Padmashree Dr.D.Y.

Patil Institute of Engineering and Technology,

Pimpri, Pune –411018

A SEMINAR REPORT ON ATTACKING OF AUTOMAIC

WIRELESS NETWORK SELECTION

SUBMITTED BY

VIKASH KUMAR (T5076)

Under the Guidance of

PROF. SANTOSH CHOBE

FOR THE YEAR 2009-2010

DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

PADMASHREE DR. D.Y.PATIL
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
PIMPRI PUNE – 411018
Padmashree Dr.D.Y.Patil Institute of Engineering and Technology,
Pimpri, Pune –411018

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that-

VIKASH KUMAR

has delivered his seminar and submitted report

on

ATTACKING OF AUTOMATIC WIRELESS NETWOR SELECTION

of Year 2009-10 towards the partial fulfillment of T.E. (Information Technology) as per
University of Pune.

Date:
Place:

Prof. SANTOSH CHOBE Prof V.D.KULKARNI

Seminar Guide H.O.D. (IT)
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I feel great pleasure in submitting this seminar report on “ATTACING OF

AUTOMATIC WIRELESS NETWORK SELECTION".I wish to express true sense of
gratitude towards my seminar guide Prof. SANTOSH CHOBE.
I convey my gratitude to our Principal Mr. R. K. Jain, HOD Prof. Prof
V.D.KULKARNI, my seminar guide Prof. Santosh chobe and seminar coordinator Prof.
Rajan Kamble for the encouragement and support that they have extended. Also
important thanks to my senior collegue who helped me lot for my seminar.
All along I kept on discovering and still do for latest information on
ATTACKING OF AUTOMATIC WIRELESS NETWORK SELECTION. I have made
every possible effort to eliminate to eliminate all the errors in this seminar report with the
help of Internet, reference books, my teachers and my friends.
Finally, would like to thank all those who helped me to make good presentation of
this seminar.

VIKASH KUMAR
 CONTENTS

1. Abstract
2. Introduction
3. Literature Survey
4. Various Types Of Networks
5. Wireless Networks Limitations, Rates & Range

6. Fundamental Limits On Data Rate

7. Conclusion
8. References
 Abstract

There is a continuing quest for increasing the data transmission rate in wireless systems.
Cellular mobile radio systems have advanced from second generation digital technology
with limited data capability to third generation systems with data transmission rates on
the order of a few megabits per second and on to fourth generation systems with goals of
even higher data rates. Wireless local area networks (WLANs) based on various versions
of IEEE 802.11 standards and known collectively as WiFi, have evolved from having
data transmission rates of several megabits per second to hundreds of megabits per
second.
The explosive growth of both the wireless industry and the Internet is creating a huge
market opportunity for wireless data access. Limited Internet access, at very low speeds,
is already available as an enhancement to some existing cellular systems. However, those
systems were designed with the purpose of providing voice services and - at most - short
messaging, but not fast data transfers. In fact, as shown in this article, traditional wireless
technologies are not very well suited to meet the demanding requirements of providing
very high data rates with the ubiquity, mobility, and portability characteristic of cellular
systems. Increased use of antenna arrays appears to be the only means of enabling the
types of data rates and capacities needed for wireless Internet and multimedia services.
While the deployment of base station arrays is becoming universal, it is really the
simultaneous deployment of base station and terminal arrays that can unleash
unprecedented levels of performance by opening up multiple spatial signaling
dimensions.
 Chapter 1. Introduction

