Perfect Water Company

The
Perfect
water company
Biwater Holdings Limited

Biwater House, Station Approach, Dorking, Surrey RH4 1TZ UK
tel +44 (0)1306 740740 fax +44 (0)1306 885233
Registered in England No. 929686
Registered Office Biwater House, Station Approach, Dorking, Surrey
www.biwater.com
The Perfect Water Company
Biwater's mission statement:
To maintain a world-class reputation

in all our business activities,
founded on the highest standards of
customer service, ethics and
environmental care.

Contents
Foreword ................................................................................................................1-2
Introduction to Biwater...........................................................................................3-7
1. Investing in Water Assets ..................................................................................8-43
2. The Perfect Water Company .......................................................................... 44-84
3. The Perfect Sewerage System ..........................................................................85-95
4. The Regulatory Role ........................................................................................97-99
5. Water - A Natural Resource ..........................................................................100-105
6. The Way Forward ........................................................................................106-107
Our Products and Processes ............................................................................108-109
Water Treatment ............................................................................................110-111
a. Package Water Treatment Plant
i. Biwater Tower ........................................................................................112-115
ii. BiPAK ....................................................................................................116-118
b. Filtration Equipment
i. Filtromatic Continuous Flow Filters ........................................................119-120
ii. Pressure Filters ..............................................................................................121
iii. Rapid Gravity Filters ......................................................................................122
c. Clarification
i. Clarifiers ......................................................................................................123
ii. Flat Bottom Clarifier ......................................................................................124
iii. Dissolved Air Flotation .......................................................................... 125-127
iv. Lamella Sedimentation.................................................................................. 128
d. Turnkey Projects
i. Dominican Republic Water Supply Scheme ............................................129-130
ii. Abuja Water Supply System, Nigeria......................................................131-132
iii. Chilibre Water Treatment Plant, Panama ......................................................133
iv. Oswestry Water Treatment Plant, UK............................................................134
v. Malaysian Rural Water Supply Scheme (MRWSS)..........................................135
vi. Tortola Water & Sewage Improvement Scheme ....................................136-137
vii. Omdurman Water Supply & Optimisation Scheme, Sudan ....................138-139
viii.Maldives, Water Supply Scheme, Maldives ..................................................140
ix. Bacau Drinking Water Treatment Plant, Romania ..................................141-142

Contents
Wastewater Treatment ....................................................................................143-144
a. Package Wastewater Treatment Plant
i. biCOM ..................................................................................................145-146
ii. BiFAD ....................................................................................................147-148
iii. BiSTAR ..................................................................................................149-150
b. Wastewater Treatment Equipment
i. Rotating Bar Interceptors........................................................................151-152
ii. Screening Equipment ....................................................................................153
iii. Screening Dewatering............................................................................154-155
iv. Grit Removal..........................................................................................156-157
v. Settling Tank Scrapers............................................................................158-159
vi. Dissolved Air Flotation Process ..............................................................160-161
vii. Aeration Equipment
a. Horizontal Rotor Aeration..................................................................162-163
b. Vertical Shaft Aeration, TMA and Simplex Aerators ............................164-165
c. Floating Surface Aerators ..........................................................................166
viii.Digesting Equipment
a. Digester Mixing ........................................................................................167
b. Dry Gas Seal Holder..................................................................................168
c. Turnkey Projects
i. Eastbourne Wastewater Treatment Works, UK ......................................169-171
ii. Mafraq Wastewater Treatment Works, Abu Dhabi, UAE ........................172-173
iii. Abu Dhabi Sewage Treatment BOOT, UAE ..................................................174
iv. Beetham Wastewater Treatment Works, Trinidad ..................................175-176
v. Managua Wastewater Treatment Works, Nicaragua..............................177-178
vi. Minworth Sewage Treatment Works, UK ..............................................179-180
vii. Piatra Neamt Wastewater Treatment Works, Romania ..................................181
viii.Stonecutters Island Sewage Pumping Plant, Hong Kong................................182
ix. Sha Tin Wastewater Treatment Works, Hong Kong ......................................183
x. Yen So Park Sewage Treatment Works, Vietnam ..........................................184
xi. Guinness Industrial Wastewater Treatment Works, Nigeria....................185-186
xii. Anheuser-Busch Brewery Effluent Treatment Plant, USA ..............................187
Membrane Technology....................................................................................188-189
a. Turnkey Projects
i. El Paso Brackish Water Reverse Osmosis Plant, USA ....................................190
ii. Seychelles Desalination Project ....................................................................191
iii. Paraquita Bay Seawater Desalination Plant, British Virgin Islands ..................192
iv. Buxton Wastewater Treatment Works, UK..............................................193-194
v. Charnock Wellfield Restoration Project, Arcadia WTP, Santa Monica ....195-197
vi. Microfiltration Water Treatment Plant, Lye Oak, UK......................................198

Contents
b. Integrated Membrane Systems ....................................................................199-200
c. Seawater Reverse Osmosis Package Plants
i. Skid Mounted ......................................................................................201-203
ii. Containerised ........................................................................................204-205
iii. Pretreatment Containerised ..................................................................206-207
d. Brackish Water Reverse Osmosis Package Plants
i. Skid Mounted ......................................................................................208-210
ii. Containerised................................................................................................211
e. Reverse Osmosis Chemicals
i. Reverse Osmosis Antifoulant and Antiscalent Selection Guide ..............212-213
ii. Reverse Osmosis Feedwater Treatment Chemicals ........................................214
f. Package Membrane Bio-Reactor ..........................................................................215
Consultancy Services........................................................................................216-230
a. References ..................................................................................................231-232
b. Optimisation ..............................................................................................233-235
i. Panama City, Panama............................................................................236-237
ii. Tamale, Ghana ......................................................................................238-239
Infrastructure Ownership, Investment & Operation........................................240-241
a. Bournemouth & West Hampshire Water, UK Case study ........................242-243
b. The China Water Company Case study ....................................................244-245
c. Subic Water, Philippines Case study ........................................................246-247
d. Adhya Tirta Batam, Indonesia Case study ................................................248-249
e. Silulumanzi, South Africa Case study ......................................................250-251
Biwater Export Finance ..................................................................................252-253
Glossary..........................................................................................................254-258
Foreword
By Biwater Chairman Adrian White, CBE, DL, D.Univ, C Sci, FCIWEM
I do not need to tell you that there is no such thing

as a Perfect Water Company. That is, one without
leaks, with a 100% revenue collection, 100% purity
in its drinking water and sewage effluent, and that
can meet all the demands of a once-in-a-century
extreme drought! Such a perfect company would
also show a return on capital employed of 20% and
have all of its customers happy all of the time!
Realistically, it is probably both impractical and
financially non viable for the water company owner
(government or private) to be able to better Biwaters
performance after owning Bournemouth & West
Hampshire Water Company PLC for 20 years until
2010. Its performance won it the accolade of being
the UKs model water company. It had a consistent
and unparalleled record, which in the year ending
March 2009 showed a water quality standard averaging at 99.999%; a non-revenue
(lost and unpaid for water) of 10.6%; and a best performance production with only
181 staff equal to 850,000 litres of water per day, per employee.
Adrian E White, who started his
career in water engineering with
United Filters & Engineering
Limited in 1959 and formed
Biwater in 1968. He was the
founder chairman of British Water
in 1993 and the High Sheriff of
Surrey in 2006-2007.
Around the World today Governments are seeking to shed the load of huge capital
budgets to supply their growing populations with safe drinking water, whilst disposing
of sewage in a sustainable way. The quick fix of handing over a citys existing water
production only (waterworks) to a management company under a fifteen to thirty year
concession in exchange for a payment from Government of 100% cash for every litre
produced, when Government only receives around 40% from its consumers, is the first
major trap to be avoided. This incentive of all future funding for water production
being raised and paid for by the concessions management company (with government
guarantees) leaves the Government with its greatest asset creamed off and all the
liabilities of water distribution, leaks and tariff collection still around its neck. It is far
better not to relinquish water production for a short term cash or political funding gain
without including the distribution system and revenue collection. This way the
management company is only paid with the money it collects from the consumers.
Payment is then made against results and no Government borrowing or guarantees are
required. This can be the first step for a Government to remove all capital budgets for
water and sewerage from its public sector borrowing requirement as monitored and
recorded by the International Monetary Fund (IMF), or the World, European, Asian,
African and Inter-American Development Banks.
So what is the first step on the road to creating the Perfect Water Company? Are there
any more down sides? Well, apart from outright grant aid, money in has to equal
1
Foreword
By Biwater Chairman Adrian White, CBE, DL, D.Univ, C Sci, FCIWEM
money out, despite the long period it takes to recover it! This comes down to the
politically indigestible fact that the water tariff must increase annually in line with
inflation and be sufficient to cover all costs including capital expenditure. Banking and
financial experts in Biwater regularly model a tariff structure that can absorb a capital
expenditure equal to many times the annual tariff income. This can be achieved with
low tariff increases in the first two to three years, which have been found to be the
maximum acceptable absorption without causing civil unrest or requiring Government
financial guarantees. One of the most difficult problems to overcome is the vast capital
expenditure required for building a sewerage system, without which a citys raw drinking
water sources could become contaminated. Yes, the Worlds lending agencies will help
and, if they provide thirty-year loans at subsidised rates, then most governments
problems are over. Regrettably the Worlds aid/grant agencies are much more particular
when privatisation is mentioned, and yet, generally, they are the very agencies
recommending the privatisation approach as good planning or good housekeeping.
The reality is that the Worlds lending agencies such as the World Banks International
Finance Corporation (IFC) are obligated to provide funds to privatise utilities at hard
nosed commercial rates. These can be found more onerous than loan funds from a
countrys own bank or a Governments own insurance or investment funds, however, the
benefit is that when the IFC does syndicate a loan, other banks are happier to join in.
This book illustrates that Governments can obtain expert management and off balance
sheet funding for improving and developing their water and sewerage systems without
losing control; without handing over assets; without losing a reasonable annual income;
and without losing a large capital gain when The Perfect Water Company is floated
on its countrys stock exchange in later years.
In conclusion, The Perfect Water Company can be achieved by working with an
expert management company, in joint venture, to ensure continued Government
control in the provision of its populations number one natural need and resource.
I hope that this booklet will show you what perfection means in reality with the options
available to Governments clearly set out with all the benefits and drawbacks.
We, in Biwater, process dozens of such public/private joint ventures every month and are,
or have, operated, managed or owned water and sewerage systems throughout the
World. Please use our experience to avoid the pitfalls, and utilise our strength, to arrange
the finance for your Government to maximise the benefits for your consumer, whilst
minimising the cost to your tax payers.
Introduction to
Biwater
Biwater, formed as Biwater Treatment Co. Ltd in 1968, was the first organisation to
purchase a British water company in the privatisation of British water supplies in the
1980s. This was the purchase of the East Worcestershire Water Company in 1988,
followed by the purchases of the West Hampshire Water Company and the
Bournemouth and District Water Company in 1989.
Biwaters pioneering in the field of water company ownership and management in the
1980s has its earlier precedent in the middle of the last century when private English
companies were the first to be granted concessions to manage water supplies in other
countries in Germany (Berlin) in 1856 and in France (Cannes) in 1866.
In the middle of the last century, Britain still led the World in the provision of not only piped,
treated water, but also in the construction of comprehensive reticulation systems for
sewerage, thereby eradicating or dramatically reducing pollution and disease.
Biwater has embraced most of the famous names of British water and sewerage
treatment and equipment manufacturers, some of which were formed in the middle of
the last century, eg William E Farrer (1896), Whitehead and Poole (1901), Ames Crosta
(1820), United Filters (1925), Clay Cross (1837), Glenfield & Kennedy (1852), Armfield
Engineering (1875), Ham Baker (1901), Wallwin Pumps (1912), The Bournemouth and
District Water Company (1863) and The West Hampshire Water Company (1893).
During its history, Biwater has provided services from its in-house capabilities to all of
the UK water PLCs and Scottish Regional Councils. In fact, Biwater has been a major
supplier to these organisations. It has supplied pipes, valves, penstocks, pumps, control
panels etc as well as complete sewage and water treatment plants.
Biwater now exports to over 60 countries and, operates or manages water and
sewerage companies throughout the World. It has, through its member companies built
over 6,000 water treatment plants and 10,000 sewage and effluent treatment plants,
the majority of which incorporated a period of training and operation.
Introduction to
Biwater
480 million litre a day, Sungai Selangor Water Treatment Plant, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
The second largest desalination plant in the World in the 1980s Buwayb Water
Treatment Plant in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia was designed and constructed by Biwater. It
utilised the latest technology in reverse osmosis, producing 59,000 m3/day (13 mgd) of
potable water from brackish well water. Biwater reverse osmosis desalination plants are
now installed throughout the World and are even installed on cruise liners and in many
of the World's naval fleets. Biwater now has the largest installed capacity of
desalination membranes in the United States of America.
The Worlds largest rural water supply contract is one undertaken by Biwater;
comprising every state in Malaysia (including Sabah and Sarawak); incorporating 134
schemes; covering 600 sites. It was the largest ever population catch-up contract to
supply the majority of people who were without piped treated water (4.2 million
people), at a contract value of over US$1.5 billion at todays prices.
Bournemouth and West Hampshire Water Company, originally owned by Biwater for
20 years, is not only among those with the lowest level of non-revenue water in the
UK, but has also been consistently top of the UKs water quality league table (see
diagrams on pages 6-7)
Biwater has achieved its position as one of the Worlds leading managers and operators
of water supply and sewerage systems, with its dedicated commitment to accountable,
ethical professionalism. Through partnership and transparency, our clients see, by
the reduction of non-revenue water, that Biwater shares not only the reward but also
the risk.
4
Introduction to
Biwater
El Paso Reverse Osmosis Plant, Texas, in the USA where Biwater

has the largest installed capacity of membranes
Introduction to
Biwater
OVERALL PERFORMANCE OF WATER COMPANIES 2008/09

(SOURCE - OFWAT)
Bournemouth & West Hampshire Water
290
280
270
260
250
240
230
220
210
Each bar represents a water company in England & Wales
TOTAL LEAKAGE 2008/09

(SOURCE - OFWAT)
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Introduction to
Biwater
COST OF OPERATIONS IN 2007/2008 PENCE PER CUBIC METRE

(SOURCE - OFWAT)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
COST TO CUSTOMERS 2007/2008 PENCE PER CUBIC METRE

(SOURCE - OFWAT)
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1. Investing in Water Assets

Background
A citys water supply system is an asset that can be used to raise money for the greater
benefit of the city or the countrys population.
Developing countries that have a rural population without piped, treated drinking water
can fund much of the needed capital by leasing or selling their existing (paid, or part paid,
for) city and town water assets.
Countries with the bulk of their population already served with safe drinking water can use
the funds from selling or leasing their water assets to build their sewerage systems or, if
these are already in place, to reduce national debt or boost state funds.
In developing countries over 1.1 billion people do not have access to safe drinking water.
The situation with sanitation is even more severe as an estimated 2.6 billion people are
without sanitation facilities. Poor sanitation, particularly in the dense peri-urban settlements
prevalent in developing countries, in turn, affects the quality of untreated groundwater
used for drinking an appalling and unhealthy cycle.
The cost of poor quality drinking water and inadequate sanitation is significant including
water borne diseases, lack of commercial development, poor communities paying
excessive charges for untreated water from informal vendors and woman and children
walking long distances to collect water and foregoing employment and education
opportunities, etc. Against this background, the United Nations Millennium Project (2003)
set Millennium Development Goals for Water and Sanitation to: Halve, by 2015, the
proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and sanitation.
It is no coincidence, however, that low income countries are among the severest affected
by lack of improved water and sanitation. In Sub-Saharan Africa around 42% of the
population do not have access to treated water. Governments in these countries are faced
with an increasing demand for the provision of water and sanitation services against a
limited budget to finance these crucial assets. This is aggravated by the declining interest
for water investment from the multi-national water companies. The investment risk and
corruption often outweigh the relatively low returns generated by water projects in
developing countries.
While many developed countries are committed to achieving the Millennium Development
Goal for Water and Sanitation, the identification of feasible projects is in itself a challenge.
One of the difficulties is matching available funding to a developing countrys needs.
Funding agencies that support water and sanitation projects now require that investments
focus on sustainable delivery rather than construction of the infrastructure. Hence there is
often the need for private sector involvement following commissioning of the facilities.
Biwater, in pursuit of projects, is a competent catalyst for developing viable projects and
arranging funding from donors and funding agencies on behalf of governments or local
partnerships and, importantly, managing it efficiently afterwards.
9
Biwater Funding Tombstones
Objectives
To Raise Capital and Remove the Capital Funding Burden from Government
Future capital investment requirements for water and sewerage are often enormous,
even for a developed city. This expenditure, in terms of its cost and implementation,
can usually be carried out more efficiently by the private sector than by Government.
Countries in the developed world are now selling their water assets to raise huge capital
funds to put towards debt reduction or to fund new projects.
The developing world is justifiably nervous about selling off assets and therefore looks
to protect itself, however, a Government has many options for raising capital, even if
there are social and political sensitivities over the selling of public property or assets
which are:
Selling a minority interest (say 49%);
Leasing assets for 15-30 years;
Selling 100% of the shares but retaining one golden control share, (this prevents new
owners disposing of their assets or shares without Government permission);
Letting a Concession Contract for 15-30 years (within which the Concessionaire
raises all future funding).
10

To Help The Poor
Cross subsidy whereby the rich water consumers help fund the water supply to the
poor is practised throughout the world. This is politically acceptable and receives
the endorsement of the worlds lending agencies.
In a nation where 50% of its population is still unserved with piped treated water, funds
can be raised through the sale or lease, under regulation of its developed city and
town assets and used to fund rural water supplies.
Where existing water assets are unlocked in this way to help develop rural water or
sewerage schemes, Government debt is not increased, capital budgets are reduced and
further foreign loan commitments are minimised.
The danger with privatising the whole of a developing nations water supply system is
that the worlds lending and, more importantly, the worlds grant/aid agencies, may
restrict the availability of grant aid or soft loans to a commercial rather than
a Government owned water supply.
The World Banks International Finance Corporation (IFC), or the Asian, African and
American Development Banks, for example, will provide equity and loans for a
privatised water operation but at commercial rates of return and interest. Whilst the
involvement of the IFC may encourage the participation of other lenders and equity
partners, its conditions may be considered onerous by both the proposed privatisation
company and by the Government.
The worlds venture capitalists can be equity investors in developed (financially strong)
countries water privatisation, but demand very high rates of return throughout the life
of their investment. They are rarely interested in accepting a lower rate of return in the
early years at a time when Governments are particularly anxious to keep water tariffs
low.
To help a poor country, its rural population and its unserved urban population, the
most politically acceptable and financially viable options are to:
Lease existing viable water assets in cities and large towns and use the funds raised
to serve those without water;
Own 49% of the privatising company, or own a golden control share;
Not privatise poor, unserved areas, otherwise Government to Government
and worlds grant/aid agencies support could be lost;
Let a concession contract for the funding and development of water and
sewerage systems for unserved populations.
11

Metering of supplies should not be a first priority, as it was for one Caribbean island when
its mains were leaking like a sieve. In that instance installing 20,000 meters added potentially
40,000 more leaks!
Delegating the responsibility for water production should not be done without, at the same
time, handing over the responsibility for the operation, cost and maintenance of the
complete water distribution and tariff collection. Otherwise, the best asset will have been
sold off and Government will have been left with the biggest problem.
Operating Water Assets
The provision of infrastructure and its operation has been viewed historically as the
responsibility of Governments. The operation of water supplies and sewerage systems has
normally been undertaken by staff employed directly by a Governmental organisation with
capital expenditure being funded through taxes and national or municipal loans.
In recent decades many Governments and local authorities have been faced with the
need to spend more on infrastructure as environmental standards rose, as demand
increased, as ageing facilities needed refurbishment and as high levels of water losses
became unsustainable. In some cases the need to invest in infrastructure coincided with
the need to reduce the size and spending of the public sector and to balance national
budgets. Pressures have also been felt by the public sector that traditionally operated
the water systems.
Against the above backcloth over the last 20 years many Governmental authorities have
turned to the private sector to solve their water problems. In 2007, seven hundred million
people were served by private operators and this number is expected to rise to over eleven
hundred million by 2015. The engagement of private organisations in providing water
services has been seen to successfully release the public sector from its traditional
responsibilities to focus upon policy setting and regulation. It can also remove the burden
of financing new infrastructure.
Awarding a contract to the private sector to provide a vital service such as water is
sometimes considered a brave step after years of public sector operations, however,
government bodies are increasingly willing to make this move when they observe the
dramatic service improvements and government debt reduction that the private sector is
able to deliver.
12

The reasons why using the private sector to provide water services is an attractive and
realistic proposition are summarised as follows:
Technology
Private sector operators have to stay at the forefront of technological developments to
ensure that they remain competitive and efficient. International water operators have
experience of delivering services in many different locations under widely differing
circumstances and this fact ensures that each new project benefits from the best available
technology something that the government sector may find difficult to identify with
certainty. The technologies that the private sector are able to introduce range from the
latest process expertise, the reduction of water losses, in-situ repair of pipelines, accurate
customer billing, responsive customer services and much more besides.
Best practice
Sharing knowledge and experience is vital to the rapid development of any system or
service. Experienced operators develop the service which they offer from analysing the
collective experience of their international businesses. Best practice is developed from
pooling these ideas and experiences and delivers benefits to new operations which
would take a long time to develop in utilities that operate in isolation.
Finance and raising capital
Finance is invariably an issue for Government authorities who frequently experience too
great a demand for their limited funds. Involving the private sector offers the public sector
the opportunity to raise capital either by selling its water company or by leasing the right
to provide water services as a part of a long term contract. The funds raised by the public
sector can either be used for new investment in water assets or in other sectors where there
are more urgent needs.
In many situations the public sector is able to pass responsibility for capital investment to
the private sector and as a consequence avoid the responsibility for future funding. The
circumstances where this is possible are described later in this chapter.
Training
Investment in its employees is a central ethos of the private sector. Training schemes which
have been developed in an operators established utilities can be easily shared with new
operations. This training can be delivered by arranging for experts to visit new operations
and also by the temporary secondment of staff into the operators existing companies. The
rotation of management staff between operations can also provide a stimulating and
effective method of improving utility performance.
13
Training for ISO 9001, ISO 14001 and OHSAS 18001 at Subic Water, Philippines
Long term commitment

In theory the private sector could provide some of the benefits that are described above
through short term contracts. However, this argument fails to identify the true benefit of
involving private operators which is that by the award of a long term contract the public
sector secures a long term commitment and the assurance of seamless improvements in
every aspect of the service that is provided. In a long term contract the private sector is
continually challenged by its need to reduce costs and to be more efficient. Following the
award of a long term contract the public sector no longer has to worry about the latest
developments in the water sector and how these can be introduced; its role becomes one
of setting targets and monitoring the performance.
A long term commitment is also required when the private sector is required to raise finance.
To keep tariffs at affordable levels it is always necessary to spread the cost of finance over
many years and this can only be achieved within well regulated long contracts.
14

Management Contract
Water Intake Pump Station, Fuzhou Concession, China
Methods for involving the private sector

Management Contract
A Management Contract allows Governments and local authorities to obtain assistance
from the private sector for the provision of specific services, seeking in most cases to raise
significantly the operational performance of assets or to implement new programmes.
Operating costs often have to be supported by the authorities who wish to use a
management contract to improve performance such that financial support is eliminated or
reduced. The services provided under a management contract can involve the operation of
a water system, training of staff, management of a water leakage control programme,
introduction of a new billing or GIS system or a combination of these. The key feature of
the contract is that the contractor is required to provide clearly specified services for which
it is paid directly, as a management fee, by the Government or a Government Department.
The contract will often include targets that the contractor is incentivised to meet. A diagram
which illustrates the basic responsibilities of the parties to the contract is provided below:
Role
Government and/or
local authority
Legislation Policy, Contractual arrangement
Asset ownership, Capital expenditure

Receipt of revenue, Monitoring Control
Government or
Municipal Water
Specific Services:
Operations and Maintenance,
Customer and Operational Service Targets,
Training, Billing, etc.
Management Contractor
15

Management Contract
The diagram on page 17 shows the Government or Municipal Water Company

retaining ownership of the water service facilities and responsibility for new investment.
The Water Company, or a monitoring unit separately established by Government or the
Municipality, monitors and controls the Management Contractor in accordance with
the terms of the contract.
This form of the contract is usually short with a duration of approximately 5 years. The
emphasis within the contract is in specifying the services and performance that are
required from the contractor, the timescale within which they should be delivered and
the level of management fee and incentive.
Example
An example of a Management Contract is a contract within which a contractor is required
to provide the operations management for a water and wastewater utility whilst reducing
unaccounted for water, ensuring service quality improvements, and improving revenue
collection. The Government or the Municipality pays the contractor a fixed fee for the
services that are being provided, with an incentive fee to achieve targets in the areas of
improvement, whilst continuing with a reducing subsidy to support the operational costs
of the utility and providing necessary capital investment. The contractor would normally
be paid on a monthly basis for the fixed fee element, and at intervals for the fee based
on his performance against the targets set by the Government or Municipality.
Advantages
The Management Contract is relatively simple and straightforward.
Disadvantages
The Management Contract represents a minimum level of involvement in infrastructure
services by the private sector. Whilst the contract contributes to the efficiency of the
operations, it does not address problems of under investment nor does it transfer the
full risk or cost or financing operating the water system to the private sector.
16

Lease Contract
Lease Contract
The first step towards transferring the full risk and responsibility of operating a water
system is represented by the Lease Contract. The characteristics of a Lease Contract are
summarised below.
A Lease Contract provides Governments and local authorities with a mechanism for
transferring the responsibility for operating a water or sewerage system to the private
sector whilst retaining control and responsibility for investment in the system. A lease
contract is normally applied to a utility which is profitable, as opposed to one whose
operational costs are being supported by the authorities. The normal form of the
contract requires a contractor to assume complete management responsibility for all
system operations. In a water utility this responsibility normally extends from water
treatment and distribution, sewage collection and treatment, to billing and revenue
collection. The diagram below illustrates the basic responsibilities of each party.
Role
Government and/or
local authority
Asset ownership, Capital expenditure

Monitoring and Control
Government or Municipality
Asset Holding Water Company
Operations and Maintenance,

Customer and operational service targets,
Billing and receipt of revenue, Payment of
lease fee to Government or Municipal
Water Company
Lease Company
This diagram shows that the Government or Municipal Water Company retains
ownership of the assets that are needed to provide the service and is also responsible
for capital investment. This type of contract usually has a duration of ten to twenty
years. The specific works that the Lease Company needs to undertake will be defined
in a Contract which specifies that the Lease Company should receive all billing
revenues but make payment to the Government or Municipal Water Company of a
lease fee which is then used to support its capital expenditure. As a result the Lease
Company has greater freedom than a Management Contractor to manage the utility
in the most efficient way to achieve the agreed quantity and quality standards.
17

Lease Contract
Example
A Lease Contract is formed when a Lease Company is invited to take over the operation
of a water utility. The Lease Company bills and receives revenue from customers. The
revenue is used to meet all of the operating costs for the system and a lease fee is paid to
the owner for the use of the utility assets. The link between revenue collection, operating
costs, and lease fee, provides the Lease Company with a continual incentive to increase the
efficiency of the water supply system.
The tariffs that the Lease Company is allowed to charge for the water supplied are
controlled by the Government or Municipal Water Company through a periodic review
process. The review provides an opportunity for revisiting targets and operating
assumptions; for the Government or Municipal Water Company to recover some of the
efficiency gains that have been made and to adjust the lease fee and thereby the
contribution to capital expenditure by regulating tariff rises according to the contract.
Regulation of these tariffs is sometimes made by an independent regulator. Confidence in
this tariff regulation is important for stability in the review process and the overall
independence of the process. Where there is high confidence in this process, the
Government or Municipality can seek an advance payment of the lease fee annually for
the contract period. During the contract, the Lease Company is required to maintain the
assets which it uses in good operating condition, with allowances made for wear and tear.
The Government or Municipal Water Company may decide to extend or improve the
water supply assets during the term of the Lease Contract. To cater for this eventuality
there is provision within the contract for the scope of the Lease Company's responsibilities
to be increased.
The Lease Contract is widely used in Europe.
Advantages
The Lease Contract is a commonly used method of transferring the risk and responsibility
of operating a water or sewerage system to the private sector. The form of contract is
proven and exists in standard forms that can be readily adapted to specific circumstances.
The introduction of the private sector can provide a continual drive for efficiency which can
be shared between the Lease Company, the customers and the Government or
Municipality. The Government or Municipality retains ownership of the assets used for the
water supply and may secure an income to repay outstanding debt or to provide funds for
future investment. It is common for the Asset Holding Water Company to be paid a 'lease
fee' by the Lease Company to meet these costs.
18

Lease Contract
Disadvantages
The Lease Contract represents a major transfer of operating responsibility to the private
sector. It is important that there should be good quality information about the water
system which is going to be operated before a Lease Contract proceeds. If the
characteristics and condition of the system are poorly defined it will be difficult to
attract the interest of the private sector, unless the Water Company is prepared to allow
the charges to consumers to be raised to allow for the perceived risks. This is unlikely
to be politically acceptable and as a consequence, it is common for there to be a
detailed study before a project is initiated.
19

