
Aypate is located in a mountain chain that forms the watershed between the Quiroz and Macar river basins, which
feed into the Chira river. Aypate is a very large site consisting of several sectors (Humboldt 1991 [1802]: 1718, 38;
Matos 19651966: 90, 98; Polia 1972; 1973: 36, 4454;
1995: 8596; Astuhuamn 1998, 2005, 2008).
My analysis of the infrastructure at Aypate has identified 36 zones each containing institutional buildings (see
Table 20.1). The total site size is around 200 ha. Sector 1
of Aypate, located in the northern part of the site close to
the Inca road, is composed of two rows of 20 rectangular
rooms (c.135 m long). This zone is where storage and
control activities were conducted and is likely to have
been the main portazgo of the site. Sector 7 of Aypate is
a large open space (plaza) of trapezoidal shape (c.130
85 165 230 m) around which the main buildings
are located. Sector 8 is a large (115 m long) rectangular
building without any visible internal subdivisions facing the
main plaza; this is likely to have been a kallanka. Sector
11 of Aypate has a stepped platform (c.5 m high) facing
the main square that appears to be an Inca ushnu platform
used for ceremonies and typically located in a prominent
location at major Inca centres. Sector 13 accommodates
four kancha compounds located on stepped terraces and
facing the trapezoidal plaza. It comprised a residential
zone, a sector reserved for craft activity and a cult sector
used by the acllas.
The ushnu platform of Aypate (Sector 11) is located
towards the east side of the main square. It comprises a
three-tiered rectangular platform with a central stone
stairway leading from the plaza level to the top with a
small lateral stairway joined to it (see Table 20.2). A low
wall surrounds the upper terrace and a drain flanked by
carved rocks was recorded there (see Fig. 20.2). Our current
Caxas
The surviving buildings of Caxas are located on both banks
of the Rey Inca river that joins the Hualtaco ravine near the
centre of Caxas (Montfar 1889 [1802]: 15; Tello 1916;
Xerez 1968 [1534]: 21012; Mena 1968 [1534]: 1378;
Trujillo 1968 [1571]: 20; Cieza de Len 1973 [1553]: 154;
Polia 1973; Hocquenghem 1989b: 25; 1994; Humboldt
1991 [1802]: 2021; Astuhuamn 1998, 2005, 2008;
Astuhuamn et al. 2003). The site covers an area of 240
ha and 37 zones were recorded including institutional
buildings and spaces without architecture. Ethnohistorical
accounts concerning Caxas describe the presence of specifically selected and organised groups of people such
as acllas (chosen women of the state religion), mitimaes
(workers providing labour service to the state), soldiers and
a governor, each occupying defined institutional buildings
such as the acllawasi or portazgos.
Sector 1 consists of a structure with two rows of seven
rectangular rooms (c.120 m long). It is probable that storage
and administrative activities were conducted here and that
this was the area referred as portazgo by the Spanish soldiers
(Xerez 1968 [1534]: 212). Sector 5 is shaped to accommodate six Inca kancha compounds and a rectangular storage
unit; it was a residential, craft activity and cult sector used by
the acllas and well documented in ethnohistorical sources.
Sector 6 of Caxas is composed of three large rectangular
enclosures, each approximately 100m in length, without
internal subdivisions. These buildings, the largest recorded
in Tahuantinsuyu in archaeological research, have been
identified as kallankas (cf. Kendall 1985; Hyslop 1990).
Sector 12 boasts the largest rectangular building (c.124.5
24.5 m) with 42 adjacent structures distributed along three
rows. Sector 20 of Caxas comprises a trapezoidal plaza
(c.120 90 70 70 m) situated between the right bank
of the Rey Inca river and the ushnu and associated buildings in the square. Sector 21 was an Inca ushnu platform
(c.3m high). The long and narrow terraces located close
to storage facilities could have been used to dry the crops
prior to storage.
The Inca ushnu platform is located on one side of a
square facing the Temple of the Sun and near the right
bank of the Rey Inca river (Humboldt 1991 [1802]: 223;
Raimondi 1901 [1868]: 300; Legua y Martinez 1986
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Figure 20.3 Caxas: hypothetical reconstruction (image Cristian Campos and Csar Astuhuamn).
Huancabamba Inca
Plate 20.1 Profile of the Inca ushnu platform at Caxas by Tello (1916),
1916 Harvard Peruvian Expedition (Archivo Julio C. Tello, Universidad
Nacional Mayor de San Marcos).
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Component
Upper terrace
Inferior terrace
Stair
Drain
Plate 20.2 Layout of the Inca ushnus drain at Caxas by Tello (1916), 1916
Harvard Peruvian Expedition (Archivo Julio C. Tello, Universidad Nacional
Mayor de San Marcos).
Mitupampa
Mitupampa is surrounded by a rocky outcrop to the south,
a cliff face and a group of hills named Negro and Saquir.
It is near a crossroads and an Inca road passes through it.