1.1 Introduction

The past 25 years have seen a phenomenal increase in the demand for wireless telephony.
This is only expected to be matched by demand for wireless data access in the coming
decade. There are two main reasons for this development. Firstly, the exponential growth
in transistor density on silicon has enabled implementation of Very Large Scale
Integrated (VLSI) circuits that run complex signal processing algorithms while
consuming less power. This has had a direct impact on the cost of wireless equipment and
the state-of-art in commercially available communication technology. Secondly, the
success of second-generation cellular standards (GSM and CDMA) has provided newer
perspectives on how to better utilize the wireless channel. Several ideas and tools from
array signal processing and other areas have found application in the design of wireless
systems.
Wireless communications is a challenging task mainly for three reasons. Firstly, the
electromagnetic (EM) signal propagates over a time-varying channel. The receiver sees a
highly-dispersed version of the transmitted signal due to multiple reflections (or
multipaths) and scattering. This effect is known as fading and it severely degrades the
quality of the wireless link. Secondly, multiple users share the wireless channel which
leads to co-channel interface. This has detrimental effect on the channel quality as well.
Thirdly, the bandwidth of transmission is expensive and scarce. The communication
system designer is faced with a challenging multi-dimensional opti-mization problem in
overcoming the impairments and achieving the required quality within the resource
limitations.
The explosive growth of both the wireless industry and the Internet is creating a huge
market opportunity for wireless data access. Limited Internet access at low speeds is
already available as an enhancement to some second-generation (2G) cellular systems,
but not fast data transfers. Third-generation (3G) mobile wireless systems, currently are
present in market but no one give the services.
Wireless technologies are not particularly well suited to meet the extremely demanding
requirements of providing the very high data rates and low cost associated with wired
access, and the ubiquity, mobility, and portability characteristic of cellular systems. Some
fundamental barriers, related to the nature of the radio channel as well as to limited
bandwidth availability at the frequencies of interest, stand in the way. As a result, the cost
per bit in wireless is still high and not diminishing fast enough. In contrast, the wired
world is already providing basically free bits, which has accustomed an entire generation
of Internet users to accessing huge volumes of information at very high speeds and
negligible cost. In this article we establish practical limits on the data rates that can be
supported by a wireless data access system with a typical range of parameters, and we
show how those limits can be lifted by using a combination of transmit and receive
antenna arrays with powerful space-time.

1.1 Wireless Communication Systems :-

Overview of a wireless communication system first in the point-to-point context (i.e.,

single transmitter and a single receiver) and then in the context of multiple-access, where
there are many transmitters and single receiver.

1.1.1 Point-to-Point Wireless Links :-

A point-to-point wireless link consists of a single transmitter sending signals to a single

receiver as shown in Fig. 1.1. In this figure, a base station or an access point
communicates with a mobile station or a user terminal in a multipath fading environ-
ment. Both the ends are capable of both transmitting and receiving signals. Each of the
incoming digital data bits . . . , b-1, b0, b1 , . . . (modelled as a random process) are
mapped onto complex constellation points ck, k = 1, 2, . . . , |C |which belong to a set C
(|.| denotes the number of elements in set C). In this scheme, the data stream is divided
into blocks of bits and are transmitted over a duration of Ts seconds (known as the
symbol duration). The symbol for the time period [(n - 1)Ts, nTs] is chosen to be a point
from the constellation C and it is denoted by x[n]. This symbol is then multiplied with a
real pulse g(t) (known as the shaping function) with non-zero time support of Ts seconds,
therefore resulting in a signal with the the following baseband representation

This signal is then modulated from baseband by multiplying it with a sinusoid of

frequency fc and transmitted over the antenna as an EM wave. As the signal propagates
from the transmitter to the receiver, it often suffers multiple reflections and scattering due
to obstacles in the propagation environment. Because these reflections typically
experience different propagation delays and attenuation, multiple copies of the original
signal arrive at the receiver. Most often, this phenomenon is approximated by a time-
varying linear transformation. At the receiver, the signal is demodulated to baseband
from center frequency fc and is passed through a matched-filter. The complex-baseband
equivalent of the signal after demodulation and matched-filtering can be written as

The number of channel taps naturally is a function of the signalling rate and the time
spread in its second argument. Due to the random nature of the channel fluctuations, the
channel impulse response is modelled as a random process that is independent of the
signal x(t) and the noise w(t). The signal x(t) is assumed to be independent of the noise
w(t) as well. The distribution depends on the channel dynamics. This is referred to as the
fading channel. The time interval for which the channel impulse response remains
approximately constant is called coherence time of the channel and is denoted by Tc. The
length of the impulse response of the channel is called the delay spread. The coherence
time indicates how fast the channel is changing; a smaller coherence time means a faster
changing channel. The delay spread indicates the frequency diversity; the larger it is the
better the ability of the channel to resolve multiple copies of the signal.
The objective of the detector is to infer the data transmitted (i.e., the sequence . . . , b-1 ,
b0, b1, . . .)from the received signal y[n]. Due to the random nature of the fading channel,
the bits cannot be recovered with certainty and there is an associated bit-error rate (BER)
which is de defined as the expected probability a transmitted bit is detected incorrectly.
For a fixed transmitter power, there is a trade-off between the data rate and the BER. The
BER is a function of the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) which is usually defined as the ratio
of the average signal power to the average noise power.
In order to combat the impairments of the channel and improve the
BER, diver-sity techniques are often employed. We list the major
diversity techniques that are employed in today's systems.