Concessions
Concession
If Governments wish to secure new investments for their utilities which are funded and
implemented by the private sector it will be necessary to consider Concessions or for a
particular facility, a Build-Own-Operate-Transfer Contract (BOOT).
A Concession provides a mechanism through which Governments can obtain investment
in infrastructure without providing the funds from their own budgets or through loans
secured using central bank guarantees. Under a Concession a Government grants a private
entity permission to take beneficial use of the existing assets of a utility and for the private
entity to operate and maintain these at its own expense, whilst financing, building, owning
and operating additional facilities to meet future demand and increases in standards whilst
receiving all revenue from customers. The utility, with the new assets financed by the
private entity, are returned to Government ownership after a pre-agreed period of time. A
diagram showing the allocation of responsibilities is provided below:
Role
Government and/or
local authority
Government or
Municipal Water
Special Purpose Company

(established by
private company)
Existing Asset Ownership, Monitoring and Control
Beneficial use of existing assets, Loan Arrangements

Capital investment, New Asset Ownership,
Operations and Maintenance, Customer and Operational
Service Targets, Billing and Receipt of Revenue
The diagram above shows that a Special Purpose Company operates the utility, its assets
and current and future responsibilities, including responsibility for the full provision of
services to customers and the financing of new assets. In practice the existing assets remain
in the ownership of the existing utility and all assets are returned to the Government or
Municipality at the end of the Concession.
This type of contract usually has a duration of thirty years. The overall responsibilities of
the Special Purpose Company are defined both by the current and the projected demands
of customers and associated service standards. As a result, the Special Purpose Company
has greater freedom to manage the utility in the most efficient way to achieve the quantity
and quality standards agreed, than in a Lease Contract.
20

Concessions
Example
A Concession Contract requires the formation of a Special Purpose Company which
takes over full responsibility for water systems. The Special Purpose Company employs
all the staff, operates and manages the entire system, receives all revenue, and is
responsible for all future investment including its financing.
The tariffs that the Special Purpose Company is allowed to charge for the services
provided are controlled by the Government or Municipality through a periodic review
process. The review provides an opportunity for revisiting targets and operating
assumptions. The obligations of the Special Purpose Company are onerous and it is very
important that the regulation process for these tariffs is clear and executed responsibly
so as to provide a high level of confidence in the review process. The regulation is
sometimes made by an independent regulator for a Lease Contract, providing a high
level of confidence in the process. The Government or Municipality can seek advance
payment for the rights to the concession.
Concession Contracts are used in Latin America, South Africa and in South East Asia.
Advantages
The Concession is an effective mechanism whereby Governments can secure
investment in infrastructure without providing direct financial guarantees or public
funds. At the end of the Concession a fully operational and well maintained installation
is transferred back, at no cost to the Government or Municipal owner.
In summary, the Concession represents a transfer of financial and operating responsibility to
the private sector, which can have major benefits for the public sector in its quest for greater
efficiency whilst allowing it to retain control of strategy and planning.
Disadvantages
The Concession only transfers a Water Company's responsibilities to the private sector
for a finite period. If Governments wish to transfer the responsibility for all aspects of
water supply and waste treatment to the private sector in perpetuity it will be necessary
to consider Privatisation. The principle characteristics of Privatisation are described later
in this section.
21
Pan de Azucar Water Treatment Plant, Chile
22
Irrigation of crops using effluent water in Antofagasta, Chile
23
Jar testing, Batam Island, Indonesia
24
Customer service centre, Subic Bay, Philippines
25
A Biwater financed water treatment plant, Laguna Alta, Panama
26
Laboratory Testing, Xinmin, China
27

BOOT Contracts
BOOT (Build-Own-Operate-Transfer) Contract

A BOOT Contract provides a mechanism through which Governments can obtain
investment in infrastructure without providing the funds from their own budgets or
through loans secured by central bank guarantees. Under a BOOT contract a Government
grants a private entity permission to finance, build, own and operate a facility, to charge
for its use or output and then to transfer the facility to Government ownership after a preagreed period of time. The facilities which are provided by the private sector usually
provide a specific service within a utility which is operated by a Water Department. A
diagram showing the allocation of responsibilities is provided below:
Role
Legislation Policy, Contractual

arrangement
Government and/or
local authority
Monitoring, Control, Wastewater

collection/ Water supply
Government or Municipality
Water Company
Capital investment in a specific facility

Asset ownership, Operation and
Maintenance of the specific facility,
Charge Water Company bulk tariff, Facility
performance
Special Purpose
Company
The diagram above shows that the Water Company continues to operate the water
supply, or wastewater collection system, but that it calls upon the private sector for
specific investment and service requirements such as a bulk supply of treated water, or
the treatment of wastewater. The BOOT Contract normally has a duration of between
twenty five and thirty years. This length of contract is required to provide the private
sector with time to repay the lenders and investors who have funded
the original investment. The Water Department retains the responsibility for monitoring
the performance of the BOOT Contractor but does not intervene in detail about its day
to day operations.
28

BOOT Contracts
Investment in a new customer service centre, part of Biwaters original Batam Island water supply
concession project in Indonesia
Example
A typical BOOT involves the award of a contract to a developer or contractor where they
are required to construct a water or wastewater treatment plant with a specified treatment
capacity. The developer/contractor is required to establish a local special purpose company
(SPC), which has the responsibility for executing the contract.
The SPC attracts investment and loans to enable it to finance the construction of the facilities
that are required by the BOOT. The SPC has no specific construction or operations expertise
and as a consequence, it is normal for the SPC to let subcontracts to specialist construction
and operations companies who act on its behalf. The developer/contractor who has
negotiated the BOOT is normally expected to fulfil some or all of these roles.
When the construction phase of the project has been completed the SPC provides the
treatment service and is paid directly by the Water Company from revenues it has collected
from its customers. The payment is normally based upon a charge for each cubic metre of
water treated, although there are likely to be fixed charges or minimum off-take
requirements to ensure that the SPCs fixed costs can be met in all circumstances.
The SPC has a long term responsibility for the service and as a result is vulnerable to the
effects of inflation, interest rates and in some cases exchange rates. It is normal for the tariff
it charges the Water Company to be adjusted periodically using indices that reflect the
movements in its costs such as labour, power, chemicals and finance.
BOOTs have become an established way of securing private sector investment. The
mechanism has been extensively used in the power sector and is now being used to provide
water and sewage treatment facilities worldwide, in particular for desalination schemes.
29

BOOT Contracts
Advantages
A Build, Own, Operate and Transfer (back to Government) or BOOT, is an effective
mechanism through which Governments can secure investment in infrastructure
without providing direct financial guarantees or public funds. In addition there are no
payments to be made until the installation is complete and operating to specification.
The advantage of this form of private sector participation is not limited to financial
issues since it also removes the risk of design, construction, cost overruns and
construction management.
Invariably the BOOT Contractor will require a guarantee from the Government to
ensure that its Water Department will honour its commitments under the BOOT
Contract.
During the operations phase there are further benefits arising from the SPC's
responsibility for plant operation and performance. At the end of the BOOT contract a
fully operational and well maintained installation is transferred back to the Water
Company at no cost.
In summary, a BOOT represents a transfer of financial and operating responsibility to
the private sector, which can have major benefits for the public sector in its quest for
greater efficiency whilst allowing it to retain control of customer services, water
distribution / wastewater collection, strategy and planning.
Disadvantages
The BOOT only partially transfers a Water Department's responsibilities to the private
sector and in this regard may not meet all Government objectives. In particular the
responsibility for revenue collection from customers is retained by the Water
Department, as well as the responsibility for staff employment and the investment
associated with services not covered by the BOOT. If Governments wish to transfer the
responsibility for all aspects of water supply and waste treatment to the private sector
it will be necessary to consider Privatisation. The principle characteristics of Privatisation
are described on page 34.
30
Circular clarifiers at Binictican Water Treatment Works, one of the works in the original Biwater
concession in Subic Bay in the Philippines
31
Staff training at Subic Bay, Philippines
32
Raw water intake at Mukakuning, Water Treatment Plant, Batam Island, Indonesia
33

Privatisation
Privatisation
Privatisation represents the final stage of transfer of the responsibility for water and
sewerage systems to the private sector. The transfer is normally undertaken by
changing a Water Company into a corporation or by allowing a private company which
has been established specifically for the purpose to take over responsibility from a
Water Company. Whilst the process of Privatisation represents a full transfer of
responsibility there are well established mechanisms through which the Government
can retain control of the standards of service provided to consumers, the tariffs which
are charged and the investment in new facilities.
The normal procedure is to establish an independent Regulator with the responsibility
for monitoring and controlling the performance of the private company. The regulatory
system has been pioneered in England and Wales where it is used to control all of the
country's water utilities. The basic responsibilities of the Government, the Regulator
and the Privatised Water Company are illustrated below.
Role
Legislation, Policy
Government
Tariffs, Monitoring, Control
Regulator
Asset ownership, Investment, Operation &

Maintenance, Customer billing, Service
standards
Utility Company
The diagram above illustrates the way in which Privatisation transfers complete responsibility
to a private company (the Utility Company).
A Privatisation arrangement is normally established by the award of a license in perpetuity
to the Utility Company and the sale of the original water companys assets, or shares to the
owners of the Utility Company through a private placement or stock market flotation. The
Privatisation mechanism thus offers an opportunity for Governments to realise the value of
their water supply assets. The terms of the license/contract specify the performance which
is expected from the Utility Company in terms of customer liaison, water quality and any
other criteria which are considered to be important.
34

Privatisation
Example
An example of a Privatisation project is where a Water Company that has operated a
water supply or sewage system for a municipality for many years is required to hand
over full responsibility to a private company. The owner of the Water Company, the
Government or Municipality, arranges first the corporatisation of the Water Company,
if this is not already the case, and then arranges its sale to new owners.
Regulatory reviews are established at regular intervals in the order of 5 years. Company
tariffs are established at the reviews using a financial model incorporating the
company's operating costs and its proposed capital expenditure.
Privatisation has been used throughout England and for example, Wales and in Chile.
Advantages
The major benefit of Privatisation to Governments is that it represents complete transfer
of funding and operating responsibility to the private sector without loss of control over
wastewater treatment or water supply quality standards and planning. Privatisation also
represents a method of avoiding the complexity that can exist where there are several
contractual interfaces within a water supply system and allows Government to reduce
the number of its directly employed staff. The regulation process provides the
Government with a secure method of control of the Utility Company but, even more
importantly, it can provide an effective ongoing mechanism for creating efficiency
incentives which are difficult to achieve within public ownership. The Government or
Municipality raises a capital sum through the sale of the Water Company.
Disadvantages
Privatisation can often be controversial politically owing to the sale of publicly owned
assets, but as Mrs Thatcher, Prime Minister of Great Britain famously said,
Governments are not in the business of running businesses.
35

Project Finance
Finance for water assets

If contracts are structured appropriately it is possible for finance to be raised against the
security of the contract between the public and private sectors. This finance can take the
form of private equity investment and also of loan funds. Both of these sources of finance
require a contract where tariff regulation and the allocation of operating risks are
conducive to the long term stability and profitability of the operating company. This
stability and profitability is created by ensuring that the risks implicit in the delivery of the
utility service are allocated to the party that is best able to manage that risk, that there is
a collaborative atmosphere and further that the contract provides certainty about the fair
and predictable adjustment of tariffs.
For the operator to invest and to raise finance there needs to be protection from the
effect of inflation, exchange rates and other factors that are beyond his control but
which can affect the viability of the business. The Contractor and Operator also need
to be protected from political disruptions that can arise from changes in government
policy or from a political reluctance to implement tariff adjustments.
The main conditions which need to be addressed to facilitate raising finance for utilities
which are the subject of public private partnerships may be summarised as:
Tariff regulation by a mechanism which provides protection from factors that are
outside the operators control.
Policy stability towards the concept of private sector involvement in service delivery
at both a local and national level.
Freedom from political interference.
A constructive and collaborative attitude between the private and public sector which
provides the flexibility to respond to changes that occur during the contract.
A contract that allocates risks realistically and fairly.
A contract that has the above characteristics will be able to raise equity and loans on
the most favourable terms which will improve the quality and reduce the cost of the
service that is provided. Contracts that do not achieve these basic conditions may be
unable to attract finance or may only secure funds at a cost which adversely affects
tariffs and service quality.
36

Project Finance
Role of Project Finance

Persistent challenges faced by multinational water companies in delivering water and
sanitation projects are:
Identification of commercially viable and bankable projects.

The high development costs associated with bidding for projects.
Creating a long term sustainable business plan.
Constraints placed on a governments borrowing levels under covenants with the
International Monetary Fund.
Securing commitments and guarantees from national utilities and governments.
Overcoming scepticism and political manoeuvrings often associated with private
sector participation in water projects.
Inadequate information and poor regulation and governance in developing countries.
Producing and delivering water and sanitation at affordable tariffs.
Securing long term funding at relatively low returns.
Fundamentally, in most low income developing countries water tariffs are rarely set to
recover the full investment and operating costs. The ability and willingness to pay for
water and sewerage services and the lack of political will to implement full cost recovery
tariffs extend, or frustrate the payback in investment in this essential infrastructure.
The above challenges, combined with the inability or low priority of national governments
to invest in water and sanitation, cause project finance to be the single largest constraint
in the realisation of water and sanitation projects. Additionally, over the past decade the
traditional export credit facilities and grant aid, enabling Governments to raise funding for
projects, has substantially reduced.
37
Biwater financial experts play a key role in structuring and arranging finance
for strategic investments in water
38
Biwater finance experts discuss financing at the San Cristobal site in the Dominican Republic
39

How Biwater can help
The Biwater approach

New approaches are therefore necessary to overcome these challenges. Biwaters
answer is a multi-stakeholder approach. Biwater works in partnership with Government
and funding agencies to seek and develop innovative funding solutions.
The key role of project finance is hence to broker this relationship and develop funding
solutions and a sustainable long term business plan. This is achieved through the
delivery of a turnkey approach to the project, including: a technical solution
(appropriate design & commissioning), operational solution (technology transfer,
operational support, affordable and sustainable revenue stream) and a financial solution
(arranging funding, developing viable business models, ensuring robust agreements
and adequate security). The various components that are assessed and incorporated in
the project finance decision are reflected in the diagram below.
Funding
Bonds
Leading
Debt
Equity
Floating Rate Notes
Syndicate Loans
Venture Capital
Mezzanine Finance
Subsidised Finance
Development
Agencies
Export
Grants
Special
Soft Loans
Biwater
Risk Management
Sovereign
Convertibilty
Inflation
Completion
Interest Rates
Operations
Foreign Exchange
Political
Private Sector
Participation
Management Contracts
Lease Contracts
Consessions
Completion
Boot Contracts
Capital Light Structures
40
Project

The merging of technical, operational and funding activities ensures that the impact of
each activity is considered. If an investment exceeds requirements, the resultant tariff and
business model are adversely affected, with the project potentially not going ahead. The
business model measures reduced operational cost for changes in design. Where required,
assurance is provided to the lenders through the ongoing involvement of the private sector
until the loans are repaid. It is not unusual to see large construction projects standing
disused and in a poor state of repair.
The future is no longer construction of the facilities alone. This is becoming increasingly
difficult to finance as investors and lenders are seeking long term sustainable delivery
of services.
Sources of Finance
Due to the low tariff levels which are considered to be politically acceptable, returns on
water and sewerage investments are relatively low with long term paybacks. While there
is political support for water and sanitation projects from developed countries to low
income countries, in reality, the availability of funding is relatively limited. Hence, the
development of a sustainable business plan is an intricate aspect of securing funding for
projects. This places an emphasis on obtaining soft or concessional finance and limiting the
financing risk of the project sponsors and often requires some form of private sector
participation to provide additional assurance to the project sponsors.
Biwater plays a key role in engineering such solutions and arranging affordable finance
for strategic investments in the water and wastewater sectors. Most private sector
initiatives in infrastructure are finance driven and the ability to successfully raise
competitive finance is vital.
Finance for these initiatives may be broadly classified into three categories, although
Biwater does also arrange concessional debt and non-repayable grants:
Senior debt finance
Mezzanine finance (subordinated)
Equity
Finance for an initiative will usually comprise two or more of these broad categories, and
it is important when structuring and arranging the Finance that the objectives of each of
the separate providers are fully understood. A long term lenders needs differ from a long
term investor whose objectives are again different from those of a venture capitalist.
41

Biwater, as the sponsor of the private sector initiative, would seek to raise project finance
solely on the technical, commercial and financial merit of the project.
Project Finance may be defined as:
The financing of a project in which a financier accepts the cash flow from the project as the
source of funds from which the loan will be repaid and looks to the assets of the project as
collateral for the loan.
This definition is for totally non-recourse Project Finance although in practice most projects
will be financed on a limited recourse basis, where certain limited assurances or guarantees
will be given by third parties. It is the ability to define the Finance with an acceptable security
structure which allows the lender to lend with confidence that differentiates a successful
Project Financing from an unsuccessful one.
Senior Debt Finance
Senior Debt Finance is available from commercial banks, export credit agencies,
bilateral and multilateral agencies and development banks. Biwater's global presence
facilitates the arranging of Senior Debt Finance from an international range of sources
including large export credit loans and commercial loans in a variety of different
currencies to suit the needs of the project. Finance is also arranged from the bilateral
and multilateral funding agencies and development banks. This often includes grant
funding and concessional loans. Most of Biwater's private sector initiatives involve the
arranging of Finance from a variety of these sources.
In looking to provide Senior Debt Finance the funding institutions are seeking a low level of
credit risk. The business models developed by Biwater as submitted to funding agencies
consider political, currency, commercial and operational risk and seek solutions to mitigate
these risks to acceptable levels.
Our experience in these areas is vital to ensure that the optimum balance between the various
sources of Debt Finance is achieved at the lowest overall cost structure.
Equity
At the other end of the spectrum from Senior Debt Finance is Equity, which represents the
risk capital in any project where, in the event of default, the investors will be the last to be
repaid. The investor is motivated by the potential for capital gains as well as earning
dividends. The return on equity is however higher than Senior Debt Finance, which increases
the cost of funding a project.
42

Equity is often the foundation on which other forms of finance can be structured. Lenders
may require equity investment in a project for two reasons, firstly it ties the investors to the
project and secondly it reduces the burden on the cash flow required to support the debt
service repayment.
Biwater is however increasingly structuring Capital Light projects with minimum or no equity.
The ongoing participation of Biwater is achieved through upfront local management and
operational contracts that continue for at least the duration of the loans. This can remove the
high dividend requirement, makes the project more affordable and hence improves the
chance of the project going ahead.
Mezzanine Finance (Subordinated Debt)
Between Senior Debt Finance and Equity lies a third form of Finance, Mezzanine Finance,
which may be considered to be Debt Finance that is subordinated to the Senior Debt Finance
but with preference over Equity. Subordinated Debt has the advantage of being fixed rate,
long term and unsecured and is usually considered by the senior lenders to be equity for the
purposes of assessing the project risk. From the sponsor's perspective Subordinated Debt has
a number of advantages, including the specified timing and amounts of interest and principle
payments. Interest paid on the Subordinated Debt interest is normally tax deductible, an
added advantage over dividends.
Private Sector Participation / Public Private Partnerships
While PSP/PPP is in itself not Finance, under the current financial environment it is a crucial
aspect of enabling the above forms of funding to be secured. The different forms of PPP are
discussed in the following section and their importance in obtaining Finance cannot be
understated. In matching the needs of governments and lenders Biwater will often
incorporate different forms of private sector involvement including capital light partnerships
to attract grants, debt finance, subordinate loans and equity.
Some examples of Biwaters financial engineering that have enabled the fruition of crucial
water projects in difficult markets are:
Khartoum, Sudan: An EPC/Turnkey 200 Mld water treatment plant, transmission,
distribution, storage and water asset management project under a capital light public
private partnership with a 28% Dutch government grant, 24% Development Bank
subordinate loan and 48% export credit finance from Malaysia and South Africa. Project
value - $110 million plus 10 year operations following commissioning of the facilities.
Tamale, Ghana: A Design and Build 25 Mld water treatment plant, transmission and
distribution networks, water asset management and technical assistance financed by a
mixed credit facility including a 53% grant. Project value $60 million.
43
2. The Perfect Water Company

Pure Water
Perfect, pure water could be considered as captured rain from the sky, delivered
unadulterated to customers at a rate and pressure to suit their every need.
This would be possible if sterile reservoirs, as large as seas and in upland locations, could
be created. However, even this utopia would be inadequate in the very arid regions of
the world.
Problems occur as soon as rain falls; it becomes contaminated immediately. Where it
falls determines the degree of contamination and this, in turn, determines the treatment
process necessary.
Technology exists to remove all contaminants from water and to supply customers with
a product as pure as the day it fell from the sky. Unfortunately, however, the cost of
providing such quality water is enormous. Indeed, far too high for use as just drinking
water. In reality, criteria for the Perfect Water Treatment Plant is much simpler than one
might expect.
Desalination
Where rain water is insufficient to meet demand, Biwater has supplied water treatment
plants that extract water from the sea and purify it to a stage where it surpasses that
of rain water. Ironically, this is too pure for most peoples taste and requires
re-mineralisation to make the water wholesome.
Salt from sea water is removed using a process known as reverse osmosis. (Three other
processes also exist, namely freeze desalination, distillation and vapour
recompression). Before the salt is removed from the water, all suspended solids have
to be filtered out to prevent the membrane used in the reverse osmosis process from
clogging. Pre-treatment by a conventional filtration plant is carried out in order to
condition the water so that it can pass through the membrane. The reverse osmosis
process requires a great deal of energy to be effective. Biwater incorporates energy
recovery devices with the most advanced system design and technology which reduces
the energy consumption dramatically. The whole process therefore represents the
optimum for water treatment plants in terms of technology input and cost.
Biwater has provided some of the largest plants of this kind in the world, thereby
producing cost-effective drinking water from salt water.
45
228 Mld Sembcorp Changi NEWater Plant, Singapore
46

Surface Raw Water
Where rain is plentiful and contamination is light, there is usually no need for a complex
treatment plant. If the source of water is an impounding reservoir or river, the raw water
normally has suspended solids, bacteria, algae, colour (humic acids), etc. Occasionally it
may contain viruses (through pollution) and/or agricultural by-products such as pesticides
and fertilisers. It may also contain the naturally occurring soluble metals iron and
manganese that, although not poisonous at normal raw water concentrations, will affect
taste and lead to staining of water fitments unless removed. In these instances,
conventional water treatment plants offer the most cost effective solution.
This method would generally consist of coagulation/flocculation and clarification, colloidal
solids, colour and algae removal, which would be followed by sand filtration stages for
removal of suspended solids and, if necessary, dissolved iron and manganese. Disinfection
is also required to ensure that pathogens do not reach the consumer.
Agricultural Contamination
If agricultural by-products, such as pesticides or other potentially harmful compounds are
considered a problem then a Granular Activated Carbon (GAC) absorption stage,
sometimes preceded by ozone treatment, may be necessary before disinfection. GAC can
also be used for taste and odour removal.
Another agricultural by-product, nitrate, can become a health problem if the
concentration in drinking water exceeds a specific level. It is often possible to reduce the
concentration by blending with an uncontaminated source, but otherwise processes such
as ion exchange or reverse osmosis are needed to reduce the nitrate concentration.
In order to remove the contaminants a wide range of chemicals are added to the water. To
achieve effective clarification, further treatment may be necessary by adding chemicals for
disinfection or precipitation of soluble iron and/or manganese before removal by filtration. Acid
or alkalis may be added to adjust pH; orthophosphate dosing to control dissolution of lead
from the inside of old pipes and finally coagulants and a polyelectrolyte to aid flocculation.
Waterworks Sludge Treatment and Disposal
Processes such as clarification and filtration generate sludge that can be up to 10% of the
raw water extraction rate if untreated. It is often considered more efficient and
environmentally sustainable to concentrate the solids in the sludge to reduce its volume for
disposal whilst returning the trapped water to the head of the works. Process units such
as filter washwater clarifiers, sludge thickeners and sludge filter presses are commonly used
for this purpose. Sludge thickeners and filter presses in particular require polyelectrolyte
dosing chemicals to achieve the best results.
47

The broad principle of plant design is well understood, but the most cost effective
solutions are invariably determined by the design skills of the technologists.
The Process Scientist
The process scientist selects the optimum process types and sizes as well as working
out the quantity of chemicals in order to remove contaminants and to minimise
running costs.
Running Costs
The running costs will be dramatically reduced if gravity is used to pass the water
through the treatment works and, where possible, through the distribution network to
the customer. The initial capital cost will be reduced by achieving a flow with as small
a hydraulic gradient, and as an efficient a layout, as possible.
Underground Raw Water
Water from an underground source has normally percolated through the strata and is
held in underground aquifer. Nature does its own clean up by slowly filtering the
water through the layers of soil and rock removing biological life and suspended solids.
Aquifers can be tapped by boreholes or wells. The water in some aquifers will be fit to
drink but in others it will have dissolved minerals such as iron and manganese, or even
possibly ammonia. In the latter cases, water is brought to the surface where aeration,
followed by simple chemical treatment and filtration, is all that is normally required. This
represents the simplest of water treatment plant.
Remote Communities
For people living great distances from urban areas the supply of wholesome water is
often a problem as they live beyond the service range of large urban water treatment
plants. Alternative sources of water in these circumstances vary greatly.
The cost and difficulties in running a conventional treatment plant for a small
community are considerable. It is here that the membrane process can come into its
own. The membrane process does not need to filter to the level of salt removal, as with
desalination, as coarser membranes can be used. This means that the energy required
to push water through the process is much lower and the pre-treatment stage is much
simpler. The raw water entering the plant usually has an adequate physical barrier to
assure a drinkable result.
48
Asset Survey Team
Is Perfect Water Treatment Unnecessary?