The first references to this site were provided by Humboldt
(1991 [1802]: 245) and the Instituto Nacional de Cultura
(INC) (1983: 434). From 1989 to 1992, Polia and colleagues conducted archaeological research in Mitupampa,
including surveying, mapping and excavations at the ushnu,
surface collection and pottery analysis (Polia et al. 1993).
Further work was carried out by Ricardo Espinosa (2002),
Csar Astuhuamn, Natalia Guzmn and Jorge Len (2003)
and Csar Astuhuamn (2005, 2008).
My analysis of the infrastructure at Mitupampa has
identified 11 sectors each containing institutional buildings
(see Table 20.1). The total site size is around 60 ha. The
Inca ushnu at Mitupampa is located in the central part
of the site. Two stepped platforms of quadrangular layout
formed an ushnu platform. A central staircase leads from
the rectangular plaza to the top terrace; its central axis is
oriented eastwest (to Cerro Negro) (see Table 20.5). Carved
ashlar stones were used in the corners of both terraces and
Length (m)
13.5
19.0
6.0
3.54.27
Width (m)
9.5
15.016.0
2.5
1.061.2
Height (m)
0.75
1.85
Table 20.5 Dimensions of the Inca ushnu at Mitupampa (adapted from Polia et al. 1993: 1820, 35).
Component
Upper terrace
Lower terrace
Stair
Length (m)
21.6022.30
5.20
Width (m)
14.8715.90
3.183.95
Height (m)
1.832.35
1.101.30
Number of steps
13
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Table 20.6 Dimensions of the early altar inside the Inca ushnu at Mitupampa (adapted from Polia et al. 1993: 1820, 35).
Component
Altar A
Altar B
Length (m)
2.102.13
2.532.58
Width (m)
1.842.18
1.17
0.200.25
Height (m)
0.120.27
0.150.20
Plate 20.3 Two carved felines at the Inca ushnu at Mitupampa (photo Csar Astuhuamn).
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Figure 20.4 Mitupampa: hypothetical reconstruction (image Cristian Campos and Csar Astuhuamn).
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Conclusion
Models of Inca provincial organisation as used across the
Andes include synchronic aspects and spatial and diachronic dimensions of Inca authority during the fifteenth
and early sixteenth century. The analysis of power structures, and their respective major centres, suggests that
these did not all share the same level of importance for
the Inca state. They served varying purposes, which is
reflected in their distinctive material characteristics. The
Inca centres in the highlands of Piura have more similarities than differences, in particular their location close
to local cult sites as well as the types of state buildings
present and their functions. There are not sufficient formal
differences between these sites to suggest that they were
individually or uniquely created to accommodate local
circumstances these were centres with standard Inca
architectural canons. However, there is evidence that PreInca local features conditioned the location of the Inca
centres in Piura (e.g. Mitupampa, Aypate). One reason
for this could be that the control of local cults and the
imposition of Inca state religion was the underlying strategy for the ultimate political and economic control of the
indigenous population by the Inca state. In spite of the
fact that different roles are envisaged for these centres, as
expressed in their state buildings, under new Inca politics and expansionist strategies, the ushnu remains as the
centre of these Inca sites mimicking the centre of the Inca
world as expressed on a provincial level.
The public buildings that made up the main Inca
centres have some formal differences (e.g. size, orientation, location and architectural layout), which may reflect
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Acknowledgements
This paper was elaborated and finished with the support of
the personnel of the Proyecto Integral Aypate (20122013),
under the management of the Proyecto Qhapaq an of
the Ministerio de Cultura (Per). I extend many thanks to
all of them.
Notes
1. Other distinctions of space are: Continuous space enables
human movement from a given location in any direction
to another location Discrete space, on the other hand,
constrains movements to certain links or connections (Gorenflo
and Bell 1991: 8081). Dual concepts about sacred and profane
space have also been elaborated (Eliade 1997 [1958]).
2. In this perspective, Mara Rostworowski (1992) analysed the
case of Pachacamac, Bill Sillar (2002: 225, 2367) analysed
the Inca expansion and capture of ancient local shrines
in Raqchi, Cusco region, Brian Bauer and Charles Stanish
(2003) analysed the case of the Isla del Sol, and John Topic,
Theresa Lange Topic and Alfredo Melly Cava (2002) the case
of Catequil. See also Conrad and Demarest (1988, 1992) and
Jennings (2003).
3. The landscape profoundly conditions the very terms in which
we are situated as subjects, governed by institutions and
regimes, and located within polities and geopolitical order
(Smith 2003: 2767).
4. A calibrated Oxford radiocarbon date of a grain of maize (Zea
maiz) collected at Level c (OxA-1631: 364 +/- 26 BP) shows
the following results:
68.2% probability: AD 1450 (46.1%) AD 1530
AD 1590 (22.1%) AD 1620
95.4% probability: AD 1450 (52.6%) AD 1530
AD 1550 (42.8 %) AD 1640
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