1. Time diversity : is achieved by averaging the random channel response over time
through error-control coding or interleaving or both. Codes that add redundancy help to
improve the BER, thereby leading to better signal recovery or lower power requirements.
Errors due to signal fading typically occur in bursts. Interleaving helps to spread these
errors over a longer duration of time and is often used in conjunction with coding.
Convolutional codes, turbo-codes and low-density parity-check (LDPC) codes are some
of the most common coding schemes. Repeated transmissions (like Automatic Repeat
Request used in random access systems) are another form of time diversity.

2. Frequency diversity : exploits the fact that signals separated in the frequency domain
by more than a certain coherence bandwidth (defined as the inverse of the delay spread)
fade differently. Thus multiple copies of the signal transmitted at different frequencies
can be combined to improve performance. Frequency diversity can also be exploited by
wideband systems that are capable of resolving and combining multiple delayed signal
reflections at the receiver. Code Division Multiple-Access (CDMA) systems such as the
Direct-Sequence CDMA and Frequency-Hopping CDMA as well as the Orthogonal
Frequency-Division Multiplexing (OFDM) systems are based on this approach.
3. Spatial diversity : exploits the fact that when a system uses multiple antennas to
transmit or receive signals in a multipath fading environment, the channel co-efficients
associated with different antennas fade independently. Receive diversity is achieved
through the use of multiple antennas at the receiver. Antennas separated by a certain
distance or with certain decorrelation properties receive independently faded copies of
the transmitted signal. Combining these copies in a suitable way leads to performance
gains. The most notable techniques for combining are Maximum-Ratio Combining
(MRC), Selection Diversity and Equal-Gain Combining (EGC). Transmit diversity is
achieved through the use of multiple transmit antennas.
In 1948, Shannon in his groundbreaking work showed that there is a fundamental limit on
the data rate at which one can transmit data reliably. This is known as the capacity of the
channel and is defined in terms of certain information-theoretic quantities. He also
proved that for any data rate below capacity, there exists a coding scheme (a method for
mapping the information bits into constellation points) for which the BER can be made
arbitrarily small.

1.1.2 Multiple-Access Systems :-

A system in which two or more transmitters share the same channel to transmit data to a
single receiver is known as multiple-access system. Time-Division Multiple-Access
(TDMA) is a channel access scheme in which time is divided into a number of slots and
users are distinguished at the receiver by the times at which they transmit.
Frequency Division Multiple-Access is a scheme in which the available frequency band
is subdivided into a number of subbands and users share these to transmit their signals.
Code-Division Multiple-Access (CDMA) is a technique in which different pseudo-
random sequences are assigned to different users to modulate the data. These code
sequences spread the available energy over the entire bandwidth and all the users share
the both time and the bandwidth of signalling.

1.2 Multiple-Antenna Systems

Over the past decade, there has been an increasing interest in the possible use of antenna
arrays to improve the performance of wireless systems. It has long been known that
spatial diversity systems that employ multiple antennas at the receiver can improve
performance over single antennas in multipath fading channels. Transmit diversity
achieved by using multiple antennas at the transmitter can also yield a better trade off
between BER and data rate. The capacity achievable by using multiple antennas both at
the transmitter and receiver scales with the SNR in decibels (dB) as the minimum of the
number of transmit and receive antennas. This result means that the spectral efficiency
can be increased to tens of bits per second per Hertz of bandwidth. Multiple antennas
have been incorporated in many of the 3G standards. The cellular wireless access
standards, cdma2000 and Wideband CDMA (HSDPA) both require multiple-antenna
transmission at the base-station for high-data-rate transfer. Hiperlan and IEEE 802.11n
require the use of multiple antennas with orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing to
increase the range and data rates in a wireless local area network. For further details on
MIMO systems, serves as an excellent survey of the early work on this topic, and provide
a good overview of current state of the area.

1.2.1 The MIMO Channel :-

MIMO wireless systems employ multiple antennas at both the transmitter and the
receiver. The physical environment in between acts as conduit for electromagnetic signals
that are emitted from the transmit antennas. The radiated signals undergo reflection,
refraction, diffraction and thereby suffer amplitude and phase changes. Further, the
environment is dynamic and this leads to unpredictability. Consider a MIMO system with
M transmit antennas and N receive antennas. Suppose that at time instant t, the transmitter
modulates a sinusoid with a signal with the baseband representation xi(t) from the ith
antenna. This signal travels through a matrix channel with the impulse response at time t.
The signal is processed in discrete time after matched filtering and ampling at the rate of
signalling (symbol rate or chip rate depending on the system), and the channel can be
modelled as a L-tap impulse response. The number of taps L is a function of the sampling
rate and the delay spread of the channel and bandwidth of the signal x(t). Consider the
case when the signal bandwidth is small enough such that there is not much appreciable
delay spread. For this case the channel can be written as
y[n] = H[n]x[n] + w[n].
1.2.2 Spatial Multiplexing :-

In the BLAST architecture the incoming data stream is demultiplexed into M substreams
which are transmitted on the M antennas. The receiver uses successive nulling followed
by symbol detection to decode all of the transmitted substreams. This modulation scheme
employed here is known as spatial multiplexing. It is as if the matrix channel is quivalent
to many parallel subchannels, and different data streams can be transmitted on each of
subchannels.