Whilst the Perfect Water Treatment Plant may not yet be available, or indeed
necessary, one that can deliver near perfect drinking or potable water is. If we can
accept water that is less than perfect but is still wholesome (i.e. to standards that are
set out by the World Health Organisation and the European Economic Community
directives) then the costs of treatment are considerably reduced.
The Perfect Water Treatment Plant is one that can meet the accepted standards in the
most cost effective way taking into account the source of raw water, the location of
the plant and the ingenuity of those who design the treatment processes.
49
Analysis of Downloaded Information
Water Network Management

To manage a Perfect Water Company, we have to prepare a water distribution
management strategy, which may also be called an Integrated Network Management
Strategy (INMS) or Water Asset Management (WAM) plan. The Perfect Water
Company would have a perfect Integrated Network Management Strategy. If they do
not have the perfect Integrated Network Management Strategy it is essential for
investors to realise that, whilst it is necessary to have a treatment works of suitable
capacity, if the network cannot distribute the water efficiently, the investment is
devalued. Increasingly, investors are making network management strategies a
condition of the grant or loan. Whilst it is easy to develop a distribution network
management strategy, it is harder to develop one that works.
50

The work involves a wide range of hydraulic studies to solve water, sewage and
environmental infrastructure problems. Biwaters engineers benefit from being part of a
large diverse Group with support services and a wide resource base. The techniques
developed have been applied to many Biwater projects throughout the world.
A well balanced network management strategy is as much about managing information as
it is about managing water. Good investment decisions rely on accurate information. It is too
easy to rush into large scale pipe laying, rehabilitation or customer metering projects without
considering the full implications on investment strategy. Biwater has extensive experience of
developing these strategies with its clients.
Historically, a significant number of network investment strategies were driven by banks or
investors with experience of construction. Large capital schemes are easier to identify and
quantify but network repair and maintenance is often being taken as operational expenditure
and lost in day to day operational budgets. It is also common for client organisations to want
large scale engineering works because that is what they have been used to in the past and
politically can be seen by their customers to be taking immediate action.
However, whilst large construction schemes may be the answer, the need for large scale
capital investment projects can often be deferred or reduced by less capital through suitable
investment in the distribution network.
In general the development of a network management strategy can be divided into five
key phases.
Identification of the key issues

Creation of the management tools
Collection of key network information
Derivation and delivery of the network management strategy
Review of strategy goals
These phases may last several weeks or several years depending on the needs and size of
the utility operator. Network management strategies are an iterative process and may have
to go through several cycles to meet the desired outcome. Each of these stages is discussed
in more detail below.
Identification of the Key Issues
At the start of any network management project it is essential to identify the main drivers
of the strategy. These may include poor level of service, lack of raw water reserve,
insufficient water into supply, ageing infrastructure, lack of storage, poor water quality,
future expansion, poor revenue recovery or regulatory pressure. These drivers are often
obvious and can normally be ascertained in a few days with water company personnel.
51

However care should be taken in identifying the root cause of the problem. For
example what is initially described as a poor supply pressure problem may be actually
be due to high leakage levels or incorrect zoning.
Additionally, stakeholders may have their own schemes or ideas and will try to steer the
strategy towards getting funding for these. It is important that these schemes are assessed
fairly as part of the overall strategy goals. This may necessitate the development of a
scoring system to prioritise the issues to be addressed as part of the strategy.
Once the issues are understood it is important to set clear objectives for the strategy,
enabling all stakeholders to understand the project and its direction. It may not be
possible at this stage to set numerical targets.
Creation of the Management Tools
Once the overarching objectives of the strategy are known, the first stage of
implementation is the assessment and collection of existing information. In order to do this
a number of information storage and manipulation tools need to be developed or modified.
One of the key tools is a GIS system. This is a geographically linked database of
network assets that is invaluable in managing a distribution network. Another valuable
tool is a hydraulic network model. Models can normally be classified as strategic or all
mains. However, all mains models can be expensive and time consuming to develop
and therefore their use needs to be carefully considered. Other network management
tools might include telemetry systems, flow and DMA meter analysis packages, billing
systems, work order systems, customer contact systems, procedures and policies.
Underlying all the management tools is a data model. It need not be a totally software
based system and can include other information types. It is a defined storage system
for all the information required for the effective management of the network. The data
model is defined by the requirements of the business and the proposed goals. It will
define what needs to be collected and when, where it is stored, how it is used and what
information is used by the business and in what form it is required.
A data model is not fixed and will evolve as the distribution management strategy is
developed. However, it is important to get as much of the fundamental structure in place at
the start of the process as possible to ensure that as little work is revisited as is practicable.
52

Collection of key network information
Once the storage and manipulation tools have been established, the next stage is to
collect the required base data. This is largely dependant on the targeted goals of the
network management strategy. Typical data might include:
Mapping;
Pipe location, diameter, material, age, condition;
Water volume into supply;
Flow and pressure data;
Billing data;
Customer contact history;
Pipe failure repair;
Cost data;
Per capita demand profiles;
Population and industrial growth.
Once data collection is complete it should then be possible to set some realistic
numerical targets by which to measure achievement of the set objectives.
Derivation and Delivery of Management Strategy
Once the business need goals are confirmed the major component of the work is
undertaken on the distribution network. This is discussed in more detail in later sections.
Review of Strategy Goals
At the end of the development of the network management strategy the goals of the
project need to be reviewed before implementing the next stage. It is important to
reassess the overall goals after each stage of the project implementation as the
objectives may change as information and control of the network improves.
The network management strategy should be reviewed at least annually to ensure that
the key business issues continue to be met. However, major changes in direction should
be undertaken with caution as most network management strategies will take more
than one cycle to deliver real benefits.
The Fundamentals
The main tenet of a network management project is to gain control of the network. It
has long been an adage of management text books, If you cant measure it, you cant
manage it. In a distribution network the key variables are flow, pressure and cost. It is
essential to measure where water is going, at what pressure and how much does it cost
to deliver it. This is achieved by setting up a Hydraulic Structure.
53
Downloading Datalogger Information
54
Asset Management
55

Non-revenue water
To develop a water distribution management strategy, one of the areas of confusion is
the difference between Non-revenue water (NRW) and leakage. Many assume that
they are the same they are not.
Leakage is normally defined as water lost from the network though structural defects in
the pipes, tanks and other network apparatus. Leakage is only one component of
Non-revenue water, which includes water taken unbilled, water used for operational
purposes, bad debts (water billed but revenue not recovered), governmental use etc. In
the UK the NRW level for most companies is between 20% and 30% of distribution
input.
For this type of investigation, a calculation model based on local regulatory
requirements will normally have to be used. Where no requirements exist, the
International Water Association IWA methodology can be used. This is one of the most
widely accepted water use models in the world.
Reducing non-revenue water involves improving revenue collection, reducing leakage
and improving operational efficiency by, for example, improving meter accuracy,
reducing operational water usage and incident response time.
The Hydraulic Structure
The hydraulic structure is defined by the pipe network and can be set up in many ways.
However one of the most effective uses the principle of Water Operational Areas,
Water Supply Zones and District Meter Areas.
The District Meter Area (DMA) is the building block for a modern distribution network.
A DMA is an hydraulically isolated area with all bulk inflows and outflows monitored by
water meters. Typically containing 1,500 to 2,500 properties, a DMA is the primary tool
for managing a water distribution network and assessing non-revenue water. The size and
shape of DMAs are defined by topography, the nature of the distribution network, the
customer type and distribution and the operational needs of the network.
A Water Supply Zone (WSZ) (usually referred to as a zone) is a hydraulically isolated area
normally fed from a single reservoir or pumping station. It can consist of one or more District
Meter Areas. A zone is often used as the cost reporting level for the network.
56

A Water Operational Area (WOA) (usually known as an operational area) is normally
taken as the area fed by a single or group of water treatment works. It is a high level
grouping that consists of one or more WSZ. It is normally a notional structure, its
boundary following that of its constituent Water Supply Zones and is used as a
management reporting tool. Many distribution systems are made up of a single WOA.
Where a large urban area is fed from multiple mixed sources of water it may be
desirable to define WOAs as a subsection of the network for management reporting
purposes.
Using the Hydraulic Structure
The hydraulic structure is used to assign information to every asset in the network. This
could be flows, asset register information and costs. By assigning costs to suitable levels
in the hydraulic structure a more robust asset maintenance cost model can be derived
and then fed through to Economic Level of Leakage (ELL), asset replacement and
rehabilitation cost benefit calculations.
Information Collection
In order to both manage the network effectively and optimise the design of any new
sections of network a large amount of information is required. Therefore, the first phase
of a typical project will be to collect and distil the information, creating a storage system
to allow easy access to the data.
It is important that all data is assessed for accuracy and given a confidence grade. The
confidence grade takes account of the source, age and reliability of the data and assigns
a code to the information. High quality as-surveyed information would have a much
higher confidence than information interpolated from old records. Investment decisions
can then be weighted to take account of the confidence level in the data.
Establishment of a Distribution Management Centre
One of the key aims of the strategy is to provide better information on and control of
the distribution network. In order to ensure that this can continue once the strategy is
in place a distribution management computer centre within a suitable utility company
property is desirable. This centre will act as the reception point for all the information
from the DMA meters, surveying etc.
57

Geographic Information System
One of the most powerful tools for managing network distribution data is a Geographical
Information System (GIS). This is a computer system that uses electronic maps and a number
of databases, displaying the information overlaid on maps.
Creation of a GIS system will greatly speed up the subsequent distribution management
activities and is much easier to utilise and maintain than a paper based mapping archive. It
also allows for customers, pipe failures, complaints etc to be analysed spatially which gives a
much clearer picture of the issues.
In most developed countries the utility will have an existing GIS. In this case the issue is
ensuring the system is capable of undertaking the required processes and verifying the data
is reasonably complete and accurate. If the utility does not currently have any computer
mapping of their network then the issue becomes more complex. A system will need to be
procured, configured and populated with all the information.
In most cases it is possible to obtain some form of background mapping. This is normally
divided into two types, raster and vector. Raster mapping is a single layer electronic scan of a
paper type map. It is a picture that contains little or no in built intelligence. Vector mapping is
normally a multilayer data structure where individual mapping objects are made up of points,
lines and region items. This allows individual items to be selected and displayed giving much
greater intelligence to the system. In general, vector mapping, is preferred to raster mapping.
One of the main sources of information is network plans available on paper. The accuracy
and level of completeness of the records will need to be assessed and the asset information
extended to include the required data. It is therefore sometimes necessary to check the
information on site using survey techniques.
One of the common aims of the project is to integrate the customer billing and contact
information into the GIS. A full review of the billing data will need to be made, ensuring that
the dataset is accurate prior to merging with the GIS system. Additional information may be
required to allow the link to be established. It is also important to use the billing information
to identify the location of all large, key or sensitive customers and display these on the GIS.
58
Asset Management
Asset surveying
In order to fully populate the GIS system it is normal to have to undertake some asset survey
work. The type and extent of the survey work will depend on the goals of the strategy, the
criticality of the asset and the timescale available. Asset survey may be as simple as using a
pipe locator and marking the location of the pipe on a map. More complex methodologies
could involve trial holes, ground radar and Global Positioning Systems (GPS).
As part of the asset survey process the opportunity should be taken to collect as much
asset register information as possible. This includes pump characteristics, plant serial
numbers, monitoring equipment makes, serial numbers, estimated replacement dates,
service schedules etc.
59
Biwater staff using a global information system
Network Modelling
Once a GIS model of the distribution system has been developed and the key elevation
data has been obtained from the survey process, a computerised hydraulic model of the
distribution system can be developed. The model will allow the distribution engineer to
assess and optimise the current network, analyse changes in demand, optimise the
design of the proposed network extensions and ensure that the system can cope with
re-zoning and expansion.
Models fall into two broad types, strategic and all-mains. Strategic models normally
only contain larger diameter mains, for example those connecting the service reservoirs
and DMAs to the treatment works. They are used for large scale planning purposes
such as new reservoirs or transmission mains. It is normal to create a strategic model at
the start of a strategy to assess large capital projects.
An all-mains model normally contains all pipes in the network over 75mm. Demand is
allocated on a pipe by pipe basis. This type of model is time consuming and costly to
build, but is invaluable in undertaking what if scenarios when designing a change or
expansion to the network.
60

Design and installation of a hydraulic structure for the existing network
The normal method of designing the hydraulic structure for a network is to define the
Water Supply Zones (WSZ) before sub dividing to create the DMAs.
From the surveys undertaken, key monitoring points can be identified. Should there be a
shortfall in metering points then temporary monitoring equipment can be installed prior to
design of in-situ metering arrangements. From this, flow balancing throughout the system
can be established, allowing the reservoirs to be balanced, identifying any overflows.
Once the WSZ flows have been established, cost information can be allocated to each
zone and the investment priority can be established. Each zone will have a metered
inflow. All customers would be assigned to the DMA from which they draw their water.
In this way a true picture of the revenue, consumption, leakage, illegal consumption
and wastage can be derived.
Once established, the distribution manager can look at the monthly or weekly flows
into each area and spot trends that will allow him to target the investigation and repair
resources more efficiently. In order to achieve this, a DMA monitoring system will need
to be established, which will take the information from the data loggers on the meters
via telemetry and undertake trend analysis.
District Meter Area (DMA) establishment
The process of setting up a DMA is reasonably straight forward if a good quality GIS
and model have been developed. The design is proposed using GIS information such as
elevation and pipe layout. The design is then tested on the model to ascertain the effect
on the rest of the distribution network and that sufficient flow and pressure can be
maintained.
Once the design has been proved, meters and boundary valves are installed on the
network. The valves are then shut and the integrity of the DMA checked with a
Pressure Zero Test (PZT). The confirmed boundaries of the DMA and the customers
within it can then be added to the GIS system.
Closure of boundary valves will affect the flow and pressure characteristics of the
network. To ensure that the required levels of service can be maintained, pressure
monitoring equipment is installed at key locations in the network and the boundaries
established in stages. At the inlet to the DMA it is normal to install a meter with a
permanent data logger or telemetry link to monitor night flows and pressures.
61

Designated boundary valves are normally included in the GIS system and held in a
linked register. It is often desirable to create a small number of trial DMAs. From these
trial areas the issues associated with a wider DMA programme can be identified and the
cost of the whole scheme quantified in much greater detail. This will allow a smoother
roll out of the wider project. In addition the information from the trial DMAs is required
to improve the strategic network model utilised for the detailed design of the network.
The trial DMAs also act as training models for the utility company staff.
Trial DMAs should be designed to give information on the typical characteristics of the
distribution. From these DMAs, information will be extrapolated to give a greater
understanding of the behaviour of customers for the whole network. Therefore these
DMAs must be carefully chosen to be representative of the customer base.
During the DMA establishment programme, careful consideration must be given to the
availability of water and any programme of treatment works capacity, service reservoir
or distribution enhancement. Initially it may be necessary to work in areas that already
have an established distribution system. Once the new treatment plant is
commissioned, the new system can be closed in to produce the water supply zones.
Boundary valve management
Boundary valve management is essential in maintaining the integrity of the hydraulic
structure. If a boundary valve is opened it destroys the integrity of both of the zones or
DMAs it separates. Therefore it is in the interests of the utility to return the valve to its
correct status as soon as possible.
Boundary valve status is normally recorded in a system linked to the GIS. When a valve
changes status (for example for operational reasons) it should be recorded. Then once
the valve is returned to its normal status the system is updated. Therefore the DMAs
out of action due to breached boundaries can be monitored and the leakage figures
discounted from the analysis. In order to prevent accidental operation of a designated
boundary valve it is normal to fill the valve chamber with polyurethane foam, tag them
or mark them with a plate.
Property classification and allocation
As part of the GIS modelling and DMA setup process it will be necessary to classify and
allocate all properties to the relevant DMA or WSZ. This will allow the potential
demand to be estimated and attributed to the correct part of the distribution network.
This will also help to calculate customer take up statistics and locate potential illegal
connections.
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It will also be necessary to classify industrial and commercial users by type and
consumption pattern. This can often be undertaken by Standard Industrial Classification
(SIC) codes. Classification and allocation will normally take place in the GIS system and
be undertaken during the data verification period in phase 3.
Customer categorisation and per capita consumption studies
Customers are normally either billed on a metered basis or charged by some other
method. It is therefore essential that a small number of control customers are set up at
the start of the project to ensure that the current estimates of water consumption are
valid. Once supply is more reliably available within the distribution system, the
consumption pattern of the customers may change. It is important for future water
infrastructure investment strategies that this change in behaviour can be quantified.
It is therefore normal to undertake a per capita consumption study to look at how the
customers actually use water. A small number of typical customers from each economic
group or area are monitored daily for a month to establish their true consumption pattern.
This can be supplemented by a visit with a questionnaire to get the number of people in
the property and their perceived water consumption pattern etc.
Identification of investment priorities
Investment plans are normally drawn up at a Water Supply Zone level. Once the zones are
defined and the costs allocated, data to support the investment priorities can be identified.
This can include customer contact frequency, level of service failure, burst history, energy use,
residual asset life, future demand expansion and operational efficiency savings.
Each proposal can then be priced in outline and prioritised on a cost/benefit or Return on
Investment (ROI) basis. The assessments may include scoring items for non-financial
benefit. Once developed the prioritised investment schemes are documented in Zone Asset
Plans and may be implemented by the client after the project is completed.
Design, installation and commissioning of distribution enhancements
Utilising the models and GIS developed for the existing distribution network simplifies the
process of designing system reinforcements and extensions into the proposed areas. Once
the mains are designed in outline using the model, a detailed design can be undertaken
and a construction programme created.
Commissioning of mains must be closely controlled to ensure that the existing network is not
adversely affected. In some cases it may be preferable to use the network model to simulate
the commissioning process to confirm that unforeseen effects do not occur. For any areas
where pipework is not installed prior to the end of the project, distribution plans can be
developed and retained by the client for subsequent implementation.
63
Biwater staff undertaking leakage detection, Panama
Leakage control
Leakage control is most effective when targeted by output from the DMA meters. Once
data is received from a DMA meter the imbalance between the known consumption and
the inflow can be assessed and the leakage level calculated. This is normally achieved by
analysing the flow during the early hours of the morning and making suitable allowances
for legitimate usage.
It is normal to set an Economic Level of Leakage (ELL) that is allowed in a DMA. This is the
point at which it is no longer economic to try to locate and repair leaks in an area.
It will not be possible to provide an accurate estimate of ELL prior to establishment of the
trial DMAs. The ELL is dependent on many cost factors, including the cost of water, the
institutional cost of running the water utility, the accuracy and effectiveness of the revenue
collection system, leakage detection costs, repair costs, reinstatement costs etc. It is not
possible to assess this figure with any degree of certainty until the required data has been
collected. In addition the ELL will change as the project progresses. As the unit detection
and repair costs change as the network is brought under control and the increased revenue
generated by the savings in the network is taken into account the ELL will reduce.
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There are a range of different leakage detection techniques including listening sticks,
ground microphones, leak noise correlators, leak noise loggers, pressure loggers, flow
loggers, step testing etc. Leakage detection exercises often locate illegal connections to the
network as they behave in a similar manner to a leak. Acoustic techniques can then be
applied to locate and disconnect them or make them legal.
Pressure management
Pressure management is one of the most cost effective methods of reducing leakage and
wastage from running taps. However, if the terrain is flat or there is a high density demand
pattern it is unlikely that such measures will be appropriate.
Pressure management is often required on DMAs fed directly from transmission mains
running between the treatment plant and the storage sites. From the network model it is
possible to look at the pressure regime on a DMA basis and reduce the pressure to an
acceptable level by using passive measures such as throttled valves or orifice plates, or to
use active methods such as Pressure Reducing Valves (PRVs). Similarly if areas of low
pressure are identified then alternative supply routes, system reinforcements or booster
pumps can be employed to provide adequate pressure.
Customer education
The fact is that a significant amount of water is wasted or lost from the distribution system
due to the actions of the customers. In order to reduce this, a programme of education and
information has been found to be effective. The key is to get local people to acknowledge
the scope of the project, the costs involved in producing the water and how they can help
to maintain the supply. One way that has been found to be effective is to visit schools and
explain to the children about water supply and water conservation. They then pass this
information to their parents and family.
This can be backed up with information meetings to explain to customers what is
happening in their area, encouraging community programmes, other educational
information, ways and places to pay the tariff etc.
65

It is also essential to develop a culture of water conservation within other government and
local authority organisations. By reducing the consumption of these departments more
water will be available for domestic purposes. It has been found that such programmes can
reduce water wastage by up to 5% in some areas. These types of programmes are found
to work best when fronted by local representatives of the water utility in conjunction with
a non-governmental organisation. Such programmes have been applied with great success
all over the world by Biwater.
Training
The key to the long term viability of this type of approach is the transfer of skills to local
personnel of the water company. It is suggested that a small number of personnel be
seconded to the project team from the water company. This has three main advantages:
Ensures that maximum transfer of knowledge from the project team to the client
organisation by working alongside experienced staff to deliver the project
Improves the project team efficiency by providing local knowledge and experience
Reduces overall project cost to the client
Where possible it is good for one or two engineers to join the project team from the start.
A training programme should be agreed at the outset to ensure that staff receive training in
all the appropriate areas. It is important that the seconded personnel are themselves capable
of helping to train other client staff later in the project, prior to handover. To aid in this
process, Biwater will normally help develop a training scheme for the client to use in-house.
66

Pipeline Rehabilitation
In the Perfect Water Company all assets would
be in Perfect Condition. In reality, most pipeline
systems are subject to both internal and external
corrosion, pressure, stress or strain and are
subject to ever increasing demand. Over time,
systems decay or become inadequate for the
demand, and replacement or reinforcement
becomes necessary. There is however an
alternative to total replacement of the asset
through system refurbishment.
Prioritisation
If the Perfect Water Company assumed all its
pipe networks had a 100 year life, to maintain
the network in a serviceable condition, it
Pipeline rehabilitation, Panama
would require the replacement or
refurbishment of 1% of its pipe network
every year. Unfortunately, most water companies did not historically budget for this
situation, and in addition, some pipe materials in some locations do not achieve the 100
year life predicted more like 60 years which has indicated that 2% or more of the
network should be replaced or refurbished each year, to effectively catch up.
However, in the Perfect Water Company, working on a limited budget, we must
prioritise which pipes are to be replaced or refurbished on an evidential condition basis.
This will reduce the risk of any significant water supply/ distribution pipe failures to
occur on pipes in severely poor condition, before they are identified for replacement
or refurbishment.
As the GIS records of the location of all network pipes, their size, material, age and
coatings can now be considered as accurate and reliable, they can be accessed to be
used for further analysis. Within the GIS software packages, it allows each pipe
segment to be separately tagged to identify every pipe attribute recorded, to be
annotated on the GIS system. Some information, which is kept in separate electronic or
paperwork systems, can be linked into the GIS system with information such as pipe
failures (including full consequence details), water quality samples, and pressure and
flow logger and metering data. This information has to be analysed and tabulated to
create a scoring matrix, incorporating the following information:
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Likelihood
Burst Score (Range 1-3) from bursts per km
Condition Score (Range 1-3) from Condition Grade 1-5
Pressure Score (Range 1-3) from reservoir top water level Minimum ground level
in Bars <4 to >9
Pipe size (Range 1-3) from <300mm to >900mm diameter
Proximity analysis (Range 1-3) from urban to rural areas
Consequence
Number of properties connected (Range 2-6) from <1,000 to >10,000
Reservoir Storage Score (Range 1-4) from Volume of Storage / No of properties x
30 litres/prop/hour for <6 hours to >24 hours
Attendance Score (Range 1-3) from burst repair times from <6 hours to >24 hours
Proximity analysis (Range 1-3) risk of road, railway, watercourse damage from No
crossing of pipeline to >2 crossings
Score for each Likelihood Category is added maximum of 15 points
Score for each Consequence Category is added maximum of 16 points
Risk (of Pipe Failure Analysis) Score = Likelihood x Consequence
This will give a score range of between 25 to 240
This analysis gives a scoring mechanism to identify those pipes which are most in need
of replacement or refurbishment. The scoring can be used for distribution mains and
trunk mains, from small sections to total pipe length depending on the criteria used.
Scores can be colour coded to display across the GIS map of the area to indicate areas
with the highest priority, hence set proportional budgets for detailed design of
replacement mains. From this prioritisation, site investigations will be necessary for
route economics, and network analysis for hydraulic assessment of pipe replacement
sizes, where required.
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Rehabilitation Economics
From the prioritisation exercise, which must be updated and reassessed at regular or
annual periods, including the latest data available, the detailed preparation of the pipe
replacement or refurbishment project must be carried out.
Various rehabilitation techniques are available to be considered. However, the prime
consideration is whether Trenchless Technologies (or NoDig) can be utilised, as
rehabilitation options have been calculated by funding agencies to cost as little as 30%
of the cost of mains replacement. NoDig rehabilitation techniques also minimise the
social and environmental disruption caused when undertaking an upgrading
programme of buried pipeline systems.
Maximising the efficiency and life of a water companys distribution network, using
pipeline rehabilitation must therefore be a key objective for the following reasons:
Maximising the hydraulic efficiency of the asset

Improving water quality
Reducing leakages
Increasing asset life for minimum cost
Increasing asset value for minimum investment
Reducing social and environmental impact
Rehabilitation Planning
All of the above factors are considered in selecting the most appropriate rehabilitation
technique, which fall into two categories:
Non structural
Structural
Non Structural Pipeline Rehabilitation
This technique is applied where the structural integrity of the pipeline is good, but the
pipe internal diameter has become restricted due to tuberculation (narrowing of pipe
internal diameter over time creating a loss in hydraulic capacity), corrosion or deposits.
The process involves the internal cleaning of the pipeline and the application of a new
non structural lining to the internal wall.
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Cleaning
There are various cleaning processes, the purpose
of which is to remove all internal tuberculation,
corrosion and deposits and to leave the pipeline
internal surface in a suitable condition to receive a
new lining.
The most common cleaning techniques are power
boring (pushing a system of rotating scraping flails
up the pipeline on extending rods) or drag scraping
(pulling a similar system of flails into a pipeline
which can be bi-directional).
The aggressiveness of these techniques is such that
bare metal internal surfaces are generated, which
start to bleed (re-oxidise) after a period of time, and therefore a new lining is required
to be applied.
Pipeline cleaning, Panama
Less aggressive techniques involve jetting, swabbing and flushing which can remove
soft deposits, but not hard tuberculation.
Cleaning Techniques
Power boring - diameter range 75 - 150mm
to remove debris and encrustations from the pipe.
1
Drag scraping - diameter range 150 - 600mm

to remove debris and encrustations from the pipe.
70
1.
2.
3.
4.
Boring Machine
Steel Rods
Water/Debris
Boring Cutters

Plunging - diameters 75mm and above
to remove residual corrosion and water from the pipe.
1. Rubber plungers
2. Debris
1
2
The Biwater Pressure Scraping technique utilises water pressure to drive a scraper pig through
several kilometers of uniform diameter water main in one operation, generally where this is
600mm or greater.
3 4
1.
2.
3.
4.
Mixer
Hopper
Pump
Control Unit
5. Winch Hose Reel

6. Lining Machine
7. Drag Trowel
For mains up to 600mm diameter, a pump located adjacent to the access point delivers the
cement mortar mix to a mobile carriage. The integral carriage unit is complete with a drag
trowel mechanism and is winched through each individual section.
In-situ Epoxy Resin Lining Process
1
2
Key
1. Power pack & pumps
2. Monitor unit
3. Powered hose reel
4. Pipe end roller

5. In-line mixer unit
6. Lining machine
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Lining
The lining processes employed for the majority of pipeline rehabilitation applications in
the field, have developed over the years from techniques for respraying with a bitumen
lining (similar to factory lining processes), through the application of a cement mortar
lining (which created high pH alkaline conditions on curing) to epoxy resin (a two part
mix which is now computer controlled at the point of application). New nylon based
materials are also now in use. In all instances, the method of application is similar as the
lining materials are applied centrifugally in a one pass application.
The selection criteria for linings depend upon, pipe diameter, water quality and cost of
application. Cement mortar was predominantly used for large diameter applications,
where the 2-4 mm thickness was less of a flow restriction, but not where extremes of
pH were likely. There are now issues with constituents and water quality issues,
although cement mortar costs tended to be less. Epoxy resin has a better performance
in all pH conditions and provides a better finish for improved flow characteristics over
cement mortar, although its cost was higher.
Structural Pipe Lining Rehabilitation
Structural rehabilitation techniques are employed when the condition of the pipework
will not permit non structural lining, due to excessive external corrosion or where the
pipe diameter is incapable of meeting demand. In the circumstances the pipe must be
completely replaced. The NoDig rehabilitation techniques available as an alternative
to the most expensive open cut and lay, are:
Slip lining
Pipe bursting
Soft insertion lining
Pipe moling for service connections
Directional drilling
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The most common and cost effective techniques offering complete pipeline
replacement are Slip Lining and Pipe Bursting. These are described as follows:
Slip Lining
In this technique access to the existing pipeline is gained at a convenient location. The
pipeline is cleaned using the cleaning methods used for non structural techniques. A
pre-welded length of Medium Density Polyethylene (MDPE) pipe is then drawn
through the main.
The major limitation associated with this rehabilitation technique is that system
hydraulic capacity is reduced. However this should be offset by an improved hydraulic
performance. To insert a slip lining the existing mains must also be reasonably straight
and all bends and fittings excavated and removed.
Pipe Bursting
In this technique pre-cleaning of the existing pipeline is not required as the pipeline is
destroyed and replaced during the operation.
Access to the pipeline is gained at a convenient point and a hydraulic or pneumatic
percussion head is driven through the main thereby breaking the existing pipe and
compressing the fragments into the surrounding ground. A UPVC or MDPE sleeve is
drawn behind the percussion head for later installation of the replacement pipe. The
advantage of this process is the ability to increase the size of the pipe diameter in a
single operation.
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Metering
Meter reading outside of a customers property
74

Metering
Residential meter reading
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Metering
Metering
Any water company has to have a means of charging its customer for the water they received
and therefore the service provided. Perhaps the most obvious method of deciding the charges
is by metering the volume supplied and basing the charge on this volume so that the more
customers use the more they pay.
Alternatives Flat rate charge
There are however other possibilities available to the water supplier. Charges can be based on
the size or value of a property or the number of people living there. The simplest but perhaps
most flawed method of deciding charges would be to charge all residential customers the
same using a flat rate charge. A company will wish to consider the overall cost of any charging
system, the degree of fairness which it brings to charging different customers and the effect
the method has on overall water use and therefore investment in infrastructure.
The Perfect Water Company should perhaps have all customers metered so that they pay
for what they use which is totally non-discriminatory. This is probably the fairest way to
charge and is normally essential for industrial customers using water in processes. Customers
will be less inclined to waste water and it is possible to devise tariffs which penalise high
seasonal usage. If all supplies are metered the water company will have much better
information regarding different patterns of use in different parts of the distribution system and
more importantly will be better able to establish how much water is unaccounted for (i.e. lost
through leakage, meter inaccuracy, bad debts, theft or illicit usage etc).
Is it perfect for you?
The inherent deterrent value of payment by visible metered use assumes that widespread
metering will have an impact on overall demand by encouraging some degree of prudence
in water use. The reduction will obviously bring savings to the water company in the areas of
investment in resources, treatment and distribution systems. It will be necessary to attempt
to evaluate those savings as an offset against the cost of installing, reading, maintaining and
replacing meters. The relative cost of labour means that the economic balance will vary in
different countries.
Drawbacks
There are some drawbacks to universal metering. The installation and running costs of meters
are high with an ongoing requirement for a programme of replacement. The meters have to
be read and the customers billed based on their consumption and this requires a relatively
sophisticated billing system and large numbers of staff to read them and administer the
accounts. It is essential to find a low cost, but sufficiently accurate meter and an efficient
method of reading it. Currently technology with outreaders allows one person to read
400 meters a day. New technology, however, is enabling automatic reading from
mobile vans of thousands of meters a day.
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Metering
With metering, customers are more likely to query their account and any system based on
volumetric charge may lead to a fraud either as a result of illegal by-passing of meters or as
a result of corruption amongst meter reading staff.
Metering provides uncertainty of income
One further concern regarding charging universally by meter is that the company has some
uncertainty about income. Volumes of water used and therefore income may be affected by
the weather or economic conditions over which the water supplier has no control.
Benefits of flat rate charges
At the opposite end of the scale from metering would be to charge all household customers
on a flat rate basis such that they all pay the same. Such a system is very easy to administer,
simply needing a register of customers and a means of billing them a pre-determined
amount. In addition, a means of defining a household would be necessary so that industrial
users could be billed by a metered account. The advantages are low cost and simplicity but
a flat rate system can be criticised because of its possible unfairness and inability to make any
differentiation between lower and higher users. Any system that does not relate to volume is
less likely to encourage careful use of water and will therefore result in increased investment
in water infrastructure; however revenue collection systems already out of control must start
with such a flat rate basis.
The intermediate option where charges for household customers are linked to a graded tariff
for water use possibly represents a compromise solution. If information is available as to either
the size of house or number of residents perhaps from taxation or rating authorities a
scheme could be derived linking water charge to likely usage. Once the information is
obtained, such a system is relatively easy to administer and of course there are none of the
costs associated with meter installation or reading. The system is fairer than a flat rate system
but ultimately flawed compared with metering. The company would know its income but
there is little incentive for the customer to be prudent in the use of water.
Local influences decide
Clearly a fully metered system provides the fairest charging method, and a visible
incentive for conserving water and therefore helps to minimise the cost of providing
and distributing supplies. It may be that scarcity of water resources will influence the
situation and become a significant factor in the decision making process. The costs of
operating a system with widespread metering are high and the company must decide
on the best way forward taking into account the costs, benefits and any statutory
obligations, so that it may optimise the return on investment made.
Current developments of combining meter reading with gas and electricity are reducing
costs dramatically, especially when utilising one combined bill.
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Billing System
Modern billing system
Billing Systems
Whatever method is chosen for charging for the use of water, it is absolutely essential
that an efficient Billing System is used in order to accurately bill all customers on time;
to collect all monies due as speedily as possible; to take adequate recovery action for
non payment where necessary, and to achieve all at the lowest possible cost.
Interface
It is important that a Billing System is developed within the whole framework of the
business and its relationship with its customer. To this end the Billing System must not
be viewed in isolation from the other operations of the company and suitable interfaces
with other uses must be established. Having said that, however, the Billing System will
be the core and the focal point to all other systems, as these will use the billing database
as a means of providing information in, for example, operation log management
systems, water quality information and other more recent innovations such as
Geographical Information Systems.
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Billing System
Database
We have already mentioned that the first essential aspect of a good Billing System is to
have an accurate customer database which links in with a property database. In this way
historical information can be generated relating to not only a property and its past use
but also for customers who may have a history of bad debts. This database will be used
for all customer enquiries as a possible one stop shop for convenience.
Software
Equally important as the database is the software itself which enables the billing function
to be efficient. Bills should be sent out on time and reminders, final notices and court
action or any other recovery action can be automatically generated within the billing
timetable. Adequate payment facilities will be offered and the Billing System must be able
to cater for all variables on offer. The billing cycle will start with meter reading which may
be manual through hand held computers which are subsequently downloaded each day
onto a main property database. Recent trends are towards more sophisticated means of
data capture through reading by touchpad or outreader to remote reading by telephone
lines or radio signal. The media in which the information is communicated must interface
with the main billing property database.
Payment
Payment options will vary but the emphasis must be towards more automation. Direct
debits are generally accepted as the cheapest and most convenient form of payment
method and once set up, maintenance of the information can be controlled relatively easily.
Payment by this method is automated through modern link through a bank clearing
system and posting to customer records is automatic by means of a suitable disc or tape.
Other payment methods such as cash, cheque, bank giro and post office giro are generally
more costly to administer, but again transfer of information by tape, disk or web based
technology helps speed up the operation and keeps costs to a minimum.
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Billing System
Management information system