1.2.3 Space-Time Codes :-

In order to exploit the promised benefits of MIMO systems, the data at the transmitter
needs to be coded across both space and time. Several approaches have been considered
for the systematic design of high-rate codes. The most notable among them are the linear
space-time spreading codes. In this approach, the incoming bits linearly modulate code
matrices known as dispersion matrices. The objective is to find dispersion matrices that
maximize the ergodic capacity of the system subject to such modulation. Some other
high-rate code designs based on the product distance criterion but with structured
mappings from the bit sequence to code matrices have been considered.

2. LITERATURE SURVEY

Our study of the available literature suggests recently there are many attempts made to
perform Cellular and Wi-Fi networks. Quite a few models have been developed in order
to improve various Cellular networks and Wi-Fi networks.
 3. Various Types Of Networks

3.1 Cellular network :-

A cellular network is a radio network made up of a number of radio cells (or just cell)
each served by a fixed transmitter, known as a cell site or base station. These cells are
used to cover different areas in order to provide radio coverage over a wider area than the
area of one cell. Cellular networks are inherently asymmetric with a set of fixed main
transceivers each serving a cell and a set of distributed (generally, but not always,
mobile) transceivers which provide services to the network's users.

Cellular networks offer a number of advantages over alternative solutions:

• increased capacity
• reduced power usage
• better coverage A good (and simple) example of a cellular system is an old taxi
driver's radio system where the taxi company will have several transmitters based
around a city each operated by an individual operator.

3.1.1 General characteristics :-

The primary requirement for a network to succeed as a cellular network is for it to have
developed a standardised method for each distributed station to distinguish the signal
emanating from its own transmitter from the signals received from other transmitters.
Presently, there are two standardised solutions to this issue, frequency division multiple
access (FDMA) and code division multiple access (CDMA). FDMA works by using
varying frequencies for each neighbouring cell. By tuning to the frequency of a chosen
cell the distributed stations can avoid the signal from other cells. The principle of CDMA
is more complex, but achieves the same result; the distributed transceivers can select one
cell and listen to it. Other available methods of multiplexing such as polarization division
multiple access (PDMA) and time division multiple access (TDMA) cannot be used to
separate signals from one cell to the next since the effects of both vary with position and
this would make signal separation practically impossible. Time division multiple access,
however, is used in combination with either FDMA or CDMA in a number of systems to
give multiple channels within the coverage area of a single cell.

3.1.2 Frequency reuse :-

Example of frequency reuse factor

The increased capacity in a cellular network, compared with a network with a single
transmitter, comes from the fact that the same radio frequency can be reused in a different
area for a completely different transmission. If there is a single plain transmitter, only one
transmission can be used on any given frequency. Unfortunately, there is inevitably some
level of interference from the signal from the other cells which use the same frequency.
This means that, in a standard FDMA system, there must be at least a one cell gap
between cells which reuse the same frequency.
3.1.3 Frequency choice :-

The effect of frequency on cell coverage means that different frequencies serve better for
different uses. Low frequencies, such as 450 MHz NMT, serve very well for countryside
coverage. GSM 900 (900 MHz) is a suitable solution for light urban coverage. GSM 1800
(1.8 GHz) starts to be limited by structural walls. This is a disadvantage when it comes to
coverage, but it is a decided advantage when it comes to capacity. Pico cells, covering
e.g. one floor of a building, become possible, and the same frequency can be used for
cells which are practically neighbours. 2.1 GHz is quite similar in coverage to GSM
1800. At 5 GHz, 802.11a Wireless LANs already have very limited ability to penetrate
walls and may be limited to a single room in some buildings. At the same time, 5 GHz
can easily penetrate windows and goes through thin walls so corporate WLAN systems
often give coverage to areas well beyond that which is intended.