An efficient Billing System copes with all the billing requirements of customers from
different payment arrangements to different payment facilities such as by instalments. In
order to control and manage this operation an effective management information system
must be the final part in a smooth running billing operation. The management
information system determines statistics such as key performance indicators from the data
generated by the three primary functions of customer service, billing and recovery. It will
access the customer and property databases to generate reports on a daily, weekly or
monthly basis depending on specific requirements.
Flexibility
To summarise therefore, whilst a good Billing System is a means to an end, it should be
flexible in order to meet changing needs. Computers play an important role and must be
considered within the overall strategy of the companys requirements. Flexibility is the key
with the potential in todays market to enable add on services such as billing for other
utilities (electricity, solid waste collection etc), to be carried out with minimum cost
implications. Todays Billing System must be not only functional, aimed at low cost and
efficient billing, but must also have regard to other users, such as other departments within
the company. In doing so it will provide an overall effective management tool not just a simple
Billing System.
80

Billing System
Handheld billing system used by Subic Water in the Philippines
81

Staff Training
Leak detection training
82

Staff Training
Staff training centre, South Africa
83

Staff Training
Staff Training and Development

Training Culture
An essential component in successful staff training and development is to create the
appropriate culture. This invariably necessitates the acquisition of new skills by the staff
involved and development of existing ones. Staff Training and Development is therefore
a cornerstone of Biwaters own strategy in undertaking the operations of its own water
companies.
Over many years we have developed a structured modular approach to Staff Training
and Development which can be tailored to meet the needs of any individual or group
of employees. We have been applying such programmes with great success all over the
world. For example, in Ofwat, the UK regulators 2006/07 report, Bournemouth and West
Hampshire Water was rated as second best for overall performance out of 22 companies
in England and Wales. Its leakage rate is low, its customer service levels amongst the best
and its charges to customers are well below the average. The Company has the National
Standard for Staff Training and Development (Investors in People) and ISO 9001 quality
assurance accreditation. The Company has been awarded centre of excellence status by
the Confederation of British Industry. These achievements are entirely attributable to
providing the staff with the tools and skills to do the job of meeting the Companys
strategic objectives through training.
We transfer our skills and expertise through our training and development programmes.
These programmes are designed to meet the specific needs of any particular operation.
Training can be provided locally or in the UK and can encompass both theory and practical
work on site. Modules have been developed to cover both technical and commercial
disciplines. Examples are:
Quality Management
Abstraction and supply
Water treatment
Engineering strategy and project management
Distribution
Sewerage and sewage treatment
Scientific services
Environmental protection
Customer services
Billing and revenue collection
Investment in Staff Training and Development can in most cases be just as important as
investment in plant and machinery in ensuring the success of a perfect water company in
terms of meeting its agreed objectives.
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3. The Perfect Sewerage System

Pure Effluent
The Perfect Sewerage System could collect every drop of wastewater in its catchment
area and transfer it without leakage or infiltration to the perfect sewage treatment plant.
The plant would remove all impurities from the wastewater and convert it back to the
pure water which formed in clouds from which it fell! This is all possible but the financial
and environmental cost would far outweigh the benefits. Sewage collection and
treatment, like so many other activities, are subject to the laws of diminishing returns.
Low Flow/Flood Capacity
Sewerage systems are designed for normal flows (normal flows include some normal rain
etc.) arising from a catchment area, and to handle flows from storms (which are many
times greater than normal flows). Above this maximum value, storm overflows direct
any excess to a receiving water course. The choice of the maximum value is, as ever, a
question of striking the right balance. Higher capacity means higher costs and the facility
will only be needed on very rare occasions and this varies from country to country. In
some cases it may be appropriate to install holding tanks which can receive flows under
flood conditions which can be released later in a controlled manner, either to the
treatment works or the watercourse. Usually some treatment is usually provided for storm
flows, that would include screening to prevent the discharge and accumulation of
unsightly materials alongside the watercourse. To manage a Perfect Sewerage Company,
we would have to examine the adequacy of the sewerage network by preparing a
wastewater network management strategy, in a similar way to how we would operate the
clean water network. Investors need to realise that, whilst it is necessary to have a sewage
treatment works with the capacity to treat the volumes of effluent received into it (and to
achieve the required quality of treated effluent to be discharged from it), if the
wastewater network cannot adequately deal with the flows to prevent flooding, siltation
or blockages, the investment is devalued if not wasted.
Increasingly investors and lenders realise the need to make wastewater network
management strategies a condition of a grant or loan, to meet key environmental
standards. However, whilst the development of a wastewater management strategy is a
key requirement, its full implementation is difficult to achieve due to lack of detailed local
network knowledge. These issues can be addressed through asset management and GIS
analysis which is used as a precursor to network and treatment plant designs.
Wastewater network investigations cover a similar scope to that described in full in the
cleanwater network management section, but the wastewater strategy uses the following
terms to describe its range of activities:
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Drainage Area Planning
Drainage Area Planning is the term used to describe the study of the complete sewerage
system within a drainage catchment. The area plans are used to examine and assess the asset
data for The Perfect Sewerage System, including information on hydraulic and structural
conditions, records of the pollution of water courses and any future development within the
catchment area. As the flow due to rainwater increases, the concentration of pollutants
decreases, therefore the environmental impact of the discharge reduces. Careful design and
sizing of a practical collection system is vital if the right balance is to be struck between value
for money and environmental protection.
The Perfect Sewage Works
Having achieved the right balance between environmental protection and economic viability
for excess flows, the same is required to decide on the right degree of treatment. The Perfect
Sewage Works could be expected to treat every drop of waste and storm water a catchment
area received. It would also be infinitely large and costly. Most works have storage facilities
which capture a defined volume of storm water and then feed this storm water to the
treatment process at times of low flow. This allows the treatment plant to be smaller, cheaper
and operable under normal conditions. Process skills are required to determine the correct
balance between storage capacity treatment capacity and storm overflow rates in extended
wet weather conditions.
Some World Health Organisation environmental and health standards can be met by just
primary sedimentation of sewage. Further cost in the form of secondary and in some cases
tertiary treatment will allow compliance with more stringent quality requirements.
Most developed countries have legislation and directives in place governing the degree of
treatment required based on the quality and capacity of the receiving waters. The measure of
treatment is usually expressed in terms of the amount of organic pollutants as Biochemical
Oxygen Demand (BOD) or Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and suspended solids (SS)
removed. More stringent standards require Ammonia, Phosphorus, Nitrate and even Total
Nitrogen to be removed. Biwater has not only installed many plants to achieve such standards
but has specially developed proprietary processes to meet such stringent requirements.
In todays environment, where so much emphasis is placed on conservation and water reuse,
energy conservation is vital. Plants with tertiary treatment have been designed to produce
effluents suitable for irrigation or groundwater recharging. It is technically possible to remove
almost all organic, inorganic and bacteriological pollutants through further advanced
treatment processes so that drinking water standards are achieved. Through its
demineralisation, reverse osmosis and ultra-violet disinfection processes Biwater has built
many plants to meet ultrapure standards.
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It must however be remembered that each progressive treatment stage involves
increased capital and operational costs. Biwater is committed to providing appropriate
technology and through its almost unparalleled experience of different treatment
processes, can advise on the most appropriate solutions.
In many cases where effluent is discharged through a long sea outfall, preliminary
treatment will suffice e.g. the North Coast Wastewater Treatment Scheme (serving
coastal communities in Northern Ireland). In many other cases where removal of
nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) is deemed necessary, a biological nutrient plant
may be required (e.g. Tai Po Sewage Treatment Works, Hong Kong). In addition criteria
such as available footprint, topography, and the local technological expectation will also
impact on the selection of an appropriate process.
In order to gradually introduce sewage treatment to places where none exists, most
World Aid Agencies would prefer to see pollution control implemented in stages. For
smaller rural sites this may begin with installation of septic tanks or cesspools. A
decision to treat wastewater centrally would require some sort of piped collection
system followed perhaps by only preliminary and primary sewage treatment. At a later
stage secondary or even tertiary treatment would be introduced. Cost and levels of
pollution dictate whether more than one stage should be implemented at a time. To
increase the treatment to higher levels than those required for discharge, the
technology changes from the more traditional sewage processes to those more
commonly used in water treatment. These processes can produce water which is almost
drinking water standard but may have too many dissolved salts.
At present the World Bank and International Finance Corporation (IFC) are stressing
that effluents should receive the appropriate treatment, i.e. the effect the effluent has
on the receiving water course must be taken into account. If a very small quantity of
effluent (say 0.1 m3/ sec) is discharged into a river of, say, 100 m3/sec, the effect is
minimal, but, if only 1 m3/sec, the effect could be major. Many aspects, therefore, have
to be considered when designing the most practical, cost effective solutions.
Demineralisation of sewage effluent by, for example, reverse osmosis can remove
dissolved salts and produce water of a higher standard than most drinking water. A
plant such as this has been provided by Biwater for the City of Jeddah in Saudi Arabia
with a capacity of 30,000 m3/day. The water is used for irrigation purposes.
The Perfect Sewage Works would be modular in construction so that it can be extended
easily to cope with the increasing flows. The operators of this plant would be able to predict
precisely when such extensions would be required so that they can plan their capital
88

expenditure to suit. Unfortunately these perfect situations are few and far between as most
sewage treatment plants experience hydraulic or organic overloading at some stage. Special
skills are required for rehabilitation or refurbishment of treatment plants often involving
process redefinition/design, control and automation expertise. Biwater has been involved
extensively in refurbishing sewage works as most of the treatment plants built in the UK in
the second half of the last century had at least some Biwater involvement!
In summary, sewage treatment plants require careful planning and implementation at
every stage. From the start, where consent standards have to be determined, to
operation and maintenance of the constructed facility, special skills are required to
choose the correct solution for optimum benefit at the right cost.
89
Sha Tin Sewage Treatment Plant, Hong Kong
90
Yen So Park Sewage Treatment Plant (SBR tank), Hanoi, Vietnam
91

Perfect Sewage Pumping
The most efficient movement of fluids is by gravity. However, populations are rarely
located so that gravity driven water supply, effluent discharge and treatment processes
are possible or indeed economically viable. Pumps provide the energy needed to move
fluids where gravity systems are inadequate, impractical or impossible.
Pumps have been used over centuries and some of the early designs, such as the
Archimedean screw, are still used in sewage treatment plants. Today, there are a large
numbers of different pump designs to satisfy a wide range of operational requirements.
The skill is to select the most appropriate pump, bearing in mind the:
Nature of the fluid to be pumped

Suction and discharge conditions
Efficiency
Volume and pressure
Required degree of control
Reliability and maintenance requirements
Nature of the Fluid

The fluid, gas or liquid, greatly influences the type of pump as well as its material of
construction. Liquids such as raw sewage require a non-clog design made with
conventional abrasion resistant materials, whereas, a seawater reverse osmosis feed
water pump will be built to fine tolerances using exotic corrosion resistant materials.
Suction and Discharge Conditions
Each pump model has specific suction conditions to prevent cavitation and maximise
efficiency. Equally, discharge conditions need to be carefully evaluated to create the
system curve and any actions necessary to minimise surge.
Efficiency
Perfect pumps would be 100% efficient. Unfortunately, this is impossible, although the
most efficient pumps can transfer over 90% of the input energy to the pumped fluid. The
best designed pumping systems match peak pump efficiency to the duty point.
Systems designed to be economic so that the whole life cost of a pumping system is
minimised, might have high running costs, whereas an initially more expensive system
might cost less to operate. Biwater can compare the available alternatives for you using
present value comparisons of capital, operating and maintenance costs.
Biwater are currently constructing probably the largest sewage pumping station in the
World at Stonecutters Island, in Hong Kong, with completion due in 2016.
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Design and Build Contract, Eastbourne Wastewater Treatment Plant, UK

(built under the beach)
Volume and Pressure

These parameters dictate the pump range, which, together with the system curve,
identifies the operating point.
In general terms, very low head duties could be met using propeller or mixed flow
pumps, whereas very high head duties are usually catered for by using turbine pumps
(often multi stage) or even positive displacement pumps.
Reliability and Maintenance Requirements
Pumping systems should only be designed with the long term reliability of the whole
installation in mind. In this respect, careful attention to various aspects will ensure that
maintenance does not unduly affect the systems operational capability. Such aspects
include the layout of pumping stations for easy access to critical machinery and the
design of pumping mains to ensure components, such as air release valves, can be
maintained without having to isolate the mains.
When considering reliability it may be necessary to consider the degree of standby plant
required to provide security against breakdowns. Here again careful attention to the overall
design can minimise the likelihood of failures. Biwater has techniques available to allow
quantitative assessment of the risk of failure which can be used to minimise investment by
avoiding an unnecessary belt and braces approach to design. This enables the designer to
design out often overlooked hazards which could give rise to failures.
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Odour Free
Sewage treatment works, which were originally positioned well outside towns, have
become surrounded by housing and industry as a result of growth. Such close proximity
has led to many complaints of bad odours.
Coastal towns that have for many years pumped untreated sewage into the sea through long
outfalls are increasingly being required to provide treatment. Large pumping stations would be
necessary along the sea front to pump the sewage inland for treatment. Alternatively, compact
sewage treatment plants can be built on the sea shore. In either case, these plants need to be
completely free of odour nuisance due to their location.
Biwaters state-of-the-art treatment plant in Eastbourne in the UK is an excellent example
of an odour free design and is built under the sea shore as shown on the previous page.
Where space is available, a low rate biological process, operated correctly, creates no
odour nuisance. Areas from where odours emanate are the screenings, grit removal and
the sludge treatment processes. It is perfectly possible to extract these odours by
feeding the emanations through a biological system where they are absorbed. This is
without doubt one of the most cost-effective means of odour control.
Where space does not permit the use of a low rate process or where the treatment plant
has no secondary stage then an odour control plant can be constructed. This is achieved
by housing all the treatment elements in one building or covering individual stages and
then ducting the air through odour treatment equipment.
Most odours arise from the formation of malodorous compounds such as hydrogen
sulphide (H2S) usually as a result of anaerobic conditions existing in the wastewater. A
selection of the systems available for treating odours includes:
Chemical scrubbing
Biofiltration (peat, fibre, heather etc)
Biological scrubbing
Molecular absorption
The objective of an odour control scheme is to reduce the nuisance to zero. There is little
point in setting extremely stringent standards if these are not essential; which in most cases
they are not. Modelling of potential odour risks can be carried out before a treatment plant
is built to predict the affect on the surrounding environment. Generally good management
by professional operations will be sufficient to minimise odour nuisance.
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Managua Wastewater Treatment Plant, Nicaragua
Sludge Treatment and Disposal

The Perfect Sewage Works would purify wastewater without producing any
by-products. In reality all treatment plants rely on solid-liquid separation processes
(screening, grit removal, sedimentation, clarification etc.) and produce solid by-products.
The main by-product is sludge produced as a result of primary sedimentation (primary
sludge) and removal of excess biological organisms (secondary or humus sludge).
In developed countries sludge disposal has become increasingly difficult as environmental
regulations and directives governing their disposal have been introduced. In Europe for
example, the once traditional option of dumping at sea has been completely banned and
new tougher laws introduced for the landfill option. Indeed safe disposal of sludge can be
as complex and costly as treatment of sewage itself. This is because sludge has to be
handled, transferred, thickened and sometimes dewatered before it can be treated and
stabilised. In addition to high concentrations of polluting matter, sewage sludge contains
valuable substances such as nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium and can be good
sources of energy if processed in the right way. The most fashionable name for sludge is
biosolids, signifying their usefulness rather than treating them as a nuisance byproduct. Biwater is in the forefront of biosolids treatment technology.
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Before embarking on sludge treatment, a sludge disposal strategy must be discussed
with the relevant authorities and the ultimate disposal route agreed, which could be any
one of the following:
Sea disposal (where permitted)
Landfill (after dewatering, drying or incineration)
Reuse and recycling (to agriculture or land reclamation, following composting, digestion,
or drying, as an energy source, building material etc)
Clearly reuse or recycling, where economically feasible, should be the preferred option.
Anaerobic sludge digestion not only produces stabilised sludge but also produces
biogas which can be used to produce valuable heat and electricity. Biwater has built
many sludge digestion plants using both anaerobic and aerobic processes. Sludge
drying and composting is another area where Biwater is involved in pioneering
techniques for converting waste sludge into valuable soil supplements and the
`greenhouse sludge drying beds (below) is one example.
In summary, there are many options available for treating sludge but the choice
depends to a large extent on the ultimate disposal route, type of sludge involved and
the particular circumstances such as land availability and economic constraints all of
which tend to be unique to each plant.
Solar sludge drying facility, Managua Wastewater Treatment Plant, Nicaragua
96
4. The Regulatory Role

The Regulatory Role
Private sector involvement in water supply, with its capital intensity, makes it a local
monopoly business and therefore requires a degree of regulation. This is as much a
political and social issue as it is an economic and environmental one. On the political and
social side, customers will need to be reassured that their interests are being safeguarded
by the Government, and will continue to be protected into the future. On the economic
and environmental side, private sector investors must be able to earn a fair rate of return
whilst providing benefits to customers in line with the agreed quantity and quality
standards laid down for the protection of public health and the environment.
Economic regulation and environmental regulation go hand in hand as the tariff must
reflect the quality, environmental and service standards which the Authorities and the
water customer expect to be delivered as part of the private finance contract.
Controls
Economic regulation can take many forms but all require the provision of information
from the water supplier to the regulator. There can be controls on tariffs, dividends,
rates of return on capital or sales. Each has been applied with varying degrees of
success both singly and in combination across the world. It is important that economic
regulation is transparent and consistently and fairly applied. Measures which are the
subject of regulatory control should be clearly specified and adequately defined and the
regulator should report openly and in an unbiased manner.
Fair Return for Investors
The private sector investor is seeking at least medium term stability, reasonable
predictability of income and a return on existing and new capital. In addition, the
regulatory framework should provide incentives for the private sector participant to
maximise efficiency (for example through reducing leakage or costs of operation) and
to retain part of the benefit from such improvements, as should customers in due
course. Fixed rates of return or dividend controls do not provide such incentives but
price cap regulation does and has been used with great success since the privatisation
of water in England and Wales in 1989. England and Wales also has the benefit of
having a number of private water operators, each covering a discrete and separate
geographic area and this enables their performance to be compared.
Quality
Quality and environmental regulation varies considerably from market to market
according to perceived priorities, needs and budgets. The drinking water quality and
environmental protection regime in the UK is one of the most sophisticated and
thorough in the World. Again, we have vast experience in such areas and are able to
apply this to match the needs of our clients in a cost effective and efficient way.
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Regulation
Regulation should not be adversarial or intrusive. The Regulation should be consultative
and work in partnership with the private sector part to achieve common objectives as
defined by parties to the private finance initiative. However, the Regulators must be
seen to be independent and objective and must have sanctions available to them for
non-performance against the agreed targets and objectives within the control of the
water supplier. Sanctions used in the event of poor performance should be
proportionate.
Tailor made
We have extensive experience of economic regulation all over the world and are able
to advise and assist in development of a regulatory framework and structure which will
fulfil the objectives of the private sector financing initiative.
Our global experience in private finance initiatives is extensive and regulatory
frameworks from the simplest to the most complex have been developed which will
meet the needs and aspirations of all parties in such arrangements to ensure success.
Water Services Regulation in the UK
Water
Sector
Regulations
Water
Service
Regulations
Authority
(formerly
Ofwat)
Environment
Agency
Department
for
Environment
Food and
Rural Affairs
Water Companies
Customers
Non-Sector
Regulations
Consumer
Council
For Water
Drinking
Water
Inspectorate
Health and
Safety
Executive
Competition
Commission
99
Financial
Services
Authority
5. Water - A Natural Resource

Water - A Natural Resource
Water is a precious natural resource that is essential for human life and for most
industrial activities. It is however a finite resource and, in the context of a threefold
increase in global water use since 1950, most parts of the world are facing growing
pressures on water resources.
Strategic Management
Finite Limit
The earth and its atmosphere contain large amounts of water but 97% of this is in
saline seawater and much of the remaining freshwater forms the polar ice caps. Thus
only about 0.7% of the earths water occurs in freshwater lakes and rivers, in accessible
aquifers and in the atmosphere. It is the water that takes part in the hydrological cycle
and which fixes finite limits on availability.
Heavy rainfall, which produces high runoff in rivers and good aquifer recharge, usually
occurs in mountainous regions where population densities are low. Flat lowland areas,
which are favoured for both urban development and agriculture, often have relatively
low rainfall.
Population Density
In the UKs Scottish Highlands the population density is a maximum of nine people per
square kilometre and rainfall exceeds 1.6 metres a year, but in South East England there
is a population density of 651 people per square kilometre and the rainfall is only
approximately 0.8 metres per year (data taken from 2001 census). Clearly, even in what
is often seen as a wet country, because of regional variations in both resources and
demand, the availability of water can cause problems particularly in periods of lower
than average rainfall. In reality, the UKs renewable freshwater resources are only 2464
m3/person/year.
101

Climate Change
Due to mans activities, the amount of greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide,
and methane etc.) has increased in the atmosphere. This means that the heat from the
earth is restricted from escaping into space causing the earth to heat up, resulting in
climate change.
In the UK, global warming may mean hotter, drier summers, milder wetter winters and
increased flood risk to coastal areas. Globally the effects can be rising sea levels, major
flooding in Southern and South East Asia, food shortage and disease particularly in
Africa, the Middle East and India as well as severe water shortages and loss of tropical
rainforests. These risks need to be taken into consideration by careful river basin
management.
River Basin Management
Cost-effective and environmentally sustainable management of water resources aims to
satisfy the sometimes conflicting demands for water whilst ensuring that the needs of
consumers and the environment are balanced in a value-for-money framework. River
basin management provides an integrating concept that helps to implement an
effective water resource strategy.
A water resource strategy must balance the high cost of providing storage to maintain
supply during rare droughts against the inconvenience to water users of restrictions and
demand management measures which can reduce the need for storage. The cost and
practicability of ensuring the availability of water for all possible uses during a serious
drought is usually quite uneconomic when viewed rationally.
A water resource management strategy must differentiate between consumptive uses,
where all or most of the water is lost and non-consumptive uses which return most of the
abstracted water where it is available to satisfy other uses. Most agricultural uses,
particularly irrigation, are consumptive whereas many domestic and industrial uses are
largely non-consumptive.
Quality Issues
Quality aspects of water resources also require careful management, both in relation to the
suitability of a source for a specific use and to the possible degradation of quality in water
returned after use. It is a fundamental principle of water resource management that a
particular use should not in general be permitted to utilise water of a higher quality than is
necessary for that use. It is equally important that the quality of any returned water does
not adversely affect the potential of the receiving water for satisfying other uses.
102

Hierarchy of Water Use
Integrated management of a river basin requires the establishment of a hierarchy of water
uses which takes into account their nature, seasonality and potential for degradation of
quality. A prerequisite for basin management is the availability of an accurate inventory
of the available resources and the current uses together with predictions of future changes
in water usage. Analysis of this information, which must be supported by regular and
reliable data collection, provides the basis for the development of management strategies
and tools that may also include such aspects as flood defence and sediment control.
When water is plentiful, management of resources may not be difficult although flooding
and erosion problems can pose considerable problems. In river basins, where demands are
close to available resources, robust management policies must be established. Technical,
economic, legal, sociological and ecological factors also need to be taken into account.
Water resources can only be operated in a sustainable manner if all the total long-term
uses do not abstract more than the natural precipitation and recharge.
Sustainable Water Resources
Sustainable water resource management requires a full understanding of the complex and
multidisciplinary factors which impact on water and its use.
In practice, conflicts of interest, parochial viewpoints, cross-country borders and lack of
funds have often hindered the adoption of effective water resource management
strategies, particularly in the case of international rivers.
UK Lesson
Because of the impact of the Industrial Revolution, the UK was faced with the need for
management of water resources well over 100 years ago. The development of water
management in the UK has given British water engineers and scientists the benefits of
many years of practical experience.
Major developments in water resources management in the UK date from the 1800s
when rapid urbanisation promoted the construction of water supply and sewerage
schemes. These developments were generally undertaken by municipal authorities or
private companies and in the absence of an overall strategy had serious consequences on
the quality of water resources. Further development continued until the middle of the last
century until pressures on water resources and increasing water pollution forced
government action.
103

It became clear that the adequacy of water supply in urban areas was being threatened and
the multiplicity of local authorities was causing many problems in execution and control of
both water supply and sewerage schemes. The lack of a national strategy for water
management was serious but insufficient data was available to develop such a strategy.
Over a number of years the situation was eased by encouraging amalgamations between
water supply organisations and, to a much more limited extent, of sewerage authorities.
A major step forward occurred in 1974 with the formation of catchment-based regional
water authorities with responsibility for the whole water cycle. The work of these
authorities was hampered by financial restrictions imposed by the Government and by the
fact that much of the pollution of water sources resulted from ineffective treatment
facilities operated by the authorities themselves.
Environmental Regulators
Privatisation of the UK water industry in 1989 (when Biwater led the field to acquire the
first water company) removed the public financial constraints and enabled a strategic
water resources management strategy to be undertaken by an environmental regulator,
The National Rivers Authority. The Environment Agency (EA) was established by the
Environment Act 1995 and became fully operational in 1996 in order to provide a
consistent approach over all the environmental regulators. This replaced the NRA and the
EA became a non-departmental public body of the Department for Environment, Food
and Rural Affairs and an assembly sponsored public body of the National Assembly for
Wales.
The EA covers the whole of England and Wales with 36,000 kilometres of river, 5,000
kilometres of coastline and about 15 million hectares of land. Their principal aim is to
protect and enhance the environment to make a contribution towards the objective of
achieving sustainable development (DEFRA website, 2008). The EA has many functions
including water resources management, conservation of the water environment and its
protection as an amenity, flood risk and the maintenance and improvement of fisheries
and water quality.
104
6. The Way Forward