3.2 Wi-Fi Network :-

Definition :- Wi-Fi (short for "wireless fidelity") is a term for certain types of wireless
local area network (WLAN) that use specifications in the 802.11 family. The term Wi-Fi
was created by an organization called the Wi-Fi Alliance, which oversees tests that
certify product interoperability. A product that passes the alliance tests is given the label
"Wi-Fi certified" (a registered trademark).
Today, Wi-Fi can apply to products that use any 802.11 standard. The 802.11
specifications are part of an evolving set of wireless network standards known as the
802.11 family. The particular specification under which a Wi-Fi network operates is
called the "flavor" of the network. Wi-Fi has gained acceptance in many businesses,
agencies, schools, and homes as an alternative to a wired LAN. Many airports, hotels,
and fast-food facilities offer public access to Wi-Fi networks.

3.2.1 Smart Wi-Fi :-

Wi-Fi stands for wireless fidelity; this is the universal standard that allows all the
different kinds of computers out there to interface with a wireless network.

Wireless networks consist of wireless devices equipped with wireless cards using radio
frequency to transmit data from one location to another. These wireless network cards
have unique MAC addresses, which are formatted similar to the standard Ethernet
addresses.

Apart from wireless devices like laptops, or special Wi-Fi telephone handsets, Wi-Fi
networks also comprise of access points (Aps). Aps are base stations that communicate
by radio and by wire with both mobile system and the networks that ultimately provides
access point to Internet. Each AP can send and receive signals within a limited range,
typically 20 to 50 meters inside a building. You can extend the range of a wireless
network by using a wireless relay extension point or you can use multiple access point.

The speed of a wireless network also depends on its access point and the number of
computers that can be attach to the access point depends on the manufacturer of the
access point. Some access point can handle ten computers, while others can handle over a
hundred computers.
In spite of all the advantages with Wi-Fi network there is few concerns face by designer
of the network some of them are:

• Ensuring reliability by making certain that service is not disrupted by poor quality
radio transmission.
• Maintaining performance by avoiding slow link speeds and overlong delays.
• Designing access point networks that can completely blanket the coverage area.
• Providing security against unauthorized users.

3.3 WiMAX Network :-

WiMAX, meaning Worldwide Inter-operability for Microwave Access, is a

telecommunications technology that provides wireless transmission of data using a
variety of transmission modes, from point-to-multipoint links to portable and fully mobile
internet access. The technology provides up to 72 Mbit/s symmetric broadband speed
without the need for cables. The technology is based on the IEEE 802.16 standard (also
called Broadband Wireless Access).

3.3.1 Uses :-

The bandwidth and range of WiMAX make it suitable for the following potential
applications:

• Connecting Wi-Fi hotspots to the Internet.

• Providing a wireless alternative to cable and DSL for "last mile" broadband
access.
• Providing data and telecommunications services.
• Providing a source of Internet connectivity as part of a business continuity plan.
• Providing portable connectivity.
3.3.2 Technical design challenges :-

• Developing reliable transmission and reception schemes to push broadband data

through a hostile wireless channel
• Achieving high spectral efficiency and coverage in order to deliver broadband
services to a large number of users, using limited available spectrum
• Supporting and efficiently multiplexing services with a variety of QoS
(throughput, delay, etc.) requirements
• Supporting mobility through seamless handover and roaming
• Achieving low power consumption to support handheld battery-operated devices
• Providing robust security
• Adapting IP-based protocols and architecture for the wireless environment to
achieve lower cost and convergence with wired networks.

3.4 WiFi Wireless LAN Data Rates and Range :-

The practical data rates or throughput in the WLAN based on the WiFi technologies
differ depends on the specific standard (802.11a/b/g/n), the number of users in the
network as well as the distance from the access point. Even in ideal operating conditions,
the throughput may be only 50 per cent to 75 per cent of the maximum data rate, which is
defined in a specific standard. Also, the data rates are very sensitive to the distance
between the device and the access point. For example, in an 802.11g networks the data
rate drops to as low as 1 or 2 Mbps at 100 m, though the maximum rate is 54 Mbps.
Physical barriers such as partitions and walls will further reduce the maximum rate
possible at a given distance from the AP.
In the following tables, the maximum data rates for various technologies are listed.

802.11a/b/g Data Rates

Access/Modulation Method 802.11b 802.11a 802.11g

DSSS/DBPSK 1 Mbps 1 Mbps
DSSS/DQPSK 2 Mbps 2 Mbps
CCK/DQPSK 5.5 Mbps – 11 5.5 Mbps – 11 Mbps
Mbps
OFDM/BPSK 6 – 9 Mbps 6 – 9 Mbps
OFDM/QPSK 12 - 18 Mbps 12 - 18 Mbps
OFDM/16-QAM 24 – 36 Mbps 24 – 36 Mbps
OFDM/64-QAM 48 – 54 Mbps 48 – 54 Mbps

802.11n Data Rates

(One Spatial Stream)

Access/Modulation Method Base Data With Channel With Short Guard

Rate Bonding Interval
MIMO/BPSK 6.5 – 13.5 13.5 - 27 Mbps 15 – 30 Mbps
Mbps
MIMO /QPSK 19.5 – 26 40.5 – 54 Mbps 45 – 60 Mbps
Mbps
MIMO /16-QAM 39 - 52 Mbps 81 - 108 Mbps 90 - 120 Mbps
MIMO /64-QAM 58.5 – 65 121.5 – 135 Mbps 135 – 150 Mbps
Mbps

Formula to calculate 802.11n data rates:

 4. Wireless Networks Limitations, Rates & Range

4.1 Wireless Network :-

The need for a network when there is no infrastructure is no more limited under military
and emergency applications; ad hoc networks can include private (ehome entertainment,
business) and public (fast outdoor downloading) applications as well. In ad hoc networks,
wireless mobile computing devices can perform critical network topology functions that
are normally the job of routers within the Internet infrastructure. Keeping track of the
connections between computers is something so basic that a computer network, almost by
definition, cannot exist without it. Although there are many kinds of protocols available
today that are supported by network infrastructure, they need adaptation before they can
be useful within a network no longer connected to the Internet infrastructure. On the one
hand, ad hoc networks might provide the basis for commercially successful
products/applications (conferencing, home networking, emergency services, embedded
computing applications, sensor networks). On the other hand, they suffer from some
crucial disadvantages: the accidental nature of their deployment (high data loss
probability), vulnerability to scalability problems (loss of aggregation leads to bigger
routing tables), trade-off between power budget and latency, reduced wireless data rates,
additional security exposure. For a wireless communications system, the Rayleigh fading
channel/environment is much common. In a wireless communication system the
transmitted signal typically propagates over several distinct paths before reaching the
receiving antenna. Depending on the relative phases of the received signal the multiple
signals could interfere in a destructive manner or in a constructive manner. The result of
the multiple paths is that the received signal amplitude is sometimes attenuated severely
when the signals from different paths cancel destructively, while sometimes the signal
amplitude becomes relatively large because of constructive interference. The nature of
the interference is, in general, time varying and frequency dependent. This is generally
called time and frequency selective fading.
4.1.1 Overview of wireless system :-

 Guglielmo Marconi invented the wireless telegraph in 1896

 Communication by encoding alphanumeric characters in analog signal
 Sent telegraphic signals across the Atlantic Ocean
 Communications satellites launched in 1960s
 Advances in wireless technology
 Radio, television, mobile telephone, communication satellites
 More recently
 Satellite communications, wireless networking, cellular technology.

4.1.2 Broadband wireless technology :-

 Higher data rates obtainable with broadband wireless technology

 Graphics, video, audio

 Shares same advantages of all wireless services: convenience and reduced cost
 Service can be deployed faster than fixed service
 No cost of cable plant
 Service is mobile, deployed almost anywhere

4.2 Basic Limitations :-

 Wireless is convenient and less expensive .

 Limitations and political and technical difficulties inhibit wireless technologies.
 Lack of an industry-wide standard
 Device limitations
  E.g., small LCD on a mobile telephone can only displaying a few lines of
text
 E.g., browsers of most mobile wireless devices use wireless markup
language (WML) instead of HTML

4.3 Some Problems with Wireless :-

_ Security (e.g., credit card details)

_ Lowering cost (e.g., free calls)
_ Privacy (e.g., where have you
been)
_ Interference and unreliability (e.g.,
call drop outs)