The last decade has seen an irreversible change in the worlds water industry. The continuous
demands required to achieve The Perfect Water and Sewage Company have found The
Public Utility, in many cases, wanting. To meet new, evermore stringent, water and effluent
standards consistently and efficiently is a burden on any public utility. The utility that is often
stretched in terms of technical and economic resources, and almost always constrained by
bureaucracy, inevitably fails to deliver. A new radical approach is needed.
Biwater has been a pioneer from the development of the activated sludge process to
treat sewage, to the latest membrane processes for drinking water treatment and many
other such developments in the water industry. Private sector participation has been no
exception. Biwater became the first company to purchase a British water company in the
1980s during the privatisation of the British water supply industry. It became the first
company to successfully build, own and operate a sewage treatment plant when Puerto
Vallerta in Mexico was commissioned.
Demands of the Middle East will provoke innovation in desalination; Biwater engineers
are continually proving the frontiers of these sciences, which will almost inevitably provide
the final solution required to satisfy the unending need for the worlds number one
resource fresh water. Here again, the largest desalination plants in the world were first
built by Biwater in Saudi Arabia over 20 years ago and Biwater now has the second largest
installed membrane capacity in the world, the largest installed capacity of membranes in
the municipal sector in the United States and the largest installed capacity of membrane
bio-reactors in the UK.
Water resource and reuse will stretch the current treatment processes to meet the greater
demands, as where there is the most water available there is often the least to drink.
Emerging markets invariably have the largest populations in the world and therefore the
transfer of technology and local training by professional, skilled water operators is
essential to retain value for money for truly sustainable developments.
Finance has now become the key for successful water and sewerage development
particularly where a contract includes operating and maintenance over a long period. One
of the best solutions for the development of a successful utility is when the public sector
places the risk with the private sector and yet has regulatory control.
The advent of private sector participation in the water industry has opened up new
horizons, new opportunities and set new challenges. Biwater is already there facing the
challenge to deliver the Perfect Water and Sewage Company in a world that will see its
population double within the next fifty years.
Adrian E White CBE, DL, D.Univ, C Sci, FCIWEM, Founder and Chairman, Biwater
Holdings Limited.
107
6. The Way Forward

Compliance with Legislation
The EA issue licences for water abstraction and also consents for effluent discharges.
These are obtained after full consideration of the effects of these activities on water
management activities such as wildlife habitats, river pollution and water supply
shortages. The allocation of abstraction licences are decided through Catchment
Abstraction Management Strategies (CAMS). These plans are developed in consultation
with the full range of users and environmental interests within each particular catchment.
The enforcement of statutory water quality objectives that are based on the nature and
use of a catchment is an important aspect of this management.
In December 2003, the European Water Framework Directive 2000 was incorporated into
UK law and applies to all freshwater bodies, estuaries and coastal waters up to one mile
out to sea from low-water. This provides a holistic approach by managing water as it flows
through the catchments to the sea and aims are to encourage sustainable use of water,
improve ecological quality, protect against pollution and mitigate flooding and droughts.
In the UK the EA are responsible for its implementation which has resulted in the
identification of river basin districts, setting up environmental objectives and establishing
river basin management plans and monitoring programmes.
The current situation in England and Wales demonstrates that with sound strategies and
effective control measures it is possible to deliver improvements in the management of
water resources in a mixed private and public industry. Our specialist company in this
field, Biwater Consulting (www.biwaterconsulting.com), travels worldwide undertaking
comprehensive water resource studies utilising its experience in water and effluent
technology to maximise water utilisation and minimising losses.
Established in 1948 as a global health body, the World Health Organisation (WHO)
directs and coordinating authority for health within the United Nations system.
Internationally our companies provide solutions that meet or exceed the requirements set
out by the World Health Organisations (WHO) guidelines for drinking water quality and
sanitation. Demonstrating their compliance to regional legislation and directives whilst
meeting their obligations to contract specific requirements on water quality.
105
Our Products and Processes
Biwater
Our Products and Processes
Biwater provides water and wastewater treatment services to millions of people in

over 90 countries. Since starting in the United Kingdom in 1968 and through more
than 100 years of experience via acquisitions we have developed an enviable global
reputation for service, innovation and environmental responsibility. Our experience
spans the entire industry and our services include:
Water treatment
Wastewater treatment
Water infrastructure investment & operation
Consultancy and water asset management
Membrane technology and desalination
Structured project finance
Throughout this products and processes section you will see how our diverse businesses
can take care of anything from providing a piped water supply to 4.2 million inhabitants
in Malaysia, to constructing a sewage treatment works for Abu Dhabi, to purchasing
water companies. We pride ourselves on our competitive combination of project
management, technical expertise and independent financial strength. Our businesses
understand the needs of our clients, working in close partnership with them to deliver
clear and effective solutions.
109
Water Treatment
111
Water Treatment
Summary
With the emphasis on affordability, Biwater can meet any treatment challenge with
cost effective solutions.
The provision of an entire water supply scheme incorporating major intake works,
pumping stations, pipeline infrastructure, and treatment facilities requires more than
water expertise. Designing and constructing schemes such as those in the Dominican
Republic, Sri Lanka, Sudan and China requires financial engineering, global
procurement and logistics capabilities, civil engineering experience and flawless project
management skills. From planning permission for dams and reservoirs to treatment
processes, effluent discharge and pipelines, Biwater manages the whole process.
The science of water treatment is constantly evolving to meet new legislation and new
environmental challenges. To maintain our position as a market leader, we work closely
with our clients and consultants, to adapt process designs and treatment methods to
meet specific client and environmental needs.
Whether it is a reverse osmosis desalination plant in the United States, or a membrane
bio-reactor in the UK, Biwater's process engineers and technical specialists can develop
a sustainable solution.
Complementing Biwater's water treatment services is a range of innovative, robust
packaged equipment and products. From pre-fabricated reservoirs to on-board
desalination kits for submarines, Biwater can provide the full range of plant and
equipment on a supply only, supply and installation, or with lifetime operation basis.
111

i. Biwater Tower
General Description:
The Biwater Lamella Tower is a unique concept in the treatment of either surface or
ground water, designed to provide potable drinking water fully in compliance with World
Health Organisation requirements, for both rural and urban communities throughout the
world. After years of successful operation, the opportunity has now been taken to
optimise treatment within the Biwater Tower with 170 already installed worldwide, to
take advantage of lamella settling technology. Established lamella sedimentation
treatment processes are combined with elevated treated water storage in a single tower
unit, providing an energy-efficient system which requires the minimum utilisation of
land. With a range of four unit sizes, populations up to 50,000 can be provided with
50 litres per person per day from a single Biwater Lamella Tower installation. Larger
populations are served using multiple unit installations.
The Biwater Lamella Tower has been designed to meet the needs in remote parts of the
world for an easily assembled, compact plant. Each tower is prefabricated, often locally,
in sections, to allow easy transportation and simple erection at site requiring minimal
labour and equipment. The latest design allows the smaller sized towers to be
assembled in the horizontal position and then winched upright prior to erection of a
sectional bolted storage tank placed on the top of the erect tower.
The Biwater Lamella Tower, square in section, is supported by a prefabricated
foundation ring which is cast into a simple concrete base, a system that then requires
only limited site preparation. The accurate prefabrication of the square tower sections
ensures that all alignments are carried out before erection commences. Flanged
connections between tower sections aid simplicity, speed and ease of erection. A
complete set of valves and prefabricated pipework is provided leaving only simple pipe
connections to be made at site.
The Biwater Lamella Tower requires a minimum of maintenance and will continue to
provide safe potable water to the local community for many years.
The treatment process uses conventional lamella sedimentation and filtration
technologies, both well proven, and easily meets internationally accepted quality
standards. Untreated water from a local raw water source feeds the Tower entering into
two lamella sedimentation chambers operating in parallel. The majority of impurities in
the water are coagulated and separated via sedimentation into a sludge which is
drained to waste.
112

i. Biwater Tower
The water is chemically treated, using displacement dosers (or if electricity is available,
chemical metering pumps) to aid sedimentation and provide disinfection for the treated
water. Following clarification, the water travels down through the external pipework to the
pressure sand filter at the bottom of the tower. After passing through the single grade filter
media the water rises to the storage tank at the top of the tower ready for distribution to
the community. With the storage tank already placed at some height on the tower itself and
the siting of the tower on land that commands a good zone of influence over the
distribution area, gravity distribution will be economic, reliable and effective.
The only operational procedure needed is the periodical draining of the sludge from the
lamella sedimentation chambers and cleaning of the pressure filter by backwashing
with clean water available at the correct pressure and volume from the integral treated
water storage tank. Each routine is accomplished by the operation of a single valve
from ground level.
The Biwater Lamella Tower is:
A unique concept It combines a tower containing robust treatment processes with an
integral treated water storage facility.
Compact It has a small footprint, is efficient in its design offering treatment, storage
with gravity distribution from one site.
Easy to construct and erect Simple bolted construction forms the tower, pipework
and the storage tank.
Affordable With ongoing low cost operation and maintenance.
Tower diameter
metres
Output
m3/hour
Nominal Storage
m3
Top water level

metres
Overall height
metres
1.5 x 1.5
10.0
56
14.35
14.85
2.0 x 2.0
22.0
87
14.85
15.35
3.0 x 3.0
60.0
126
15.35
15.85
4.0 x 4.0
115.0
171
15.85
16.35
Tower Types
Type 1 - Full treatment with treated water storage
Type 2 - Full treatment without treated water storage
Type 3 - Without sedimentation with treated water storage
The exact arrangement of any Biwater Lamella Tower can be optimised when details
of source water are analysed along with the site conditions and Client Requirements.
113

i. Biwater Tower
FLOW DURING NORMAL OPERATION

Raw Water
The raw water is dosed
with chemicals usually
alum and soda ash.
It then passes to the
Lamella Settling Tanks.
TREATED
WATER
STORAGE
The chemicals react with

contaminants in the
water, form a sludge
which settles in the base
of the tanks.
Settled Water
The settled water rises to
the top of the tanks still
under pressure generated
by the raw water pump/s.
From the Lamella Tanks
it passes down to the
sand filter.
The water in the filter,
still under pressure, flows
down through the sand
which removes any
remaining contaminants.
Treated Water
The filtered water is
dosed with chlorine to
disinfect it as it rises to
the treated water storage
storage tank at the top
of the tower.
TREATED
WATER
SAND FILTER
RAW
WATER
TO DRAIN
The storage tank is of

sufficient height to allow
the treated water to
gravitate through the
distribution system to the
local community.
KEY
Raw Water Flow
Treated Water
Treated Water
114

i. Biwater Tower
FLOW DURING FILTER WASHING/DE-SLUDGING

Raw Water
The raw water passes to
the Lamella Tanks as per
normal.
Settled Water
The settled water rises to
the top of the tanks still
under pressure generated
by the raw water pump/s.
TREATED
WATER
STORAGE
From the Lamella Tanks it

is now temporarily routed
to drain.
Sludge from the Lamella
Tanks
The sludge is allowed to
run to drain from the
base of the settlement
tanks.
Treated Water
The water above the filter
is no longer under
pressure from the raw
water pump/s and using
the elevation of the water
in the storage tank, the
water flow is reversed.
Incorporated in the pipe is
an air eductor (not
shown), which adds air to
this water flow to
enhance the backwashing.
TREATED
WATER
SAND FILTER
RAW
WATER
TO DRAIN
Dirty Backwash Water

As the water rises through
the sand bed it carries
with it the trapped
contaminants which are
then run to drain.
KEY
Raw Water Flow
This design allows the raw

water pump/s to continue
to operate normally
during backwashing,
Alternatively, if practical,
the raw water pump/s
may be temporarily shut
down to conserve water
and power.
Settled Water Flow

Treated Water Flow
Sludge from Settlement Tanks
Dirty Backwash Water
115

ii. Bipak
The biPAK range of package

water treatment plants provides
a proven design to deliver
potable water to meet World
Health Organisation (WHO)
standards. This complete water
treatment package of integrated
equipment is designed to be
assembled anywhere with speed
and economy.
The package contains a
Typical biPAK installation
flocculator, clarifier, sand filters,
chemical dosing plant and all
necessary pumps, gauges and
interconnecting pipework and is varied to suit local conditions.
In addition, specially designed prefabricated buildings can be supplied to contain all
chemical and preparation tanks, stored chemicals, metering pumps, chlorinators, high
and low lift pumpsets, air blowers and control panels, together with offices for
operating personnel.
Flocculation
Raw water is chemically dosed by metering pumps with coagulants which are then
thoroughly mixed in a static mixer. The influent is then agitated as it passes through
the vertically mounted flocculation tank.
Clarification
Influent then flows by gravity to the clarifier where rapid sedimentation takes place.
Excess sludge is removed from the process by the integral sludge cones and supernatant
is allowed to weir over the top of the tank and flows by gravity to the filter.
Filters
The clarified water flows into the filter where any residual suspended impurities are
removed as the water gravitates down through a bed of specially graded filter sand. The
filtrate is collected on the underside of the filter media by the filter under drain system,
designed to ensure a uniform collection over the entire surface area of the filter bed.
116

ii. Bipak
Filter Cleaning
Filter cleaning consists of an automated and evenly distributed air scour. The combined
air/water sand filter backwash process is activated as the head-loss increases to a predefined level.
Sterilisation
The water is then sterilised using Chlorine, which is accurately and evenly dosed in the
chlorine contact tank prior to the filtrate being delivered by gravity into the potable
water network. The system enables both pre and post chlorination treatment to be
applied as required.
Chemical Dosing and Electrical Equipment
A control and chemical building constructed adjacent to the process units provides
protection from the elements for the chemical preparation, storage tanks, air blowers,
control and automation equipment. Integral covered pipe and cable trenches provide a
conduit connecting the process equipment to the covered control and automation
equipment.
alum
lime
polyelectrolyte
input
sludge
flocculator
chlorine
sludge
lamella clarifier
dirty backwash
backwash
output
contact tank
sand filter
117

ii. Bipak
Comprising up to four treatment zones, this modular design makes the biPAK an ideal
solution for small to medium communities with populations of up to 30,000, providing
optimised and effective treatment of raw water.
Model
PE
biPAK Model Range:

Flow
(population equivalent,
200 litres per
metres3/day
person/day)
*Lamella
FBC
Bipak
Bipak
Bipak
Bipak
Bipak
Bipak
Bipak
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
6000
9000
12000
18000
21000
24000
30000
1200
2400
3600
4800
6000
1200
1800
2400
4200
-
Power
Consumption
(KWh/day)
*Lamella
FBC
150
300
450
600
750
150
225
300
525
-
Area
Required
(m3)
250
375
450
650
850
1000
1250
*Optional lamella tube or flat bed clarifier, selection dependant on raw water analysis.
118
i. Filtromatic Continuous Flow Filters
Key Features:
Up to 70% solids reduction
Optional
air
scour
for
enhanced backwash.
The Biwater Continuous Flow Filter
The Filtromatic Continuous-Flow
Filter is a low-head, multicompartment, valveless, gravity
filter. It can reduce suspended
solids, by up to 70%. The filter
represents
a
revolutionary
advance in media cleaning
technology. Major advantages
over conventional backwash
filters include:
Continuous-Flow Design - the design means the filter is never out of service, even
during backwash. Since only one cell of the filter is backwashed at a time, all other cells
continue to filter water. This means at least 90 per cent of the filter is still in service
during backwash obviating the need for standby filter capacity.
Backwash Indexing - with the Filtromatic filter the backwash mechanism indexes over
each cell individually, sealing off the cell and backwashing it. The significant advantage
realised by indexing over the individual cells is the fact that all of the media in a given
cell is thoroughly backwashed at the full rate for the full duration of the pump operation.
Vacuum Backwash - this design provides "vacuum cleaner" action at the top of the bed
ensuring uniform backwash of the filter.
Valveless Design - there are no intake or filtrate valves required for the operation of the filter
and no shut-off valves are required for the filter backwash.
Low-Head Loss - the Filtromatic filter can be designed to operate on a pressure
differential as low as 300mm.
Visible Operation - the top of the filter bed is visible during filtration. Therefore, visual
inspection of the media is possible without filter shutdown.
Modular Design - the filter design permits shipment of relatively large, totally
assembled, pre-packaged filters. This means less site labour and less installation time.
119
i. Filtromatic Continuous Flow Filters
Process Description:
The Filtromatic filter consists of a sand filter bed, divided into a series of individual
cells. Each cell contains media and a nozzle plate filter floor.
A feed channel along the full length of the filter tank distributes flow evenly into the
filter bed. Filtered effluent is collected below the nozzle floor and discharged over a weir
at the end of the filter tank. The void below the filter floor acts as a clean water
reservoir, from which the backwash pump draws filtered water for backwashing.
The backwash sequence is initiated by the rising head in the filter or by elapsed time. A
travelling bridge complete with backwash pump and optional air-scour equipment traverses
the length of the filter, washing each cell in turn. Following completion of the cycle, the
travelling bridge returns to its start position to await the next backwash signal. There are two
standard widths of filter 5m and 3m, the length of the filter being varied to provide the
required filter area. Filter tanks can be constructed in concrete or steel tank packaged form.
Filter Construction:
The filter is available either as a site constructed unit or, in the case of smaller
applications, as a packaged unit. Site constructed units include the bridge and drive,
cells, backwash hood and pump, controls and accessories necessary for operation.
These site constructed units normally contain 10 to 50 cells, each of which may filter
up to 50m3/h, depending on the chosen design and maximum filtering rates. The
packaged units, which include filter tank, cells, bridges, controls, backwash hood and
pump are available with filtering areas from 12.5m3 to 25m3.
Cell Construction:
The Filtromatic filter can be designed with either pre-stressed concrete or fabricated steel
filter cells. The cells may be shipped as complete units, ready for installation in the filter tank.
Since the cells are self-supporting over their entire width, installation is reduced to simply
setting the cells on supporting ledges built into the tank wall and grouting them in place.
Cell floors are smooth and uniform and are fitted with polypropylene nozzles. The nozzles
are of a non-clog design and offer uniform distribution for filtering and backwashing.
Summary:
Up to 70% solids reduction
Continuous flow
Optional Air Scour
Backwash Indexing
Low Head Loss
Fully automatic
120
No downtime
Enhanced backwash
Highly effective cleaning
Prevents backwash short-circuiting
Reduced operator input
ii. Pressure Filters
Longham Primary Pressure Filter, Bournemouth, UK
Pressure Filters are utilised in small to medium scale filter applications where compact
plant and minimal site construction activities are required. Process trains may require
that pressure head be maintained through the filters on to the inlet of downstream
processes, thereby necessitating the use of Pressure Filters.
Biwater undertakes the design and installation of Pressure Filters and the associated
peripheral systems and/or equipment. Filters are designed to suit each application and
include all the features associated with effective downflow Rapid Gravity Filtration,
i.e. Backwash and Airscour cycles (or combination thereof).
Filtration and Backwashing / Scouring cycles may be fully automated by means of
actuated valves and control systems that interface with the peripheral equipment.
Proprietary Biwater Filter Nozzles and suitable Filtration Media are installed on site
subsequent to the Pressure Filters being fixed into position.
The full complement of matching ancillary equipment required for Biwater filtration systems,
includes pipework, instrumentation, pumps and blowers.
121
iii. Rapid Gravity Filters
Rapid Gravity Filters
The removal of Suspended Solids from water is effectively achieved by filtration
through suitable filtration media such as sand with manganese to iron removal and pH
correction media.
Biwater offers a variety of Rapid Gravity Filters, including Up or Down Flow Filters and
Declining Rate or Fixed Rate Filters. Biwater provides the process and detail design for
Rapid Gravity Filters, together with associated control and peripheral equipment such
as pipework, pumps, blowers and instrumentation.
Depending on Commercial and/or technical requirements, filters may be configured to
exhibit the following:
Pipe-Lateral or False-Floor Outlet
Systems
Syphon or Valve Outlet /Backwash
Control
Manual or Fully Automated Backwash

Cycles
Combined Air-Scour and Backwash
Cycles.
122
c. Clarification
i. Clarifiers
Lamella Clarifiers, Ilorin, Nigeria
Gravity Clarifiers are utilised to settle solids in the treatment of both water and
wastewater.
Biwater offers a large variety of Clarifier configurations in order to be able to address
differing conditions.
In principle, water containing settleable solids is introduced to a basin where flow
velocities are reduced such that the solids settle out by gravity. These solids (the sludge)
are then removed by means of various mechanisms and the clarified water allowed to
overflow. The effectiveness of a Clarifier is dependent on achieving even flow
distribution, suitable flow velocities and efficient removal of solids.
For the Water Treatment Sector, Clarifier configurations are offered by Biwater,
including:
Rectangular, Plug-flow Clarifiers
Rectangular, Up-flow Clarifiers
High Rate Clarifiers using Lamella
Separators
Up-flow, Sludge Blanket Clarifiers

Sludge removal by means of Scrapers
or Multi-Hoppers.
Dissolved air flotation
123
c. Clarification
ii. Flat Bottom Clarifier
Raw water inlet
Clarified water
Sludge
concentrator
Inlet diffusers
Flat Bottomed Clarifier
Key Features:
Biwaters flat bottomed clarifier is a cost-effective
clarification system with the advantages of:
Low civil construction costs
No power requirements for the process itself
Adaptable for a wide range of raw waters
High performance
Automatic discharge of excess sludge
Consistently high sludge concentration
Flat tank floor allows easy cleaning.
Primary treatment of surface waters is provided for with Biwaters range of solids/liquid
separation equipment. A range of treatment options have been developed because water from
reservoir, lake and river sources contain varying amounts of suspended particle sizes. The Flat
Bottomed Clarifier removes flocculant and other suspended matter prior to filtration by holding
the flocculated particles in suspension forming a sludge blanket. This is a natural settlement
process which requires no moving parts and has no inherent energy requirement once the
water has been raised to the inlet level. Together with a low mechanical component and
reduced civil costs it is perhaps the most cost-effective clarification system available.
Biwater has a specialised team of process chemists to establish the optimum chemical treatment
and settlement rate of suspended solids in order to determine the design parameters of the clarifier.
The system distributes inlet water mixed with coagulant, through a series of inlet diffusers
situated above the flat floor of the clarifier. The incoming water flocculates in the lower section
of the tank and passes upwards through the floc blanket. Efficient sludge concentrators are
installed throughout the tank with their rims level with the upper surface of the blanket. As the
solids in the in the floc blanket increase the blanket extends upwards and the surplus blanket
flows into the cones where it concentrated at the base and is intermittently discharged. The
rise rate normally ranges from three to five metres per hour, using conventional coagulants
with the aid of polyelectrolytes, depending upon the water source. The minimum operating
flow is that which will just maintain the blanket. Maximum flow is limited by the extreme
expansion of the blanket. Typically, the ratio of minimum and maximum flows is three to one.
Sludge blanket clarifiers use polyelectrolytes to enable the maximum flow rate to be increased
but, as they also raise the minimum flow rate, the turn down ratio can be increased by
discontinuing polyelectrolyte dosing at the lower water flow rates.
As the name suggests the flat bottomed clarifier tank is a simple, rectangular, vertical sided
structure with a level, flat bottom. Normally raw water inlet channels run along one side of the
tank while the clarified water channels are on the opposite side. Raw water troughs bridging
the tank at intervals carry suspended vertical pipes, feeding the diffusers. These troughs can be
hosed clean when necessary. Troughs carrying clarified water to the clarified water outlet
channel are positioned next to the raw water troughs.
124
c. Clarification
iii. Dissolved Air Flotation
The dissolved air flotation system

is an adaptable, high rate process
suitable
for
the
primary
solids/liquids separation stage
necessary in the treatment of
many potable and industrial
waters and effluents.
Most surface waters contain
suspended solids which have to
be removed before the water is
suitable for use. The solids may
be naturally occurring or
produced by treatment processes
used to remove colour and
colloidal matter and will normally
Dissolved Air Flotation Unit
settle slowly under quiescent conditions.

The principle behind the flotation process is to attach gaseous microbubbles to the feed
solids in order to reduce their apparent density below that of water so that the
particulate matter floats to the surface rather than slowly settling.
The dissolved air flotation process fills an important role in primary solids/liquids
separation and offers:
Rapid solids/liquid separation

Reduced land requirement
Adaptability to a wide range of applications
Flexibility in operation
Rapid plant start-up and shut-down
The dissolved air principle relies upon the fact that the solubility of air in water increases
with pressure. In this process air is injected into a small proportion of the treated water
which is recycled under pressure. This highly saturated air/water solution is released into
the flotation tank under carefully controlled conditions to produce a cloud of
microbubbles which envelopes the solids in the feed flow. The hydraulic conditions in the
vicinity of the microbubble cloud promote good bubble attachment and coalescence so
that the solids float rapidly to the surface in the flotation zone.
125
c. Clarification
Flash mixing is necessary to ensure the thorough dispersion of the chemicals employed
in the coagulation process. A secondary flash mixer may be necessary for applications
where a coagulant aid is required.
Flocculation with coagulant before flotation is necessary to remove colour and other
impurities and produce a floc capable of enmeshing colloidal particles which in turn have
good bubble attachment properties. The contact time in the flocculation zone is
governed by the foregoing criteria rather than the production of large floc having
optimum settling characteristics. The flocculation period may range from 10 to 30
minutes before flotation.
Tapered flocculation has been found to be beneficial. Two stages of flocculation are
normally sufficient, depending upon the type of water to be treated. The power input is
highest in the first stage and lowest in the second stage.
Vertical shaft paddle flocculators are suitable for small and medium size plants whilst a
horizontal shaft arrangement may be more economical for larger installations.
Microbubble production is a critical factor in achieving rapid separation and good
product water quality. Recycled water, at pressures at or above 3.0 atm, is released into
the flotation tank at atmospheric pressure. The air injection nozzle has a specifically
designed orifice configuration to control the flow rate, whilst a cover reduces exit
turbulence to ensure the delicate floc is not subjected to excessive shear forces.
The rapid rate of solids/liquid separation achieved in the process allows the use of
comparatively small volumes for the separation zone. However, since the flocculation
period and flotation separation rate vary from water to water, it is necessary to review
the most economical plant configuration from case to case.
Biwater Treatments experience in hydraulic design and plant layout ensures a sound
engineering proposal for each application.
126
c. Clarification
Solids removed in the process accumulate on the liquid surface in the form of an aerated
sludge. This can be removed in several ways and this aspect of the design is reviewed
from case to case against specific project requirements, eg size of plant, requirements for
the final sludge treatment etc. Biwater has recently developed a relatively inexpensive
paddle type of scraper that is located at the beach end of the flotation cell. It has been
proved on many installations to be equally as efficient as other types of scraper at sludge
removal but does not cause the deterioration in clarified water quality that sometimes
occurs on other scrapers when sludge, dripping from returning scraper blades, falls onto
the surface causing knock-down of floating sludge.
Floatation generally produces clarified water of very high quality thereby ensuring the
lowest possible load being applied to the following filters.
The removal of algae in particular is normally considerably superior to that in other types
of clarification systems.
127
c. Clarification
iv. Lamella Sedimentation
The efficiency of floc particles
settling in horizontal liquid flow
depends on the area available
for settling. Hence, efficiency
can be improved by increasing
the area. Some sedimentation
tanks have multiple floors to
achieve this. A very successful
alternative has been the
development
of
lamella
sedimentation tanks with
closely spaced inclined plates or
tubes. When plates or tubes are
Lamella Clarifier, Bukit Badong, Malaysia
placed at a 55-60 degree angle
to the horizontal, they provide
efficient settling and allow for solids removal from the plates or tubes by gravity.
As flocculated water rises through the tubes or between the inclined plates, the solids
settle to the inclined surface, where they gradually gain mass and weight and eventually
slide down the incline. In this way, a counter current flow pattern is developed. As the
solids fall from the bottom of the tubes they settle to the floor of the sedimentation tank,
where they can be removed by conventional sludge collection equipment.
Localised velocities caused by thermal currents are damped by the lamella tubes or
plates. Likewise, surface wind currents have little effect because settling occurs within
the tubes or in between the plates.
Biwater has constructed several lamella sedimentation tanks within the last ten years. All
of these tanks are producing excellent clarified water.
The Bukit Bedong Water Treatment Plant in Malaysia was designed and constructed by
Biwater. This water treatment plant is one of the largest in the world, treating 400 Mld
of water per day. The plant comprises six lamella sedimentation tanks, each measuring
30 metres by 12 metres. The sedimentation tanks treat raw water abstracted from a river
source where the turbidity can rise to more than 2,000 NTU during the rainy season. The
clarified water quality is excellent with average turbidity values less than five NTU.
128
d. Turnkey Projects
i. Dominican Republic Water Supply Scheme
Key Features:
Turnkey design and construction of major water supply schemes to the cities of
San Cristobal, La Romana and San Francisco de Macoris
Relief to water stressed area
Export Credit Agency financed
Reduction of population migration
Intake feed from provincial aqueduct
Fast-track solution Lamella clarification
Treatment to WHO standards
Weir intake
Completion of civil works on existing infrastructure.
The Dominican Republic Water Supply Scheme was one of the largest water treatment
contracts ever undertaken in the Caribbean. The Scheme consists of three separate
plants, each comprising intake works, treatment works and related pipelines, at San
Cristobal, La Romana and San Francisco de Macoris, which together provides water to
over 1.3 million people.
Works included the construction of an intake and raw water feed mains to new
treatment works with an output flow of 1m3/sec. Works also include the provision of
pump stations and standby power facilities.
129
d. Turnkey Projects
i. Dominican Republic Water Supply Scheme
San Cristobal Dam
Water treatment was to World Health Organisation (WHO) standards using

conventional treatment processes together with chemical and chlorine dosing.
Treated water is transmitted through 128km of 200mm to 1,000mm diameter
distribution mains and pump stations to regional steel storage tanks located at strategic
regional locations.
The Contract included the provision of Finance with the principal lender being EXIM
bank of the USA supported by a commercial facility.
Dominican Republic Water Supply Scheme: Summary