4.3 Wireless Technologies Rates and Range :-

5. Fundamental Limit on Data Rates
5.1 Introduction & Overview :-

The explosive growth of both the wireless industry and the Internet is creating a huge
market opportunity for wireless data access. Limited Internet access at low speeds (a few
tens of kilobits per second at most) is already available as an enhancement to some
second-generation (2G) cellular systems. However, those systems were originally
designed with the sole purpose of providing voice services and, at most, short messaging,
but not fast data transfers. Third-generation (3G) mobile wireless systems, currently
under development, will offer true packet access at significantly higher speeds [1].
Theoretically, user data rates as high as 2 Mb/s will be supported in certain environments,
although recent studies have shown that approaching those rates might only be feasible
under extremely favorable conditions -- in the vicinity of a base station and with no other
users competing for bandwidth [2]. In fact, as will be argued in this article, traditional
wireless technologies are not particularly well suited to meet the extremely demanding
requirements of providing the very high data rates and low cost associated with wired
access, and the ubiquity, mobility, and portability characteristic of cellular systems. Some
fundamental barriers, related to the nature of the radio channel as well as to limited
bandwidth availability at the frequencies of interest, stand in the way. As a result, the cost
per bit in wireless is still high and not diminishing fast enough. In contrast, the wired
world is already providing basically free bits, which has accustomed an entire generation
of Internet users to accessing huge volumes of information at very high speeds and
negligible cost. In this article we establish practical limits on the data rates that can be
supported by a wireless data access system with a typical range of parameters, and we
show how those limits can be lifted by using a combination of transmit and receive
antenna arrays with powerful space-time processing techniques.
 The wireless channel is a randomly-varying broadcast medium with limited
bandwidth.

 Fundamental capacity limits and good protocol designs for wireless networks are
open problems.
  Hard energy and delay constraints change fundamental design principles

 Many applications fail miserably with a “generic” network approach: need for
crosslayer design

5.2 Basic limits on increasing data rate :-

5.2.1 Wireless Channel Capacity :-

Capacity: The set of simultaneously achievable rates {R1,…, Rn}

Ever since the dawn of the information age, capacity has been the principal metric used to
assess the value of a communication system. However, several definitions of capacity
exist. We refer to link capacity or user capacity to signify the highest data rate at which
reliable communication is possible between a transmitter and a receiver. At the same
time, we use system capacity to indicate the total throughput -- sum of user data rates --
within a cell or sector. System capacity can be converted into area capacity simply via
normalizing by the cell size.

 Main drivers of channel capacity :-

 Bandwidth and power

 Statistics of the channel
 Channel knowledge and how it is used
 Number of antennas at TX and RX
5.2.2 No Tx or Rx Knowledge :-

 Increasing nT beyond coherence time aT in a block fading channel does not

increase capacity.
 Assumes uncorrelated fading.

 We have shown that with correlated fading, adding Tx antennas always increases
capacity
 Small transmit antenna spacing is good!

 Impact of spatial correlations on channel capacity

 Perfect Rx and Tx knowledge: hurts
 Perfect Rx knowledge, no Tx knowledge: hurts
 Perfect Rx knowledge, Tx knows correlation
 TX and Rx only know correlation.

5.2.3 MIMO Channel Model :-

Multiple-Input Multiple-Output (MIMO) systems have generated tremendous research

interest in the past decade mainly because of two reasons: a promise of improvement in
data rate and improved robustness of communication schemes to multipath fading and
other physical environment impairments.

5.2.4 Space: The Last Frontier :-

As a key ingredient in the design of more spectrally efficient systems, in recent years
space has become the last frontier. Nonetheless, the use of the spatial dimension in
wireless is hardly new. In fact, one could argue that the entire concept of frequency reuse
on which cellular systems are based constitutes a simple way to exploit the spatial
dimension. Cell sectorization, a widespread procedure that reduces interference, can also
be regarded as a form of spatial processing.

5.2.5 Lifting the Limits with Transmit and Receive Arrays :-

Until recently, the deployment of antenna arrays in mobile systems was contemplated
because of size and cost considerations exclusively at base station sites. The principal
role of those arrays, long before interference suppression and other signal processing
advances were conceived, was to provide spatial diversity against fading. Signal fading,
arising from multipath propagation caused by scattering, has always been regarded as an
impairment that had to be mitigated. However, recent advances in information theory
have shown that, with the simultaneous use of antenna arrays at both base station and
terminal, multipath interference can be not only mitigated, but actually exploited to
establish multiple parallel channels that operate simultaneously and in the same
frequency band.

5.2.6 Models :-

Our analyses are conducted in the 2 GHz frequency range, which is where 3G
systems will initially be deployed. This is a favorable band from a propagation
standpoint. Also, and again in line with the 3G framework, the available bandwidth is
assumed to be B = 5 MHz. However, for simplicity we ignore frequency selectivity with
the argument that it can be dealt with using the techniques mentioned earlier and their
extension to the realm of antenna arrays and BLAST.
We concentrate on the downlink only, which has the most stringent demands for data
applications. However, a similar analysis could be applied to the uplink, although with
much tighter transmit power constraints. A cellular system with fairly large cells is
assumed, with every cell partitioned into 120° sectors.
5.2.7 Single-User Data Rate Limits :-

Let us first consider an isolated single-user link limited only by thermal noise. Within the
context of a real system, this would correspond to an extreme case wherein the entire
system bandwidth is allocated to an individual user. Furthermore, it would require that no
other users be active anywhere in the system or that their interference be perfectly
suppressed. Clearly, these are unrealistic conditions; thus, the single-user analysis
provides simply an upper bound, only a fraction of which is attainable. Also, since for a
system to be interference-limited it is necessary that the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) be
large enough that the noise level is much lower than the interference, this analysis also
determines what cell sizes can be supported in interference-limited conditions.