Client:
Instituto Nacional de Aguas Potables y Alcantarillados (INAPA)
Location:
Dominican Republic
Project Type:
Turnkey
Scope of Works:
Turnkey construction of urban water supply scheme including a
new raw water intake, three 91 Mld water treatment plants,
storage reservoirs, and 128km of distribution mains.
Population Served:
1.3 million
Treated Water Quality: WHO standards
Average Flow:
258 Mld
Peak Flow:
273 Mld
Project Duration:
24 months
130
d. Turnkey Projects
ii. Abuja Water Supply System, Nigeria
Key Features:
Biwater has undertaken the
design and simultaneous
construction of two 250 Mld
water treatment plants (Phase
3 and Phase 4).
The project incorporates a
sludge treatment plant to treat
the clarifier sludge from the
existing Phase 1 and 2 works
and the new Phase 3 and 4
works.
Training of the client's staff in
the operation and maintenance
Construction of Abuja Water (500 Mld) Treatment Plant, Nigeria
of the Works is an integral part
of the project.
Biwater has maximised the use of local staff and materials.
The project involves the process design, supply and erection of all the civil and electromechanical equipment for the final production of Phase 3 (250 Mld) and Phase 4
(250 Mld) water treatment plants.
Biwaters scope is to connect into the newly laid 3 metre diameter Gurara feed pipeline
to supply water to the existing Phase 1 and 2 and Phase 3 and 4 water treatment plants.
This 3 metre diameter pipeline will also be used to augment the Lower Usuma dam.
Treatment Works Phase 3 and 4 comprising:
Aeration to remove odour and oxidize the soluble ferrous iron to insoluble ferric iron
Drum Screen Chamber
Clarification (sludge blanket clarifier with lamella)
Rapid Gravity filtration
Disinfection within chlorine contact tank
Balance tank
Chemical dosing (aluminium sulphate, lime, polyelectrolyte and chlorine)
Filter backwash return to head of works system
131
d. Turnkey Projects
ii. Abuja Water Supply System, Nigeria
Sludge treatment comprising:

Collection tank
Sludge thickening
Sludge filter pressing
Administration building
Workshop
Electrical sub-station with standby generation
SCADA system
Abuja Water Supply System: Summary

Client:
Federal Capital Development Authority
Location:
Abuja, Nigeria
Project Type:
Design, Supply and Construction
Scope of Works:
Engineering design, supply, installation, testing,
commissioning and initialising operation of all civil,
mechanical and electrical equipment for the water
treatment works
Treated Water Quality: WHO standards
Total Flow:
500 Mld
Project Duration:
36 months
132
d. Turnkey Projects
iii. Chilibre Water Treatment Plant, Panama
Chilibre Water Treatment Plant, Panama
Key Features:
Turnkey construction and rehabilitation of existing water treatment plant
New 23,000m3 clearwater reservoir
Providing 948 Mld of potable water serving Panama City
Sludge dewatering by filter pressing
Reliable, safe potable water to WHO Standards.
The project involved constructing a new potable water treatment plant sized at 474 Mld
output. Once the new plant was built and put into service, the existing plant was taken out
of service and remodelled to produce the same output of 474 Mld. The new plant emulates
the original plant in process type and involved the construction of five baffle flocculators and
five lamella tube sedimentation tanks and eighteen rapid gravity filters that utilise dual media.
133
d. Turnkey Projects
iv. Oswestry Water Treatment Plant, UK
Oswestry Water Treatment Plant, UK
Key Features:
New inlet works with micro flocculation and enhanced coagulation
Chemical dosing and storage
Rapid gravity filtration. Backwash water recovery to lamella tanks with sludge treatment
Sludge dewatering by filter pressing
MCC panels, standby generation and PLC/SCADA control systems.
Improvement works to an existing water treatment plant serving Liverpool from Lake
Vyrnwy. The works are to improve water quality by the removal of Total Organic Carbons
(TOC), these being the precursor for Trihalomethanes (THMs), some forms of which are
carcinogenic. Additional benefits included iron reduction and colour reduction.
Mechanical Equipment:
Channel/static mixers
Lamellas (angle plate settling tanks)
WRc thickeners
Filter presses
Roots blowers
Submersible pumps.
Chemicals: (including make-up storage

and dosing)
Lime
Polyelectrolyte
PolyDADMAC
Hydrochloric acid.
134
d. Turnkey Projects
v. Malaysian Rural Water Supply Scheme (MRWSS)
Key Features:
Biwater worked in conjunction
with
the
Malaysian
Government to ensure every
key region of Malaysia was
provided with potable
water
Biwater
arranged
the
finance and works to
todays value of USD 1
billion for this project
The project attracted the
largest aid grant ever
provided by the British
Malaysian Rural Water Supply Scheme
Government supplemented
by an export credit guarantee
Biwater maintained the plants and facilities once operational, using locally employed
contractors trained by Biwater specialists
The use of local resources was maximised.
Over four million of Malaysia's 14 million population did not have access to piped
potable water. To address this growing problem the Malaysian Government made a
commitment to provide a clean water supply for approximately fifty per cent of its
people living in 'water stressed areas' by the year 2000.
An extensive investigation was undertaken by Biwater and, following approval of its
proposals, it formed a joint venture company Antah Biwater (ABJV). ABJV was
responsible for the design, construction and maintenance of the rural water schemes
that covered both Peninsular and East Malaysia.
Biwater was responsible for the construction of 134 schemes. The design for each was
tailored to meet the area it would serve.
A typical scheme incorporated a river intake, a water treatment plant with a capacity of
1500 m3/hr and a distribution system including supply pipework, remote reservoirs and
pumping stations. In addition to the supply schemes, Biwater constructed four large
raw water dams with capacities that ranged from 500,000 m2 to 50 million m2.
135
d. Turnkey Projects
vi. Tortola Water & Sewage Improvement Scheme
Paraquita Bay, Tortola Island, British Virgin Islands
Key Features:
Turnkey construction of 10.4 Mld (2.3 MiGD) seawater reverse osmosis desalination
plant at Paraquita Bay
Turnkey construction of a 3 Mld (15,000 pe) biCOM package wastewater treatment
plant to Road Town, completion of the 1 Mld wastewater plant to Paraquita Bay
Installation of 1.83km of a new 400mm diameter sewer force main and rehabilitation of
3 existing sewage pumping stations
Network modelling, reduction of non-revenue water, leak detection and pressure
zoning
Construction of a 2,270 m3 storage reservoir
New 400mm diameter treated water pipeline
Property census, installation of customer billing and SCADA solutions
Operation and Maintenance of Paraquita Bay Desalination Plant for 16 years.
Biwater are working with the Water and Sewerage Department, on behalf of the Ministry of
Communications and Works to improve the quality and delivery of drinking water to all
residents of Tortola Island, British Virgin Islands. This includes installing a 10.4 Mld seawater
reverse osmosis desalination plant and a new reservoir, network modelling, installation of new
potable water delivery infrastructure, including leak detection in existing networks.
136
d. Turnkey Projects
vi. Tortola Water & Sewage Improvement Scheme
Biwater will also be rehabilitating the sewage network, building two new sewage treatment
plants and their pumping stations.
These works will ensure an improved water and sewage service for the population of Tortola,
making efficient and sustainable use of their natural resources and ensuring all treated water
and sewage meets, as a minimum World Health Organisation standards.
The completed works will provide Tortola Island residents with efficient and reliable water and
sanitation systems, reduce the cost to government of water from the Paraquita Bay plant by
over 60% for each 1000 gallons (excluding electricity) and help protect the fragile marine
environment around Tortola Island.
British Virgin Islands Water Infrastructure Project: Summary

Client:
Ministry of Communications and Works, BVI
Location:
Tortola Island, BVI
Scope of Works:
Construction, Operation & maintenance of a water
treatment plant
Project Duration:
Construction, plus 16 years operation
Work Types:
Operation and maintenance, Reverse osmosis desalination,
reservoir, potable water network, NRW, leak detection, two
sewage treatment plants and pumping stations.
Participation:
100%
137
d. Turnkey Projects
vii. Omdurman Water Supply & Optimisation Scheme, Sudan
Drying beds, Omdurman Water Supply & Optimisation Scheme El Manara, Khartoum
Key Features:
Operation and maintenance of a 200 Mld water treatment plant
One of Sudans first private sector financed water projects
Integrated network management strategy
Maximising social and health benefits
Staff training
This contract involved the Construction, Operation and Maintenance by Biwater for the
Omdurman Water Treatment plant.
The Project covers the ten year operation and maintenance of the water treatment
plant to supply potable water to Omdurman City, part of Greater Khartoum for the
Khartoum State Water Corporation (KSWC).
The aim of this project is to maximise the social and health benefits of a supply of clean,
safe, reliable drinking water in a manner that is both sustainable and economically
viable in the medium to long term.
138
d. Turnkey Projects
vii. Omdurman Water Supply & Optimisation Scheme, Sudan
Sudan has been blessed by having one of the World's great river systems flow through
the entire length of the country, the Nile. In fact the Nile system of rivers is actually
three major rivers, the Blue Nile, the White Nile and the Nile.
Scope of Work
Biwater's scope of works was on the El Manara site on the Nile. Biwater will operate and
maintain under a take or pay Water Purchase Agreement the water treatment plant:
Omdurman State: Summary

Client:
Khartoum State, Sudan
Location:
El Manara
Scope of Works:
Construction, Operation & maintenance of a water treatment plant
Project Duration:
For the duration of the construction loans (10 years)
Work Types:
Operation and maintenance
Water Treatment
Water Treatment Raw potable water pipework
Participation:
100%
139
d. Turnkey Projects
viii. Maldives, Water Supply Scheme, Maldives
South Province, Maldives.
Design and construction of a full turnkey potable water treatment works for the
Republic of the Maldives. The project sets out to maximise the social and health
benefits of effective sanitation and the supply of a clean, safe, reliable source of
drinking water, using reverse osmosis desalination process, which is both
environmentally sustainable and economically viable. The project incorporates the
provision of project structured finance, developed and arranged under a Biwater Project
Finance initiative. Biwater has incorporated a network management strategy into the
capital works program. Biwater will undertake the design and construction of the entire
potable water distribution network.
Maldives WSS: Summary
Client:
Southern Utilities, Maldives
Location:
South Province
Scope of Works:
Turnkey Construction and operation of water and sewage
infrastructure
Project Duration:
For the duration of the construction loans (10 years)
Work Types:
Operation and maintenance, reverse osmosis desalination,
hydraulic modeling, raw water and distribution network,
wastewater treatment, collector network.
Participation:
100%
140
d. Turnkey Projects
ix. Bacau Drinking Water Treatment Plant, Romania
Bacau Drinking Water Treatment Plant
Key Features:
Full greenfield site potable water treatment plant
Peak flow of 60 Mld
Reliable, safe, water to W.H.O. standards for over 200,000 people.
Design and construction of a full turnkey potable water treatment works for the historic
City of Bacau. Bacau is located on the Bistrita River situated at the foot of the
Carpathian Mountains in the province of Moldavia, approximately 300 km north of
Bucharest.
The plant treats a peak flow of 60 Mld of raw surface water pumped from the Poiana
Usului Dam approximately 60 km away and supply gravity fed treated water to more
than 200,000 people.
141
d. Turnkey Projects
ix. Bacau Drinking Water Treatment Plant, Romania
The Treatment Plant is semi-automatic and comprises inlet works with aluminium
sulphate coagulation plus polyelectrolyte and seasonal powdered activated carbon
dosing, flocculation, lamella settlement, rapid gravity filtration, final chlorine and lime
pH (correction) dosing.
Bacau Water Treatment Plant, Romania: Summary

Client:
Central Finance and Contracts Unit (CFCU)
Location:
City of Bacau
Scope of Works:
Turnkey design and construction
Project Duration:
26 months
Work Types:
Water treatment
Chemical dosing
Rapid gravity filtration
Pipework
142
d. Turnkey Projects
vi. Bacau Drinking Water Treatment Plant, Romania
Wastewater Treatment
143
Wastewater Treatment
Summary
Sha Tin Wastewater Treatment Plant, Hong Kong
Our portfolio of wastewater treatment projects is amongst the most comprehensive

in the industry. Weve completed hundreds of tailor made wastewater treatment
plants. For each new challenge, we bring the benefits from quality-assured design
processes, project management and equipment supply.
Whatever the challenge, our experts can identify the most effective solution, whether
its a membrane bio-reactor treating wastewater in the UK, or an industrial plant
treating brewery waste in Nigeria.
Our experience means we can meet the increasing demand for plants that are capable
of treating effluents for industrial, agricultural and even potable use. All the processes
are controlled and monitored by state-of-the art technologies.
Complementing Biwater's wastewater treatment services is a range of innovative,
robust packaged equipment and products. From prefabricated package plants to
individual pieces of equipment, Biwater can provide the full range of plant and
equipment on a supply only or supply and installation basis as well as providing the
finance if required.
144

i. biCOM
A biCOM plant in Northern Beida in Libya
Key Features:
Glass fused steel walls
Reduced land area
Practically odourless
Reduced quantity of waste sludge produced
Stable sludge production
No primary settlement
Guaranteed reduction of pollutants to comply with EU effluent discharge
legislations
Handles shock and peak loads
2,500 to 20,000 population with combinations for larger populations
The biCOM range of modular compact treatment plants provides a safe, robust and
economical system for the full biological treatment of sewage.
The system utilises the well established process of extended aeration with an integrated
anoxic zone for Nitrogen removal. No primary sedimentation is required and the plant is
capable of taking shock and peak loads. For sensitive zones and irrigation reuse, additional
packaged items can be added to achieve higher effluent qualities namely: sand filters,
chemical dosing for phosphorous removal and disinfection.
145

i. biCOM
Biological sludge formed during the purification process is oxidised to such an extent that
the small quantity produced is stable and can be easily processed without odour and
disposed of with the minimum of nuisance.
The aeration and anoxic zones are arranged as an annular circuit surrounding a central
settlement tank. This arrangement considerably reduces the space requirement of the plant.
Oxidation within the system is carried out by means of surface aeration or fine bubble
diffusion and the energy consumption is optimised by the use of automatic dissolved oxygen
control. This provides the necessary oxygen for the activated sludge and maintains flow
velocity in the plant thus preventing settlement. It also serves to break up larger solid
particles and ensures complete mixing.
The design is standardised for a range of population equivalents 2,500 to 20,000 but can
be easily duplicated up to 40,000. Glass fused to steel is used for the main process tanks
ensuring rapid installation, high quality, aesthetically pleasing appearance, long life span and
low maintenance. Construction costs are reduced as the tanks are normally situated above
ground thus minimising excavation with a simple raft foundation usually being sufficient.
The system is easy to operate and maintain and has proved effective for the treatment of
both domestic and industrial wastes.
Load
Power Cons.
kWh/day
Area Required
m3
Aeration Tank Final Sett. Tank

Total Volume, m3 Diameter, m3
Pop Equiv
BOD Kg/day
2,500
150
890
750
198
5,000
300
1,151
1,000
432
11
10,000
600
1,630
1,700
770
15.5
15,000
900
2,155
2,500
1,092
19
20,000
1,200
2,515
3,300
1,467
22
N.B. Area typical for sewage treatment with a non-nitrified effluent.
146

ii. Bifad
Key Features:
Concrete or steel tank
Reduced land area
Reduced quality of waste
sludge produced
Handles shock and peak
loads
For population equivalents
of 100 - 1500
No requirement for return
sludge pumping
Sewage treatment in the
Bifad system is achieved via a
fill, aerate and settle / decant function, separated only by time. One tank is used for
the treatment, so this process provides an extremely economical plant and is particularly
suited to the treatment of very variable flows e.g. military camps and small villages.
Bifad using horizontal aeration
Construction is simple and may be either a reinforced concrete or steel tank. The latter
usually showing considerable cost advantages. The tank is frequently situated above
ground, so that site excavation costs are minimal.
The plant is controlled by two level probes and a series of fully adjustable timers, which
are used to control the aeration, fill and settle / decant sequences. Aeration is controlled
in conjunction with dissolved oxygen probes linked to minimum run and stop timers.
Surplussing of sludge from the Bifad is also controlled via a weir and surplussing is
initiated during the decant cycle.
Incoming sewage is mixed and aerated with naturally developed and activated sludge
in the tank, by means of either mechanical floating aerators or fine bubble diffusers.
Sewage treatment using the Bifad system is achieved using a fill, aerate and settle /
decant function, separated only in time. Only one water retaining structure is used, so
this process provides an extremely economical plant for the full treatment of sewage.
147

ii. Bifad
A typical Bifad configuration
A typical Bifad cycle would include:

Maximum 20 hours aeration of sewage (including 3 hours minimum of tank fill time)
One hour settlement
Three hours decanting of final effluent and sludge surplussing
The treatment of the pollution is a two step process; absorption into the sludge mass
followed by enzymic oxidation, and conversion in the bacteria cells. Effluent from the
Bifad is decanted using either a telescopic valve or a floating arm.
Load
Total KW
Installed
Aeration Tank Total

Volume (Cubic Metres)
Final Settlement Tank

Diameter (Metres)
1.1
40
(TNO)0.75
250
15
100
(TNO)1.5
500
30
7.5
200
(TNO)3
1,000
60
11
400
(TNO)4
1,500
90
11
600
(MIDI)3
Pop Equiv
BOD Kg/Day
100
148

iii. BiStar
Key Features:
Treatment in one combined
civil structure
Reduced land area
Reduced sludge tankering
requirements
Handles shock and peak
loads
Avoids cross contamination
Modular system - allowing
for future growth.
Diagram of the BiStar process
BiStars are often installed on treatment plants where the population is less than 1500.
The whole assembly of the BiStar has been designed to withstand the stresses
generated by the slow rotating machinery during its 20 year design life.
Sewage from the local village enters the BiStar and discharges into underground
primary settlement tanks located beneath the rotors. A sudden reduction in flow
velocity allows solid matter to settle out in the form of sludge. Partially clarified, the
liquor then passes through transverse 'Bistar' rotors. Naturally forming l bacteria grow
on the surface of the corrugated media, feeding on impurities in the water and
receiving oxygen from the atmosphere further reducing the pollution to within
acceptable limits. The rotors, arranged in series operate within separate G.R.P biozone
basins providing controlled directional flow to ensure maximum treatment efficiency
whilst avoiding cross contamination. In the final stages the remaining solids are settled
out in a single humus settling tank resulting in clear discharge.
149

iii. BiStar
Rotating Disk Assembles
GRP Cover
Rotation
Humus Tank Sludge Removal
Inlet
Outlet
Biozone
Equalisation
Valves
Stiling Box
Biozone
Equalisation
Valves
The odour free system requires the

minimum of maintenance with
only periodic visits necessary to
remove settled sludge for
processing. Trials undertaken at
various sites over a number of years
have shown that the unique design
of the micro-bacteria supporting
media has provided a sparkling
effluent with a clarity and quality
far better than previously
experienced. Nitrification has been
successfully achieved at loading
rates previously considered suitable
for carbonaceous
removal.
'BiStar' rotors have been

supplied as both part of a
compact integral design and as a
single element for incorporation into modular arrangements when using separate
settlement tanks as the site requirements dictate. To supplement the original rotor
design an extended rotor has been introduced. Retaining the original high efficiency
media the new extended rotor can be adapted to suit existing civil structures and
produces excellent effluent quality.
Humus Tank
Biozone 1
Biozone 2
Benefits:
Stable process up to 6 x dry weather flow
Reduced land area requirements due to compact design
High BOD removal, with no media bridging
Minimum operator attendance
Low installation time
Low power usage
Not visually intrusive.
150

i. Rotating Bar Interceptors
Key Features:
Protects high cost items
Quick and simple to install
Prevents ragging
Remote power pack
Cost effective.
The Biwater rotating bar
interceptor (RBI) is convenient
to use in pump chambers and
sewage works inlets to protect
pumps
or
fine
screen
mechanisms from damage by
large, solid objects.
Biwater Rotating Bar Interceptor
The equipment comprises a series of rotating bars to form a grill with clear spaces set
at 75mm, 100mm or 150mm dependent upon the limitations of solids size capable of
being passed through the pumps. The tubular bars of large diameter rotate at a
peripheral velocity approximately similar to the velocity of flow thereby presenting a
moving surface. Rags and soft solids are encouraged to pass through by frequent
clockwise and anti-clockwise rotation, a movement which also unwraps tailings and
string-like materials which would otherwise tend to build up on the bars causing a
blockage. A scraper mechanism is thus rendered superfluous. The passage of larger
objects is prevented and only infrequent visual checking and removal is required by site
operatives. Each bars rotation is achieved by independent hydraulic units which are
capable of being submerged without damage. The power pack and timer control panel,
which determines the rotation and duration of movement of the bars, can be located
in a remote position away from the unpleasant and corrosive environment of the
interceptor mechanism itself.
Installation is quick and simple usually requiring no site fixings whilst normal
maintenance is minimal. The rotating bar interceptor will fill applications in new as well
as existing channels for the protection of valuable down-stream equipment.
Benefits:
Channel Width (mm) 600 to 3500
Channel Depth (mm) 500 to 6000
Number of bars 3 to 16
Bar Width (mm) 75 or 100
Bar Spacing (mm) 75, 100 and 150
151

i. Rotating Bar Interceptors
Control Panel:
The electrical control panel, fitted with an anti-condensation heater to be mounted
adjacent to the hydraulic power pack contains the direct on-line pump rotor starter,
overloads, adjustable time switches, relays etc. controlling the bar operation.
The Panel has a lockable handle on the front access door which operates the
interlocked isolation switch, a remote/off/auto/selector switch, an ammeter, hours
counter, front replacement indicating lamps to show overload tripped, bar stalled, oil
filter blocked, high oil temperature and low oil pressure/flow.
In addition to the time switches which give controlled reversal of the bars, there is an
8-180 minute initiation timer and an 8-180 second running timer.
Hydraulic Power Pack:
The self contained hydraulic power pack is arranged for local or remote mounting and
comprises a fabricated mild steel oil reservoir tank, side mounted combined oil tank
gauge/thermometer and built in drip tray. The gear type oil pump is directly driven by
a squirrel cage motor and the control valves connected into an integrated circuit
allowing time controlled operation of the interceptor bars.
Summary:
Simple yet effective protection for equipment
Minimal running costs
Quick and simple to install
Nominal maintenance requirements
Robust construction
Reliable operation
152

ii. Screening Equipment
Biwater Backraked Screen
Features and Advantages of the Biwater Backraked Screen:

Totally enclosed for safety and to minimise wind spray
Height of discharge chute can be varied
No moving parts permanently below water level
Wedging of objects avoided by tine-action from
downstream
All items requiring attention are at sides or front of screen
within easy reach
Various materials of construction to suit particular
applications
Robust construction
Automatic operation
Based upon their extensive experience of sewage screening, Biwater has developed a
vertical bar type backraked screen for use in deep channels. This screen supplements
the range of Biwater rotary and semi-rotary screens available for normal channel
depths. In operation the screen rake enters the bars from the downstream side and
screenings are removed by the tines which are shaped to provide a longer than normal
projection through the bars. When the rake leaves the bars at the upper end, screenings
are retained on the tine rack, and are removed at a suitable discharge height by a
pivoting scraper. A feature of the screen, is the tracking system used to guide the screen
rake away from the bars in the downward path and keep the rake positively engaged
in the upward path. Limit switches control the operation of the reversible drive unit
which is conveniently located at the side of the screen housing for ease of maintenance.
Volume of Screening
Practical investigation at a number of sewage treatment works shows wide variations
in the volume of screenings product per 1000 population.
For example:
Volume of screenings produced per 1000 population per day.
Sewage works A: 0.0312 m3
Sewage works B: 0.0118 m3
Some of the factors influencing these variations are:
Width of spaces between screen bars
Type of sewerage system (combined or separate)
Presence of open channels or ditches in the sewerage system
Eating, cooking and sanitary habits of the Country
Type and volume of industrial wastes discharged into the system
153

iii. Screening Dewatering
The Biwater Screenings Press has
been designed and developed as
a result of a detailed investigation
into the specific requirements of
screenings dewatering.
Extensive testing under actual
operating conditions has resulted
in a particularly advanced and
efficient press.
Efficient screening arrests a high
percentage of solid matter in
sewage and this results in rags,
paper, plastics and other items
removed by the screens being
contaminated with faeces and
organic matter.
The Biwater Screening Press
Most
modern
treatment
processes rely on organic matter remaining in the flow, and works are designed
accordingly.
Transportation of screenings after removal from the flow is often unpleasant and
difficult because of the high water content. It is usually necessary to reduce the
moisture content to between 50-60% by weight in order to present the material in a
semi-dry drip free condition.
The Biwater Screenings Press is a screw-type press developed specifically for reducing
the water content of sewage screenings.
Details of the basic model are shown opposite but larger units are designed and
manufactured to suit particular applications.
154

iii. Screening Dewatering
Sequence of Pressing Operation

Screenings enter the press through a vertical chute or storage hopper mounted above
the press housing and drop directly onto the rotating screw.
Initial dewatering occurs as a result of gentle pressure being exerted by the screw
drawing the screenings into the flights while simultaneously freeing compacted organic
matter. Screenings are then forced into a specially designed pressure dewatering
chamber where slotted openings allow liquid to escape to a collection trough, which
drains to waste.
If abnormal pressures develop, a patented device allows slots in the dewatering zone to
open slightly and this virtually eliminates the possibility of blockage. Screenings leaving
the dewatering zone are fed into a tube which terminates in a trough discharging at a
convenient height. Bag loading units are available for use with the press if required.
Technical Data:
Length 2400 mm
Width 450 mm
Height 830 mm
Maximum input volume (fixed conditions) 2m3/hr Average (input volume)
1.5 m3/hr, Motor power 1.5 kW
Construction Materials:
Pressure body 304 stainless steel
Inlet chute 304 stainless steel
Launder 304 stainless steel
Outlet pipe 304 stainless steel
Screw flights 3CR12 steel
Bearing housing Cast iron.
Automatic Control
The Biwater Screenings Press is fully automatic in operation with various control
options. Start up of the press may be linked to operation of the screens or conveyors
feeding the press or alternatively a reliable system of sensing equipment can be installed
in the feed chute to ensure that the press operates only when sufficient screenings are
available.
155

iv. Grit Removal
The removal of water borne
grit and detritus particles from
a flow of liquid is based on the
simple
process
of
discriminating
between
respective sizes by differential
specific gravities. Simple robust
and effective machinery is a
prime requirement.
10mm diameter cross flow installation
Having removed the grit from

the flow, it is necessary to release organic material that is captured along with the grit
and to transfer the grit to a disposal point. The Biwater screw type grit classifier
provides a reliable and effective means of disturbing the grit contents whilst
simultaneously raising the grit via an inclined trough to a convenient discharge point.
In operation grit and water is deposited in the screw hopper by a grit pump. As solids
settle in the hopper, the churning action of the screw, releases organic matter and
moves grit up the inclined trough. Water and organic matter overflows into a trough
spanning the hopper and is returned to the flow stream.
The upper section of the screw has a ribbon flight that allows excess water to escape
while grit continues to the discharge chute.
A robust shaft mounted gear unit is positioned at the discharge end to drive the screw
and the drive end stub shaft is located in a heavy duty thrust bearing rated to
accommodate the vertical and axial forces.
At the lower end, the screw shaft is located in a specially designed bearing with
provision to exclude grit. Both bearings are accessible from outside the hopper.
Travelling Grit Dredger - Constant Velocity Channel
When the preferred grit plant arrangement is in the form of parallel constant velocity
channels, the automatic method of settled grit removal is with a travelling bridge type
pump dredging machine.
156

iv. Grit Removal
The design of the dredger type unit reflects clients specifications, but normally includes
a travelling bridge supported on flanged bogie wheels running on a rail track positioned
on the concrete coping wall of the constant velocity channels. The bridge is fitted with
grit dredging pumps, of either the self-priming centrifugal, or submersible type. These
are arranged to discharge lifted grit into a bridge mounted cyclone washer and storage
hopper, or alternatively, into a side concrete launder. This provides gravity flow to a
remote grit classifying system, of the reciprocating rake type.
Cross Flow Tanks
Standard size 2.5m to 10.0m diameter
Flows from 100 litres per second to 1850 litres per second
Particle removal size is approximately 0.2mm
Travelling Grit Dredger
Suitable for 1 to 6 channels
Bridge mounted or submersible pumps
On/Off bridge classifying
Finnchain Channel Dredger
For smaller inlet channels
All plastic/stainless steel construction
Combined Grit/Grease Removal
Based on the spiral flow principal
Travelling bridge type unit
Flows baffled to promote grease separation/flotation
Screw Classifier
All stainless steel construction
Screw sizes 200, 300 and 400mm diameter
Capacities 30, 80 and 120m3/hour
Reciprocating Rake
Inclinations between 11 and 16
Widths 380 and 800mm
Maximum length 20 metres
157

v. Settling Tank Scrapers
Key Features:
Side wall scrapers
Weir and channel cleaning
facilities
Scum skimming and removal
Steel
centre
support
assembly
Plain,
vee
notch
or
castellated weirs
Double edged weir troughs
Continual or automatic
desludging controls
Peripheral speed choice
Winch-up scraper blades
Settling Tank Scraper
Biwater manufactures a complete range of settlement tank scrapers to suit any tank
profile, which are designed to collect and remove any type of sludge. They fall into two
main categories; fixed bridge scrapers and rotating bridge scrapers.
Fixed bridge scrapers have a stationary bridge which spans the tank and a scraper which
is supported and driven from the centre. Rotating bridge scrapers have one end of the
bridge supported and pivoted at the tanks centre while the other end is mounted on an
end carriage that moves around the tanks outerwall. Fixed bridge scrapers can be
provided for tanks with 6m to 20m diameters and rotating bridge scrapers for tanks with
diameters from 6m to 45m.
The scrapers themselves can be designed to fit any floor type and can be either fixed,
trailing or a combination of the two. In addition, chain type scrapers for steep floor tanks,
or hydrostatic draw-off tubes and vee scrapers can be provided for flat floored tanks.
Scraper & Sludge Removal
The type and design of scraper blade arrangement is dependent on the type of sludge to
be removed. Primary or heavy sludge's are usually dealt with by hinged scraper blades
supported from a fixed framework carried from the bridge.
158

v. Settling Tank Scrapers
For secondary humus or activated sludges, trailing scrapers hinged from a rotating bridge
are usually recommended.
However, hinged scrapers attached to an underwater fixed subframe are sometimes seen
as being ideal as they have advantages of both fixed and trailing blades as well as reduced
wear to blade edges, the weight of trailing parts being much reduced. This type of scraper
arrangement is suitable for all types of sludges, even the heavier primary types.
The effectiveness of sludge removal is also greatly influenced by the speed at which the
scrapers operate. Again the type of sludge is a factor in this. With primary sludge types it
is possible to operate with the tip of the rotating blade travelling at 2.5m per minute,
1.2m per minute being appropriate for lighter sludge.
Scraper Type
Standard Size Available Metre
Side Wall Depth Metre
Rotating Half Bridge
6 to 32 diameter
1.5 to 4.0
Rotating Full Bridge
32 to 40 diameter
2.0 to 4.0
Rotating Triple Arm Bridge
36 to 46 diameter
2.0 to 4.0
Circular Tank Fixed Bridge
3 to 30 diameter
2.0 to 6.0
1.6 to 16 diameter
1.5 to 5.0
Picket Fence Thickeners
3 to 16 diameter
2.5 to 5.0
Rectangular Tank Bridge
5 to 24 width
2.0 to 6.0
WRc Thickeners
159

vi. Dissolved Air Flotation Process
Circular DAF float removal process
Dissolved air flotation (DAF) is a
process that provides the energy
needed for effective flotation in
the form of extremely fine air
bubbles which become attached
to the suspended material to be
removed. This attachment of
bubbles to the particle reduces
the density of the agglomerate,
resulting in enhanced buoyancy,
thus
effecting
flotation.
Chemical conditioning is often
used
to
increase
the
effectiveness of the DAF
process.
The most reliable and positive method of producing bubbles of the correct size and
quantity is to dissolve air into water under pressure and to then reduce the pressure of
the solution. As the pressure is reduced, the air escapes from the solution in the form
of micro-bubbles.
DAF can be divided into two separate sub-processes:
The air dissolving process, which occurs in a saturator vessel
The liquid and solids separation process, which occurs in a flotation tank
Air Saturator
A recycle pump is used to pressurise water and to disperse it into an air cushion in the
vertical saturation vessel. A liquid level controller maintains the air cushion by feeding
a controlled amount of air to the vessel.
Sludge Production
Sludge thickening occurs in the float blanket. The buoyant sludge and air bubbles force
the surface of the blanket above the water level inducing drainage of water from the
sludge particles. The float is collected by a rotating float skimmer driven by a centrally
mounted geared motor.
160

vi. Dissolved Air Flotation Process
Float Removal
The Biwater float removal mechanism is designed with adequate capacity to remove
quantities of float between maximum and minimum volumes and minimum amount of
water carry-over. The depth of submergence of the skimming blades, the speed of
operation; the blade spacing and the type of beaching plate have also been considered
in this design.
Thickening Applications
Dissolved air flotation is applied to thickening sludges from conventional activated
sludge processes, biological nutrient removal, activated sludge, modified aeration
systems, and aerobic digestion. Combinations of primary and trickling filter sludges as
well as some alum sludges, have been effectively thickened by dissolved air flotation
(DAF). Today many municipal and industrial waste treatment plants, employ DAF
thickening.
Performance Concentration - The concentration of thickened sludge is a function of the
buoyant force of the sludge blanket, detention time in the blanket, and the
characteristics of the sludge. Tests have shown that normal waste activated sludge
concentrates to 4-8% total solids. Sludges with a high sludge volume index (SVI) or
aerobically digested waste activated sludge will float well but may produce slightly
lower concentrations of 3%-4%.
Removal Efficiency - In most cases 98% removal of suspended solids can be expected
with flotation aids. Without flotation aids, removals in the area of 80-95% should be
expected with lower unit loadings.
161

a. Horizontal Rotor Aeration
The
biological
oxidation
process by horizontal rotor
aeration works through the
mixed flow principle. A rapid
turbulence of the ditch
contents mixes influent with
air. It is simple, inexpensive,
and efficient.
Biwaters range of horizontal
aerators cater for small
Horizontal Rotor Aerator
community treatment plants up
to major installations serving 250,000 population or greater. All horizontal aerators are
non-clog design, rugged construction, with high efficiency operating characteristics.
Three rotors are used in Biwater ditch systems, with the MINI rotor being the smallest,
the MIDI an intermediate size and the MAXI the largest. The design of Biwaters
horizontal rotors ensure high oxygen transfer rates as well as complete mixing and
circulation velocities with a minimum expenditure of power. The proven operating
characteristics mean that the rotor installations are simple, inexpensive and efficient.
The Maxi Rotor
Able to provide in excess of 9.0Kg dissolved oxygen/m/hr with correct selection, the
MAXI is of rugged construction, with a vigorous turbulence rotor. It has a diameter of
1,000mm and is manufactured in standard lengths of 4.5, 6.0, 7.5, and 9.0 metres.
Intermediate lengths can be manufactured.
Installation of a 9m,
45 kW Maxi Rotor
The Midi Rotor

This intermediate sized rotor (850 mm diameter) is of similar
configuration to the MAXI rotor. An oxygen transfer rate
approaching 4.5Kg/m/hr is possible. Maximum unit length is
around 4.5m but it is possible to couple rotors together to give
greater individual length.
The Mini Rotor

For smaller installations, the MINI has been proved in
performance in hundreds of installations worldwide. The rotor is
700mm diameter, with maximum oxygen transfer of some
3.5Kg/m/hr and maximum unit length of 4.0m. Again, coupled
units can provide greater individual length if required. Construction is of cage form.
162

a. Horizontal Rotor Aeration
High oxygen transfer rates

All Biwater horizontal rotors have been independently tested and have proven high rate
performance.
Flexibility
Oxygen transfer is variable against rotor blade immersion, providing flexibility in
operation, and giving capacity to handle shock load conditions. In addition, further
flexibility can be achieved with a multi rotor plant, by switching off one or more units
against demand. Dissolved oxygen monitoring equipment will cater for these features,
prime rotors have 24 hour operation to provide the necessary circulation.
Ideal Circulation Velocities
Rotors provide complete mixing and circulation velocities in the aeration tank, with
vigorous flow.
Easy Maintenance Access
A major advantage associated with Biwater Treatments range of horizontal rotors is
that full maintenance access is available to all components from bridge level without
the need to interfere with tank contents.
Type
Oxygen Transfer Rate
Rotor Dia
Standard Rotor Length Metres
MINI
3.5KgO2/m/hr
700mm
0.75m, 1.0m, 2.0m, 2.5m
1.5 to 11.0
MIDI
4.5KgO2/m/hr
850mm
2.5m, 3.0m, 3.5m, 4.0m,

4.5m, 5.0m, 5.5m, 6.0m
7.5 to 18.5
MAXI
9.0KgO2/m/hr
1000mm
6.0m, 7.0m, 7.5m, 9.0m
22 to 45.0
Summary:
High oxygen transfer rates
Configuration enables nitrification/denitrification control
Complete mixing and circulation velocities through aeration tanks
Robust, rugged construction and non-clog design
Maximum aerosol and splash protection
Dissolved oxygen monitoring and variable speed motors available
163
Power (kw)

b. Vertical Shaft Aeration, TMA and Simplex Aerators
Biwater vertical shaft aerator

range comprises:
1) Simplex Surface Aerator
2) TMA Aerator
3) Floating Aerator
This range of products ensures
Biwater can meet any vertical
shift aerator requirements. Both
the Biwater Simplex Aerator and
the TMA Aerator can be used as
Floating Aerators.
Simplex Surface Aerator
1) Simplex Surface Aerator Key Features:

Power ratings from 3kW to 200kW
Slow speed, range is 40 to 60 rpm
Complete mixing
Standard Aeration Efficiency (SAE) into
clean water 1.8 kgO2/kWhr
Upto 4.0m diameter
Bridge mounted or floating
2) TMA Aerator
Key Features:
Power ratings from 4kW to 110kW
High speed, range is 60 to 90 rpm
Complete mixing
SAE into clean water 1.8 kgO2/kW/hr
0.7 to 2.7m diameter
Bridge mounted or floating
Vertical Shaft Aerator
The Biwater Simplex Aerator and the Biwater TMA Aerator are vertical shaft surface
aerators which provide a mechanical means of oxygen transfer to sewage or industrial
effluent. Manual, or any required degree of automatic control can be provided,
164

b. Vertical Shaft Aeration, TMA and Simplex Aerators
including adjustment of aeration intensity by dissolved oxygen monitoring. Both the

Simplex Aerator and the TMA Aerator are available for conventional bridge mounting
on tripods with light access bridges, in simple rectangular tanks or channels, or floating.
The Simplex Surface Aerator and the TMA Aerator can be installed in any configuration
within aeration lanes thereby offering a broad range of treatment capabilities from
small communities to major installations.
Design
Both the Biwater Simplex Aerator and the Biwater TMA Aerator provide sufficient
oxygen input and maximum mixing characteristics with a minimum expenditure of
power. The proven operating characteristics mean that the installations are simple,
inexpensive and efficient. Complete mixing and appropriate circulation velocities
though the aeration tanks are achieved with the robust non-clog design.
Process
Oxygenation of the fluid promotes cultivation and reproduction of microorganisms
which carry out the treatment process by breaking down organic matter. Oxygenation
also re-establishes dissolved oxygen levels in the final effluent in order to sustain plant
and animal life when discharged into rivers and lakes. Vertical shaft aerators achieve
oxygen transfer by developing a large interface between air and liquid so that oxygen
can diffuse from the air into the liquid. In achieving this it is necessary to prevent local
build up of oxygen concentration by promoting good mixing within the liquid. Both the
Biwater Simplex Aerator and the Biwater TMA Aerator satisfies both these criteria by
drawing up subsurface liquid and discharging it in heavy torrents, thus creating heavy
turbulence upon striking the liquid surface with great force.
Summary:
The Biwater Simplex Aerator and the Biwater TMA Aerator have the following:
Good maintenance access
Dissolved oxygen monitoring and variable speed motors
Complete mixing and circulation velocities through aeration tanks
Robust rugged construction
Non-clog design
Splash protection can be provided
165

c. Floating Surface Aerators
Biwater aerators incorporate
design characteristics that have
evolved from the most
researched aeration process in
the world.
Vast practical experience on an
international scale, allied to
research with the aid of
exceptional test facilities has
yielded a wealth of experience
that has been used to build one
of the most reliable aerators
available.
90kW Aerator
Aerators are available in floating or fixed versions with diameters up to 4m, absorbing
from 3kW to 200kW power.
Control
Manual, or any required degree of automatic control can be provided, including
adjustment of aeration intensity by dissolved oxygen monitoring. This when linked with
stop/start operation or with variable speed motor control enables optimum
performance of the aeration plant to be obtained at all times. Consequent reductions
in power consumption result in considerable energy savings.
Non Clog Design
Open aerator blades radiate from a central hub and debris can not accumulate in the
aerators. The efficiency of the aerator is thus maintained without the need to clean the
blades.
Mounting Arrangements
The aerators are mounted on polyurethane filled floats secured by a rigid tubular
framework arranged to ensure stability. They are suitable for use in simple rectangular
tanks or channels which can vary in size and arrangement. The floating assembly is
moored by UV resistant ropes and a power supply cable to the motor is suspended on
floats at the water surface.
166
viii. Digesting Equipment

a. Digester Mixing
The anaerobic digestion of
organic sludge is one of the
most widely accepted methods
of conditioning a slurry to
reduce its volume, render it
inoffensive and minimise
pathogenic bacteria. Process
efficiency is dependant upon
several factors, the most
important
being
the
homogeneity and temperature
stabilisation of the system and
its contents.
Twin Digesters with Jacketted Gaslifts
Biwater is able to offer a variety

of equipment for the purposes of keeping anaerobic sewage digesters thoroughly
mixed. From its draught tube mixers and floor mounted diffusers to gas lances and gas
lifts, the product range offers a solution to most mixing applications. Where the entire
contents of a digester need to be mixed, the Biwater gas mixing system has proved to
be most effective. A compressor is used to draw digester gas from a gas collection
system and re- introduce this gas into one or more gas lift tubes inside the digester. The
pumping action of the gaslift tubes, draws sludge from the bottom of the digester and
distributes it at or near the surface. Turnover of the digester contents can be effected
in periods of 90 minutes or less if required.
An avoidance of moving parts within the tank ensures simplicity. As a further option,
the vertical leg of the gaslift tube may be placed outside the digester and encased in a
heating jacket. Hot water is circulated through the jacket and heat is transferred to the
sludge passing up the gaslift.
In the simplest installations, the gas compressor can be placed on the roof of the
digester to draw gas directly from the digester but it is normal practice to house
compressors in a building alongside the digester. Gas pipework is equipped with the
necessary protective devices to eliminate moisture and to prevent fire.
The full complement of ancillary equipment required for a digester mixing system
including gas collection domes, flame arresters, vacuum/pressure relief valves, gas
holders, moisture traps and waste gas burners is obtainable from Biwater.
167
viii. Digesting Equipment

b. Dry Gas Seal Holder
The principle of operation of
the Biwater Dry Seal Gas
Holder can be described as that
of a piston displacement gas
holder. A moveable piston
floating on the confined gas
rises and falls with changes in
volume of the stored gas.
A concrete, fabricated steel or
GRP tank contains the piston
and the annular space between
the piston and the tank is
completely sealed by a
Biwater Dry Seal Gas Holder
synthetic rubber coated fabric
seal. This seal is clamped and
bolted between bars at the periphery of the piston after being coated with sealing
compound to form a gas tight connection. A similar seal is formed where the fabric is
clamped to the top of the wall of the tank.
The piston is protected from the weather by a simple roof over the tank. Support pillars above
the tank wall provide additional volume and the frame is clad and fitted with a door to
provide access to the top of the piston. This area is completely ventilated.
When the gas holder is empty, the piston rests on the bottom of the tank. As gas enters the
tank, the piston rises and is centralised by a vertical tube (piston rod) that is located in a
tubular guide fixed to the rafters of the tank roofstructure. Rollers allow the piston rod to
travel centrally in this guide.
A mechanically operated pallet type vent valve is opened by the piston when it reaches the
limit of its travel thereby venting gas to the atmosphere. The piston travel is linked to a level
gauge on the side of the tank. Condensate that may form under the piston, accumulates in
a drain sump in the floor of the tank and is piped to the exterior via a water trap. Pressure
within the gas holder is obtained by loading the piston with suitable weights. The main
advantage of the dry seal gas holder is the absence of water in the tank which allows the gas
to be stored in a dry state, minimising corrosion problems. Purging is also a simple matter with
the dead space being reduced to less than 1% of the tank volume when the piston is in the
bottom position. Biwater Gas Holders can be provided in GRP construction as small gas
buffers and in concrete or steel construction for storage volumes of up to 3,000 cubic metres.
168
c. Turnkey Projects
i. Eastbourne Wastewater Treatment Works, UK
Eastbourne Marine Treatment
Works is sited below sea level
between the sea and urban
development. This wastewater
treatment works treats waste
for a population equivalent of
130,000, sited only 30 metres
from the sea on one side and
50
metres
from
urban
development on the other. It
demanded creative thinking at
Eastbourne Marine Treatment
Works and the above ground
structure was designed to
resemble
a
Napoleonic
Eastbourne WwTW, UK
Redoubt Fortress, as mirrored along the South Coast.

The treatment works is located at the eastern end of Eastbourne sea front adjacent to
the old Langney Point Pumping Station. Wastewater from the town was delivered to
this station through three incoming 1.2m diameter cast iron sewers dating from 1899.
These sewers crossed the site diagonally and had to be diverted in a concrete culvert to
the south of the site to allow the construction of the underground box structure that
houses the treatment process. This structure is 130m long by 40m wide with the
eastern third 14m deep to the base slab, the remaining two thirds 11m deep.
Treatment process is to primary standards from an inflow of up to 2500 l/s from a population
set to rise to 130,000 by 2015. Incoming flows pass through rotating bar interceptors to
remove heavy solids, before screening to 6mm, with the screenings being washed and
compacted prior to delivery to a skip for disposal off site. Grit and grease removal is a
combined process and is achieved by aeration in V shaped channels. Flows then pass to an
intermediate pumping station equipped with four variable speed pumps each capable of
pumping 867 l/s. Primary treatment is achieved using lamella plate separators, aided by the
controlled addition of Ferric Sulphate, in three lamella tanks each 30m by 10m by 5m deep
In a Phase 2 installation flow is now lifted to six 3.75m deep granular plastic media Biological
Aerated Flooded Filters (BAFF) to effect secondary treatment.. The treated effluent is then
pumped to sea through a new 3.2km long sea outfall by the five outfall pumps each rated
at 625 l/s to further protect the local bathing waters. The substructure is linked over and
underground to the old pumping station which has been reconstructed internally and given
new pumps and screens to become the storm pumping station, using the existing outfall.
169
c. Turnkey Projects
Box Construction
The box is adjacent to the English Channel and the geological strata is principally sand
and shingle to approximately 20m below ground level. To counteract flotation, 199,
900mm diameter concrete tension piles to a depth of 43.5m were constructed. A
further 36 bearing piles, 1500mm and 1800mm in diameter to the same depth
provided support to the structure during construction by means of steel columns
inserted in 20 of the larger piles. These took the load of the roof beams and slabs and
were subsequently concreted to form permanent columns in the box. All the piles were
constructed by auger with bentonite used to stabilise the ground prior to insertion of
steel reinforcement and concrete placed by tremmie. The walls were constructed by the
diaphragm wall technique, again with bentonite to provide support to the excavation.
27 tee panels, each 5.4m wide with a 3.4m tee and 1m thick were constructed to a
depth of 27.5m into the underlying gault clay at the deep end of the structure, while
43, 5.4m by 1m thick flat panels 24m deep were provided the shallower depth. Each
tee panel has a 33 tonnes reinforcement cage and requires 240m3 of tremmied
concrete, the flat panel has a 19 tonne reinforcement cage and 130m3 of concrete.
Displaced bentonite from piling and diaphragm wall operations was recovered, desanded and used again. Capping beams to the diaphragm walls together with a beam
grillage and flat slab were constructed, the beams and slab being supported on the
plunge columns. Once the beams and slab were constructed, excavation in a "top
down" construction sequence was undertaken and a base slab constructed with a 3m
step in it at the change of depth. During construction a mobile lamella pilot plant was
brought in to provide test results from the incoming wastewater.
Ancillary Processes
Within the superstructure ancillary processes are housed. Sludge is treated by two
separate centrifuges, again with the addition of polymer. The sludge is thickened from
1% dry solids from the Lamellas to initially 5% (storage of 900 cubic metres is provided
within the works) and subsequently to 30% for disposal as a sludge cake. The
superstructure also contains all the control and monitoring equipment for the works,
enabling it to be operated totally automatically.
170
c. Turnkey Projects
The ventilation and odour control system is a major part of the project. This involves a
two stage wet scrubbing system to achieve the very stringent odour standards required.
An air movement of 250,000 cubic metres per hour is passed through the works and
discharged from the highest point of the building.
All this has been achieved on and under one of the most popular tourist beaches in the area.
Control System
The control system at Eastbourne is a standard Biwater ICA package designed to
operate and monitor all automatically controlled plant. This is done by using networked
Allen Bradley PLCs and a Wonderware In Touch SCADA system. However for this
installation special consideration was given to the layout of the system and its
integration with the hardware ie MCCs and instrumentation.
Eastbourne WwTW: Summary

Client:
Project Type:
Contract Conditions:
Flow:
Commissioning/ Operation Period:
Southern Water Services

Turnkey
I Chem E Green Book
216 Mld
27 Months
Eastbourne WwTW, UK
171
c. Turnkey Projects
ii. Mafraq Wastewater Treatment Works, Abu Dhabi, UAE
Key Features:
At the time of construction it
was the largest sewage
treatment of its kind in the UAE
Irrigation water supplied to the
City of Abu Dhabi and
surrounding region in order to
continue
the
planned
environmental planting regime
Exceeded all expectations of
final effluent quality
3 year M & E supply and
installation
Equipment specially selected
and tested to perform in one
of the Worlds harshest
environments
Population served 392,000
The Mafraq WwTW, Abu Dhabi
The project included the construction of a sewage treatment works for the City of Abu
Dhabi and its surrounding environs in the United Arab Emirates. The new works was to
be designed to take all the increasing flows from the City and also allow the existing
works to be taken out of service for refurbishment.
The sewage treatment plant was designed for the treatment of an average flow of
164 MLD, involving, screening, grit removal, mixing and aeration with returned
activated sludge, secondary settlement and sludge removal with tertiary treatment via
rapid gravity filters. Further sludge treatment was achieved through primary sludge
digestion and mixing, with gas removal and flare off, together with secondary sludge
digestion. Stringent final effluent qualities were to be ensured as all the final effluent
was to be pumped back into the City of Abu Dhabi in order to provide irrigation water
for the continuation and expansion of the extensive green projects being undertaken
by the Government of Abu Dhabi.
Equipment provided had to undergo vigorous review in order to ensure that it would
be capable of long service in one of the harshest environments on earth.
As well as providing an extremely high quality effluent to be used for irrigation around
the City of Abu Dhabi, the final effluent has been used to provide a green oasis around
the plant which is now home to a wealth of wildlife. Because of the important nature
172
c. Turnkey Projects
ii. Mafraq Wastewater Treatment Works, Abu Dhabi, UAE
of the plant, the original design recognised the need for an on site mosque. The mosque
was duly built and set in a landscaped area that has now matured to full effect. Due to
the high profile of the treatment plant and the fact that the existing Mafraq treatment
plant was to be taken out of service for refurbishment, the new works underwent
extensive trialling under a validation process. This validation process was undertaken on
all the process plant for 30 days on a 24 hour a day basis. During this validation period
the plant performed entirely as expected and met or exceeded the Clients expectations.
Main Items of Plant
Vertical Bar Screens - Two duty, one standby mechanically raked, with a maximum
flow through each of 2,050 l/s
Detritor Scrapers - Two 12 metre diameter with a maximum flow through each of 2,050 l/s
Primary Settlement Tanks - Six 37 metre diameter, four arm, full bridge, centre drive,
each with a flow of 683 l/s
Anoxic & Aeration Tanks - Twelve anoxic lanes leading to twelve aeration lanes
containing a total of 24 anoxic mixers and 60 vertical shaft aerators
Sludge Screw Pumps - Three 2.3 metre diameter return activated sludge screw pumps
Secondary Settlement Tanks - Twelve 32 metre diameter, four arm, full bridge, centre
drive, each with a flow of 342 l/s
Primary Sludge Digesters - Eight, each with a dedicated sludge recycle pump and
scum breaker compressor. Gas take off going to 1 floating roof surplus gas holding
tank prior to disposal through three flare off burners
Secondary Sludge Digesters - 32, each with floating arm draw off valves
Rapid Gravity Filters - Twelve tertiary treatment plant filters each with a flow of 342 l/s
Mafraq WwTW: Summary
Client:
Location:
Project Type:
Scope of Works:
Sewerage Projects Committee

Municipality of Abu Dhabi, UAE
Mechanical & Electrical Supply & Installation
Engineering supply, installation testing and
commissioning of all civil, mechanical and electrical
equipment
Population Served:
392,000
Raw Effluent:
BOD Load 43,933 kg/d
Suspended Solids Load 51,831 kg/d
Final Effluent Required:
BOD 10mg/l Suspended Solids 10mg/l
TKN to Aeration Tanks:
30 mg/l
Sulphide to Aeration Tanks: 30 mg/l
Average Flow:
164 Mld
Peak Flow:
355 Mld
173
c. Turnkey Projects
iii. Abu Dhabi Sewage Treatment BOOT, UAE
Biwater International, together with
Emirates Utilities Company Holding
(EUCH), a partnership of Al Qudra
Holding of UAE and Kharafi National of
Kuwait reached financial close on the
Abu Dhabi Sewage Treatment BOOT
project on 17 June 2008.
The project involves the construction
and 22 year operation of the
300,000 m3/day Wathba Sewage
Treatment Plant (STP) in Abu Dhabi
and the 80,000 m3/day Saad STP in Al
Abu Dhabi Sewage Treatment BOOT
Ain. The Project Company (Al Etihad
Biwater Waste Water Company) that
owns and administers the contract, is a
partnership of an ADWEA subsidiary (Al Etihad Waste Water Company) and
Biwater/EUCH.
The two new Sewage Treatment Plants at Wathba and Saad receive raw sewage flow
with a from networks operated by Abu Dhabi Sewerage Services Company (ADSSC)
and are contracted to return treated flow to the ADS SC effluent pipeline under the
following conditions:
Turbidity = 2.0 NTU, BOD = 10mg/l, SS = 10mg/l
Construction and commissioning of the plants are due for completion in 2011and in
2033 this will be transferred to Abu Dhabi Sewerage Services Company (ADSSC). The
Wathba STP is located within 12 kilometres of the Mafraq STP that was formerly
constructed by Biwater in the 1990s under a conventional EPC contract for the
Municipality of Abu Dhabi.Wathba: Average daily flow 300,000 m3/d with a
population equivalent of 1,265,000 Saad: Average daily flow 80,000 m3/d population
equivalent of 564,267
Abu Dhabi: Summary
Client:
Location:
Scope of Works:
Project Duration:
Completion Date:
Plant Capacity:
Work Types:
Participation:
Abu Dhabi Water &Electricity Authority

Abu Dhabi
Construction, commissioning and 22 year operation of
two sewage treatment plants
70 months
October 2033
365 Mld + 80 Mld
Wastewater
SPV 30%, EPC Consortium member, O&M 30%
174
c. Turnkey Projects
iv. Beetham Wastewater Treatment Works, Trinidad
Key Features:
Due to increased economic
development,
population
growth, and increasing levels
of tourism, Trinidad, and
Tobago's national Water
Supply
and
Sewerage
Company (WASA), recognised
that a new treatment plant
that
met
stringent
environmental standards was
required
The plant is designed to treat
180 Mld but must be
capable of hydraulically
passing 225 Mld, of
domestic wastewater for the
Overview of the Beetham WwTW under construction
Greater Port of Spain
population of approximately
400,000 people
The design of the plant is an activated sludge process, with extended aeration,
secondary clarification and ultra-violet disinfection. Waste sludge treatment is
achieved using anaerobic digestion and natural dewatering/ drying
Provision for a Phase 2 expansion of the plant has been made for flows of 255 Mld
The use of local staff and materials was maximised
Construction of the plant began in 2001, and the project site is based on a mangrove
swamp. To protect as much of the wetlands as possible existing reclaimed land was
used for the temporary site offices rather than more mangroves being cleared. The
existing pumping station has been refurbished rather than construct a new facility,
which has both environmental and economic benefits.
Following the award of a variation contract to treat 0.9 Mld of high loading Chemical
Oxygen Demand (COD) and Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) effluent from the
Angostura distillery, it was necessary to incorporate additional anaerobic digestor
capacity and increased aeration power to the Wastewater Treatment Works design.
The New Beetham works was designed to withstand Zone 3 earthquakes, as well as
the weight of heavy mobile construction equipment. Over 2000 piles, with an average
175
c. Turnkey Projects
iv. Beetham Wastewater Treatment Works, Trinidad
length of 25 metres, have been driven into the ground to meet the necessary
earthquake zone requirements. Extensive lateral and seismic testing on the load bearing
of the site, as well as the load bearing capacity of the piles supporting the plant, had to
be undertaken. The result is a uniform fill of two metres with a one metre blanket on
top of low permeability.
Main Items of Plant
Preliminary treatment: step screens and vortex grit removal
Secondary aerobic treatment: Two Bioreactors complete with front-end anoxic zones
and mechanical surface aerators and four Final Clarifiers (39m diameter)
UV system - disinfection of final effluent
Combined digestion of waste sewage sludge and distillery effluent: Two covered
anaerobic lagoons pH correction system for distillery effluent. Sludge recycle and
supernatant return Biogas handling system complete with waste gas burner
Digested sludge treatment: Sludge dewatering lagoons Sludge drying beds
Feed, transfer, recirculation and discharge pumping and pipework
Site water systems - process wash water and fire system
Power supplies including substations, switchgear, cabling and emergency generator
Complete control and monitoring system (MCCs, SCADA, instrumentation)
All operations and control buildings including fully equipped onsite laboratory
Beetham WwTW: Summary