5.2.8 Steered Directive Array :-

We first consider the use of an array at the base station only, with M closely spaced
antennas operating coherently. Since an estimate of the directional location of the
terminal can be usually derived from the uplink, the use of directive array algorithms has
been regarded as an attractive option for enhancing the performance of existing 2G
systems.

5.2.9 Transmit Diversity:-

An alternative strategy, also based on the deployment of base station arrays only,
which has already been incorporated into the 3G roadmap, is that of transmit diversity. In
this case, the base station antennas must be spaced sufficiently far apart so that their
signals are basically uncorrelated.
5.2.10 Multiple-Transmit Multiple-Receive Antenna Architectures:-

We finally turn our attention to architectures with both transmit and receive arrays.
As in the transmit diversity case, base station antennas must be spaced apart for proper
decorrelation. In addition, the terminal must be equipped with its own array. Also as in
the diversity case, no information about the directional location of the terminal is
required. In order to avoid cluttering our results with an excessive number of parameters,
we scale the size of both the base station and the terminal arrays simultaneously.

5.3 Shannon–Hartley theorem:-

Shannon–Hartley theorem is an application of the noisy channel coding theorem to the

archetypal case of a continues – time analog communications channel subject to Gaussian
noise. The theorem establishes Shannon's channel capacity for such a communication
link, a bound on the maximum amount of error-free digital data (that is, information) that
can be transmitted with a specified bandwidth in the presence of the noise interference,
under the assumption that the signal power is bounded and the Gaussian noise process is
characterized by a known power or power spectral density.

5.4 Data Rate Limits Within a Cellular System:-

Most emerging data-oriented systems feature time-multiplexed downlink channels,

certainly those evolving from TDMA, but also those evolving from CDMA. With that,
same-cell users are ensured to be mutually orthogonal; thus, the interference arises
exclusively from other cells. Accordingly, we consider a time-multiplexed multi cell
system with base stations placed on a hexagonal grid. Users are uniformly distributed and
connected to the sector from which they receive the strongest signal. To further mimic
actual 3G data systems, rate adaptation with no power control is assumed. Transmit
signals are assumed Gaussian, which maximizes capacity as long as no multi user
detection across cells is attempted. Altogether, the results presented in this section can be
considered upper bounds for a 5 MHz data-oriented 3G system.
The results correspond to Monte Carlo simulations conducted on a 19-cell universe: a
central cell, wherein statistics are collected, surrounded by two rings of interfering cells.
The cell size is scaled to ensure that the system is basically interference-limited.

6. Conclusion

Traditional wireless technologies are not very well suited to meet the demanding
requirements of providing very high data rates with the ubiquity, mobility, and portability
characteristic of cellular systems. Given the scarcity and exorbitant cost of radio
spectrum, such data rates dictate the need for extremely high spectral efficiencies, which
cannot be achieved with classical schemes in systems that are inherently self-interfering.
Increased processing across the spatial dimension thus appears to be the only means of
enabling the types of capacities and data rates needed for ubiquitous wireless Internet and
exciting multimedia services. While the most natural way of utilizing the space
dimension may be to deploy additional base stations in order to allow for more frequent
spectral reuse with smaller cells, economical and environmental considerations require
that performance be enhanced on a per-base-station basis. That, in turn, calls for the use
of antenna arrays. While the deployment of base station antenna arrays is becoming
universal, it is really the simultaneous deployment of base station and terminal arrays that
unleashes vast increases in capacity and data rates by opening up multiple signaling
dimensions. Space-time processing techniques can exploit this dimensionality to
concentrate large amounts of capacity in localized spots. Recognizing this potential, the
3G Partnership Project (3GPP) recently approved the use of transmit and receive arrays
as a working item for the high-speed downlink packet access mode currently under
development.
 Shannon capacity gives fundamental data rate limits for wireless channels

 Many open capacity problems for time-varying multiuser MIMO channels

  Duality and dirty paper coding are powerful tools to solve new capacity problems
and simplify computation

 Lyapunov exponents a powerful new tool for solving capacity problems

 Cooperative communications in sensor networks is an interesting new area of

research

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