Client:
Trinidad & Tobago National Water Supply and Sewerage
Company (WASA)
Location:
Beetham, Port of Spain, Trinidad
Project Type:
Turnkey
Scope of Works:
Turnkey Construction of the 180 Mld New Beetham (ASP)
Wastewater Treatment Works
Population Served:
400,000
Raw Effluent:
BOD Load 16,260kg/d Suspended Solid 211 mg/l
Final Effluent Required: BOD 20mg/l
Average Flow:
75 Mld
Peak Flow:
180 Mld
Project Duration:
36 months
176
c. Turnkey Projects
v. Managua Wastewater Treatment Works, Nicaragua
Key Features:
An engineer, procure, construct
(EPC) contract for the design,
construction and five year
operation of the Managua
Wastewater Treatment Works,
Nicaragua.
The plant has been designed
for ease of operation, minimal
footprint and optimal power
consumption.
Design of Managua Wastewater Treatment Plant
The project involves:
screening
combined aerated grit and grease removal
primary lamella plate settlement and sludge removal
secondary treatment trickling filters
secondary lamella plate settlement and sludge removal
sludge treatment through anaerobic sludge digestion and mixing, with gas removal
and flare off
sludge dewatering is by filter belt press
The project includes the construction of a protective dyke around the perimeter on the
site to guard against floods during periods of heavy rain. An air conditioned
administration building is included and operator training during commissioning. Flow
from the new collector system, installed throughout Managua City, arrives by gravity
and pump assistance at the new pump station, and is raised by this pump station to the
inlet of the new works. The plant is also equipped with a septage receiving station,
which receives residue from septic tanks. The residue is delivered to the plant by tanker.
The septage is received and runs by gravity to the inlet pump station where it is pumped
to the inlet of the works.
Thickened sludge from the sludge thickeners is pumped to four unheated, fixed roof,
mechanically stirred digesters. The thickened sludge stays in the digesters for 20 days
and the methane produced is flared off. The digested sludge is transferred to the sludge
processing area by pumps, where it is dosed with polymer, and fed through two belt
presses to reduce it to sludge with a solid content of between 20% and 25%. The
177
c. Turnkey Projects
v. Managua Wastewater Treatment Works, Nicaragua
pressed sludge is then transferred off site for agricultural use. The plant is powered by
electricity from the National Grid, via two transformers and two motor control centres,
(one located in the control building and the other in the workshop/store). Should a
mains power failure occur, two standby generators start to maintain operation of the
plant automatically.
Main Items of Plant
Intake Works: Automatic 6mm vertical bar screens - three duty, one standby, plus
one standby 25mm screen manually raked, with a maximum flow through each of 1,188 l/s
Grit Removal Rectangular Channels: Three channels 24 meters long with a bottom
scraper and pumped grit removal. Maximum flow per channel 1,188 l/s
Primary Settlement Tanks: Lamella plates - nine 22 meter long, seven meters wide,
with reciprocating scrapers in each tank, each with a maximum flow of 396 l/s
Intermediate Stage Pumping Station: Three variable speed canister pumps, (one duty,
one assist, one standby) maximum flow rate per pump 1736 l/s
Trickling Filters: Plastic media: six filters 35 meters diameter, 5.1 meter high. One
rotating arm distributor per filter
Final Settlement Tanks: Lamella plates - eight 22 metres long, 9.6 meters wide, with
reciprocating scrapers in each tank, each with a maximum flow of 430 l/s
Final Effluent Pumping Station: Three fixed speed pumps (one duty, one assist, one
standby), maximum flow rate per pump 1,720 l/s
Two Gravity Thickeners: 20m diameter with rotating two arms scraper
Sludge Digesters: Four fixed roof digesters each with three internal mixers. The
surplus gas is sent to disposal through one flare off burner. The digested sludge is
dewatered in two belt presses. The sludge is dried to approximately 25% solids and
is suitable for use in agriculture
Managua WWTW: Summary
Location:
Managua, Nicaragua
Client:
Empresa Nicaraguense de Acueductos y Alcantarillados
Project Duration:
30 months
Plant Capacity:
182 Mld
Participation:
100%
Scope of Works:
EPC and 5 year Operating and Maintenance (O&M).
Population Served:
1,000,000
Raw Effluent:
BOD 322 mg/l, Suspended Solids 193 mg/l
Final Effluent:
BOD 90 mg/l, Suspended Solids 80 mg/l
Work Types:
Wastewater Treatment Plant, Operation & Maintenance,
Pipework and a Protective Dyke
178
c. Turnkey Projects
vi. Minworth Sewage Treatment Works, UK
Minworth Sewage Treatment
Works is Severn Trent Water of
the UK, largest sewage
treatment works which treats
the sewage from a population
equivalent of 1.75 million. The
works also treat the sludge
from a population equivalent of
2.5 million which is made up of
the works indigenous sludge,
sludge transferred by pipeline
Minworth Sewage Treatment Works
from the nearby Coleshill
Sewage Treatment Works and
sludge imported to the site from smaller treatment works sites.
The works were extended and improved by two major schemes. The first phase
addresss site discharges and provides additional storm water storage capacity. The
second phase addresss a requirement for stricter discharge ammonia consent by the
provision of additional activated sludge plant capacity and existing aeration plant
upgrade. In addition to the main phases, the work includes for a number of other
schemes across the site including replacement, refurbishment and improvements to
existing assets identified by operational and maintenance risk assessments and three
schemes to enhance the output of the site power generating station.
The scheme comprises of a number of phases:
New biological nutrient removal / aeration plant with eight final settlement tanks:
New biological nutrient removal activated sludge plant constructed for phosphate
removal to take 16% of works flow - 1.98m3/s
Biological nutrient removal plant is four Lanes 122m long by 22m wide
Flexible anaerobic/anoxic section
Sanitaire diffused air aeration pipework and diffusers
High volume blowers due to the volume of air
Eight 35.5m diameter final settlement tanks
3/4 bridge scrapers to be installed
All necessary Instrumentation Control and Automation (ICA) and Supervisory Control
and Data Acquisition (SCADA)
179
c. Turnkey Projects
vi. Minworth Sewage Treatment Works, UK
Refurbishment of existing activated sludge plant (provision of additional 4.4 million m3/day air):
Refurbishment and re-housing of 14 blowers
New high volume switchroom
New Transformer 11kV to 415V
Replacement of dissolved oxygen probes and ammonia monitors
Re-use/replacement of air pipework
All necessary ICA and SCADA
Primary Sedimentation Tanks:
22 reinforced concrete conical bottomed Primary Sedimentation
Tanks, 30.0m internal diameter complete with half bridge scrapers, de-sludgeing &
odour control
Six sludge transfer pumping stations (one for each bank of four primary settlement tanks)
Six local motor control centres each dedicated to a bank of four primary settlement tanks
Associated distribution chambers, feed/effluent pipelines, channels and culverts
Roads around all structures, with drainage to liquors return pumping station
500m Inlet carrier channel and inlet works:
Twin feed channel, including flow control flumes
Eight travelling fine screens
Four shaftless screw compactors & screw conveyors screenings handling equipment
Four 13m internal diameter cross flow grit settlement tanks
Works returns pumping station
Primary flow distribution
Settled sewage pumping station
Two steel clad buildings housing the motor control centres for the inlet works and
settled sewage pumping station
High voltage power distribution network including sub-stations
Associated chambers, feed pipelines, channels and culverts
Inlet works concrete roads, hardstandings and associated drainage
Conversion of rectangular primary tanks to storm tanks
Minworth WwTW: Summary
Client:
Severn Trent Water
Location:
Birmingham, UK
Scope of Works:
Optioneering, Outline design, Detail design, Turnkey
construction and Commissioning
Population Served:
1.75 million
Plant capacity:
1070 Mld
180
c. Turnkey Projects
vii. Piatra Neamt Wastewater Treatment Works, Romania
The
contract
for
the
reconstruction, extension and
upgrading of the Piatra Neamt
Wastewater Treatment Works
(WwTW) was signed between
Biwater International (Europe)
and the Central Finance and
Contracts Unit (within the
Romanian Ministry of Public
Finance) in October 2005. The
Client is the Public Utility
Company CJ Apa Serv S.A.
Piatra Neamt Wastewater Treatment Works
The works included the following main objectives:

Reconstruction and extension of the WwTW
Upgrading of the sludge treatment facilities
Reconstruction and upgrading of all electromechanical equipment
Construction of a SCADA system to operate the plant
The project was jointly funded by the EU through ISPA funding (68%) and by EIB
through a loan (32%) to CJ Apa Serv, and was completed in 24 months followed by a
12 month defect notification period.
The WwTW is located on the South East side of Piatra Neamt City, built in 1966 and
subsequently modernised in several stages: the first stage in 1982 and the second stage
in 1983. The rehabilitation of the screens and the mechanical dewatering of the
activated sludge were completed in 1993 using the Company's own investment in
modern equipment. The plant was refurbished for a population equivalent of 205,000,
137,000 domestic, 47,800 industrial, 18,500 institutions and the remaining 1,700 are
equal to the water recovered from the water treatment plant.
Piatra Neamt WwTW: Summary

Location:
Piatra Neamt, Romania
Client:
Central Finance and Contracts Unit
Project Duration:
24 Months
Plant Capacity:
45 Mld
Scope of Works:
Civil, mechanical and electrical design. Construction, supply,
installation commissioning, training and 12 months operation
Work Types:
Design and build
Participation:
100%
181
c. Turnkey Projects
viii. Stonecutters Island Sewage Pumping Plant, Hong Kong
The contract is for the expansion
of the existing Stonecutters
Island Sewage Treatment Works
in Hong Kong. The works are
divided into six sections which
include the construction of the
main pumping station (MPS2),
the
extension
of
eight
chemically enhanced primary
treatment
tanks
(CEPT),
associated
buildings
and
facilities.
Stonecutters Island, Hong Kong
This Contract plays a critical part in the Harbour Area Treatment Scheme (HATS) Stage
2A Scheme for the expansion of the existing Stonecutters Island Sewage Treatment
Works. The works include the construction of a new main pumping station, eight
numbers of new chemically enhanced precipitating treatment (CEPT) tanks and
associated buildings and facilities. Under this Contract, BML is responsible for the
design, supply, installation, testing and commissioning of mechanical and electrical
plants and equipment for the new main sewage pumping station. Upon successful
commissioning, the new main sewage pumping station shall be able to handle a
maximum pumping capacity of up to 2,764,800m3/day. Moreover, associated sludge
scraping facilities and sludge pumping facilities will be provided to the new CEPT tanks.
The existing high voltage and low voltage electrical power supply systems and the
distributed control system (DCS) will also be upgraded to suit.
Upon completion of this Contract in 2016, Stonecutters Island Sewage Treatment Works
will be able to handle the maximum incoming sewage collected from all Preliminary
Treatment Works upgraded under HATS Stage 1 Scheme and HATS Stage 2 Scheme.
Main sewage pumps and associated pipework and valves at the Main Pumping
Station No. 2;
DN3600 knife gate valve and associated pipework at the Interconnection Valve Chamber;
HV and LV switchboards at the Switchgear Building;
Sludge scraping system and scum collection system for the new CEPT tanks;
Aeration system for the new CEPT tanks;
Distributed Control System (DCS) for the new works;
Upgrading of the existing distributed control and data acquisition system
Expert system for the new works;
Deodorization system for the new works.
182
c. Turnkey Projects
ix. Sha Tin Wastewater Treatment Works, Hong Kong
Key Features:
Rehabilitation and extension
of the existing treatment
works
Treatment of 340 Mld
wastewater, via a three stage
existing treatment plant
Anaerobic-anoxic-aerobic,
biological nutrient removal
activated sludge process
Sha Tin Sewage Treatment Works
The Shatin Sewage Treatment Works Stage III Extension comprised the rehabilitation and
extension of the existing treatment plant and is now providing a high quality effluent
discharge in Victoria Bay in accordance with the strict effluent standards set by the Hong
Kong Government. The works included design, supply, delivery, installation, testing and
commissioning of the M & E installations in various sections of the Works, involving;
grit removal system, chemical dosing system, sludge collection and removal system for
the primary and final sedimentation tanks, air diffuser aeration system, surplus
activated sludge thickening system, anaerobic sludge digestion system and sludge
dewatering system. Biogas generated from the anaerobic sludge digestion is used to
provide hot water for the existing anaerobic sludge digestion tanks that in turn
generate electricity to power the plant.
Installation includes:
A grit removal system
A chemical dosing system
Sludge collection and removal system for the primary and final sedimentation tanks
An air diffuser aeration system
A surplus activated sludge thickening system
An anaerobic sludge digestion system
A sludge dewatering system
Process
Dry weather flow (summer 2004) 250 Mld/day
Dry weather flow (winter 2004) 230 Mld/day
Dry weather flow (summer 2011340 Mld/day
Dry weather flow (winter 2011) 308 Mld/day
Peak flow 1020 Mld/day (three x dry weather flow/summer 2011)
BOD5 = 57,000 kg/day
Population Equivalent (0.06kg/day) = 950,000
183
c. Turnkey Projects
x. Yen So Park, Vietnam
Key Features:
Design,
supply
and
construction of a 200 MLD
sewage treatment plant
Treating 50% of Hanois
wastewater
Biological Sequencing Batch
Reactor (SBR) process
Training
Scope of the M&E and Process

Works include the following:
Kim Nguu River radial gates,
Yen So Park, one of Asias largest urban parks
hydraulic trash rake and grit
removal system
Central inlet pumping station with primary coarse & fine screening
Plant influent secondary screening, followed by screenings, washing & compaction
Combined grit, grease & oil removal
Alkalinity control & external carbon source addition
Biological Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR) dispersed growth treatment, with surface
lowering multiple decanters, equipment, process control hardware & soft ware and
associated appurtenances
On-line monitoring of key in-basin control parameters and effluent conditions
Waste sludge management, including thickening, aerobic and anaerobic stabilisation,
and dewatering
Containment and treatment of foul air through biofilter odour removal system
To provide training for the operators for proper operation and maintenance of the plant
Long Term Operations and Maintenance.
The largest sewage treatment plant in Vietnam treating approximately 50% of the
domestic waste water from Hanoi. Biwaters scope includes: Process Design, Supply,
Fabrication, Installation, Testing & Commissioning of the M&E and Process Works for
the 200,000 m3/day throughput.
184
c. Turnkey Projects
xi. Guinness Industrial Wastewater Treatment Works, Nigeria
Key Features:
Biwater secured two effluent
treatment
contracts
in
Nigeria, one at the Benin
Guinness Brewery and one at
the Ogba Guinness Brewery
Both contracts utilise the
internationally
renowned
Paques process
Both breweries benefit from
customised design to meet
on-site space constraints
CIRCOX reactor requires a
footprint of 5m diameter,
compared to the traditional
aerobic activated sludge
reactor of 2,500m3
Benin Effluent Treatment Plant
Biwater secured two turnkey contracts for effluent treatment at Diageos Guinness
breweries at Ogba and Benin in Nigeria. At both the breweries a customised design
approach was needed to meet the very strict space constraints on site as well as the
stringent effluent discharge standards and bio-solids production. The two treatment
works consist of buffering, calamity tank, anaerobic treatment, aerobic treatment,
clarification and sludge handling. The combined anaerobic/aerobic wastewater
treatment plant comprise of a Paques BIOPAC IC and Paques CIRCOX aerobic at the
Benin brewery and standard activated sludge technology at the Ogba site.
Anaerobic treatment is used to reduce the bulk of the Chemical Oxygen Demand
(COD) by up to 80% with an aerobic polishing step removing the remaining COD
fraction. Anaerobic technology has the capacity to handle very high COD/Biochemical
Oxygen Demand (BOD) loads in the effluent, while producing a very small amount of
sludge. It also requires a very small footprint on site, as the IC Reactor is typically a
vertical cylindrical tank 6.5 m in diameter. The reduced power consumption in this
process is a further benefit.
A standard aerobic activated sludge plant has been designed for the Ogba brewery
following anaerobic treatment, whereas, the aerobic CIRCOX technology has been
used at the Benin site, due to extreme space constraints.
185
c. Turnkey Projects
xi. Guinness Industrial Wastewater Treatment Works, Nigeria
Process description:
The influent from the brewery is screened and then retained for a period of time in an
equalisation/preacidification tank. Here the pH of the influent is continuously
monitored and corrected while the acidification process takes place. Nutrients can also
be dosed at this point, to enhance the anaerobic process, should the effluent not
contain sufficient nitrates or phosphates. The effluent quality into the treatment works
is continuously monitored for pH, temperature and COD loading and, if any
unacceptable effluent is detected, this is automatically routed to the calamity tank. This
effluent is then re-introduced to the process over time.
The conditioned wastewater is pumped into the recirculation tank from where the effluent
is recirculated through the IC anaerobic reactor. The recycle tank provides an environment
for treated effluent from the IC reactor and raw effluent to mix and stabilise for a period of
time. Effluent from the recycle tank is pumped into the bottom of the reactor, where it is
combined with the internal recirculation line. The mixed effluent percolates through the
special granular sludge blanket in the bottom of the reactor and the COD in the effluent is
thoroughly mixed with the granular sludge. The COD is broken down into primarily biogas
(containing approximately 80% methane and 20% CO2) with some new cell growth. The
gas is stripped off in settler modules in the IC Reactor and is utilised for internal recirculation,
providing a "free" mixing source for better retention and contact with the sludge, prior to
being burnt off to atmosphere or recovered for use on the plant. Due to the quality of the
gas produced, a large energy recovery is available to the end user, if required.
The treated effluent overflows from the IC reactor back to the recycle tank and/or the
aerobic treatment process. At the Ogba site, the overflow from the recycle tank enters the
traditional aerobic aeration basin, where the balance of the COD is removed by introducing
oxygen into the effluent using vertical mounted aerators. From the aerobic reactor the
treated effluent is settled in a settling tank, where the majority of the solids are removed
for dewatering and the final treated effluent is of a suitable quality for discharge to river.
At the Benin site, the overflow from the IC reactor flows into the Circox high rate
aerobic reactor where the balance of the COD is removedby introducing oxygen into
the effluent via blowersto a vertical cylindrical vessel. The CIRCOX reactor contains
granular sludge enabling a high upflow velocity and efficient breakdown of the COD
with very little sludge production. The treated effluent then flows from the CIRCOX to
a Biwater Dissolved Air Floatation (DAF) unit, where the excess solids are removed for
dewatering. After the DAF unit, the final treated effluent is of a suitable quality for
discharge to river. The sludge from both processes is treated with polyelectrolyte and
then de-watered using a Solids Technology belt filter press. The dried sludge, of
approximately 16% dry solids, in then removed from site for disposal.
186
c. Turnkey Projects
xii. Anheuser-Busch Brewery Effluent Treatment Plant, USA
The Anheuser-Busch Company
contracted Biwater - Advanced
Environmental Water Technologies,
Inc., Bibb & Associates and Watkins
Constructors to design and build a
five (5.0) MGD Nano Filtration
plant to treat well water and
produce high quality process water
for the Anheuser-Busch brewery.
Biwater - AEWT was commissioned
to design the overall plant process
and to provide the complete
membrane system, including all the
pretreatment, chemical systems,
post treatment and control systems.
Anheuser Busch Brewery
The plant consists of four (1.33) MGD trains, with each train consisting of 36 -8 side
entry FRP pressure vessels operating at a recovery range of 75-85%.
The plant utilizes DOW Chemicals membrane NF-90 in the first stage and NF-70 in the
second stage. As one of the largest industrial R.O. facilities producing R.O. water for
beer making, the Anheuser-Busch plant is a model for efficiency of space utilization and
operation.
Biwater AEWT, Inc. has supplied a total plant capacity of more than 421 MGD to date.
Anheuser Busch Brewery: Summary
Location:
Jacksonville, Florida, USA
Client:
Anheuser-Busch
Project Duration:
2 years
Scope of Works:
Design, supply and construct of 4 No. 1.33 million US gallon
skid mounted reverse osmosis units treatment of industrial
effluent from the Anheuser-Busch Jacksonville facility.
Work Types:
Reverse osmosis, nano filtration, pressure vessels,
industrial pre treatment
Participation:
100%
187
Membrane Technology
Membrane Treatment
Summary
We have over four decades experience in designing, procuring, manufacturing and

constructing various types of membrane systems using microfiltration, ultrafiltration,
nanofiltration or reverse osmosis to treat seawater, brackish water and municipal wastewater.
Currently, Biwater has the largest installed capacity of membranes in the municipal sector
in the United States, as well as the largest installed capacity of membrane bio-reactors
(MBRs) in the UK. In 2003, Biwater built one of the largest nanofiltration plants in the
world (150,000 m3/day) and has installed over 1.4 million m3/day capacity in membrane
treatment since 2000. In 2009, Biwater completed the 228,000 m3/day reverse osmosis
plant at the Changi NEWater Plant in Singapore, the largest in South East Asia.
Biwater built its first reverse osmosis plant in 1971 and in 1979 built a single 59 Mld plant
in Buwayb, Saudi Arabia that on its own represented 10% of the worlds reverse osmosis
capacity when built. Since these early plants and due to both the fall in operational costs
and Biwaters increased knowledge and expertise, membrane technology has seen rapid
progress and cost reduction. These changes have seen many countries around the world
embrace this technology.
Membrane systems are very versatile and can be used for a wide variety of applications
including; filtration, softening, disinfection, organics removal and desalination in compact,
automated, modular units.
Membrane Process Characteristics
Microfiltration
Ultrafiltration
Nanofiltration
Reverse Osmosis
Water
Monovalent Salts
Multivalent Salts
Viruses
Bacteria
Suspended Solids
Membrane Application Matrix
Effluent Treatment
Water Reclamation
Water Re-use
Desalination
Softening
Colour/Organics Removal
Process Water Make-up
Cryptosporidium Removal
Nitrate Removal
Clarification
MBR
MF
UF
NF
RO
189
a. Turnkey Projects
i. El Paso Brackish Water Reverse Osmosis Plant, USA
Biwater AEWT Inc., the number
one supplier of municipal
membrane treatment plants in
the USA and one of the largest
suppliers in the world, has
supplied the largest inland
desalination plant to the City of El
Paso in the United States.
The $95 million project which
includes the plant, the well
field, a technology and education center and injection wells to dispose of the salty
concentrate left behind. The plant operating cost is estimated to be approximately $4.8
million per year. The joint facility produces a total water supply of 104 Mld by blending
56 Mld permeate from Biwater AEWT's reverse osmosis plant with raw 'blend' water
to meet project water quality goals. The facility is able to use the vast quantity of
brackish water within the Hueco Bolson, an underground aquifer that has been
designated a priority groundwater management area by the Texas Natural Resource
Conservation Commission.
Brackish Water Reverse Osmosis Plant El Paso, Texas
The plant is needed because fresh water is currently being extracted from the Hueco
Bolson - the sole water supply for Fort Bliss and provides approximately 40 percent of
El Paso's municipal water supply.
The Hueco Bolson holds about 33 billion m3 of brackish water that must be treated to
be drinkable. The El Paso Desalination Plant could soon lead the way for a long-term
water strategy in the United States.
El Paso, Texas: Summary
Location:
El Paso, Texas
Client:
City of El Paso
Project Duration:
20 months
Completion Date:
September 2006
Plant Capacity:
56.7 Mld
Scope of Works:
Turnkey construction of water membrane plant
Work Types:
Reverse Osmosis Desalination
Participation:
100%
190
a. Turnkey Projects
ii. Seychelles Desalination Project
Biwater companies in the UK, South
Africa and Malaysia combined their
expertise in a USD29 million project to
alleviate seasonal water shortages in the
Seychelles. The contract was for the
design, construction and commissioning
of four reverse osmosis desalination
plants on the main islands Mahe,
Praslin and La Digue with a capacity
of 8.4 Mld, with provision for future
expansion to 12.75 Mld. South Africa
based Biwater Pty was the lead contractor and project manager, responsible for mechanical
engineering, with the UKs Biwater Treatment Limited designing the reverse osmosis system
and completing the process and electrical design.
The plant draws seawater through a copper-nickel alloy screen by means of vacuum assisted
intake pumps. The copper-nickel alloy inhibits the growth of organisms on the screen. An
air sparge system also assists in keeping the screen open together with chlorine dosing to
control the growth of organisms in the pipeline. The seawater is filtered through pressure
sand filters to remove suspended solids. As a final polishing step and backup system, the
water is then filtered through cartridge filters en route to the membrane stacks. High
pressure pumps drive the filtered water through the membranes, the heart of the reverse
osmosis process. The ultra-pure desalinated water from the membrane stack is piped to the
rehardening process, where the water is passed through a magnasphere and limestone bed
to add hardness back into the water. The water is finally disinfected to inhibit the growth of
pathogens, and pumped to the storage reservoir. The water is then drawn from the storage
reservoir and enters into the existing distribution system. The brine from the membranes is
returned under pressure through energy recovery turbines, which reduce high pressure
pump energy input requirements by 30%. The brine is then discharged into the sea.
Seychelles: Summary
Client:
Location:
Project Type:
Scope of Works:
Total Capacity:
Population Served:
Project Duration:
Public Utilities Corporation of Seychelles

Providence, West Coast, Praslin and La Digue,
in the Seychelles
Turnkey construction, operation and maintenance of
four desalination plants
Turnkey construction of four desalination plants
8.4 Mld
25,000
14 months
191
a. Turnkey Projects
iii. Paraquita Bay Seawater Desalination Plant, British Virgin Islands
Key Features:
Turnkey construction of a 10.4 Mld
(2.3 MiGD) seawater reverse
osmosis desalination plant.
Installation of a 400mm diameter
treated water pipeline
3
Construction of a 2,270m storage
reservoir
Operation and maintenance for 16
years.
Biwater are working with the Water and Sewerage Department on behalf of the the
Ministry of Communications to construct the 10.4 Mld Paraquita Bay sea water reverse
osmosis desalination plant as part of the British Virgin Islands Water Infrastructure Project.
Combined with the associated treated water pipeline, reservoir and network modeling of
the existing network, Biwater will provide improved water quality (WHO standard) and
optimum delivery of the potable water service for the residents of Tortola Island.
Paraquita Bay, BVI: Summary:

Client:
Ministry of Communications
Location:
Tortola Island, British Virgin Islands
Completion Date:
2029
Plant Capacity:
10.4 Mld
Scope of Works:
Turnkey construction and operation of a seawater
reverse osmosis desalination treatment plant
Work Types:
Reverse osmosis, operation and maintenance, network
modeling, pipeline and reservoir.
Participation:
100%
192
a. Turnkey Projects
iv. Buxton Wastewater Treatment Works, UK
Key Features:
Replacement of the existing
sewage treatment works at
Buxton
with
a
new
Membrane Bioreactor Plant
The scheme is driven by the
Fishery consent of 15:25:5/10
(Biological Oxygen Demand:
SS:NH3) as part of the
European Union Urban &
Wastewater
Treatment
Directive. In meeting the new
Fishery
consent,
the
discretionary
River
Quality
Buxton WwTW, UK
Objective (RQO) of 15:25
(BOD:SS) will also be met
Whilst the high effluent quality requirements could be achieved using
conventional processes, one of the many attractions of the MBR is its small land
area requirement
The existing plant comprised of Primary Settling Tanks and Trickling Filters which were
located further down the valley on a separate site. There was a small amount of land
available on the other side of the river within the valley which was just sufficient for an
aeration tank though not sufficient for any Secondary Clarifiers. A conventional works
could not be accommodated on the available land. The existing Primary Settling Tanks
were re-used for the Works redevelopment.
193
a. Turnkey Projects
iv. Buxton Wastewater Treatment Works, UK
A Membrane BioReactor was

considered as there are no
Secondary
Clarifiers.
The
membranes, which are located
within the aeration tank, are used
to separate the clear liquid from
the solids. Furthermore the
aeration tank size is 25% smaller
than a conventional aeration
tank to achieve the nitrification to
meet the effluent standard as the
mixed liquor concentration used is
significantly higher. Therefore the
MBR is significantly smaller than
an equivalent conventional
treatment system.
Buxton WwTW, UK
The original trickling filters will be demolished once the new MBR is operational and the
land will be re-developed. The Aeration Tank has been designed to enable it to be
adapted for de-nitrification if the discharge consent is modified in the future.
The high effluent quality achieved with an MBR enables the effluent standard to be
achieved with considerable security.
Buxton: Summary
Client:
Project Type:
Flow:
Loading:
Final Effluent Quality:
Severn Trent Water

Turnkey
16.7 Mld
1230 kg/d BOD
Suspended Solids <2mg/l BOD <2mg/l
194
a. Turnkey Projects
v. Charnock Wellfield Restoration Project, Arcadia WTP, Santa Monica
Biwater
AEWT
(BAEWT)
successfully completed the
design, supply, and construction
of the water treatment system
for
the
Arcadia
Water
Treatment Plant: Charnock
Wellfield Restoration Project in
the city of Santa Monica, CA.
Reverse Osmosis System, Santa Monica WTP
Raw basin water from Santa

Monicas Charnock Well Field is
pretreated then passed through
horizontal cartridge filters and
then to the Reverse Osmosis
System which produces the final permeate water.

The plant consists of four (4) new 2.32 million gallons per day (MGD) Reverse Osmosis
(RO) Filtration Units with a total combined capacity of 9.28 MGD. The plant is
designed to run three (3) units continuously and one (1) unit in standby. At an 85%
maximum designed recovery rate the plant will produce approximately 6.96 MGD of
permeate water ready to be post-treated for the residents of Santa Monica.
195
a. Turnkey Projects
BAEWTs large scope of work for

the project included the design and
supply of the RO Membrane
Filtration Units including the
chemical pre-treatment, feed
booster pumps, Energy Recovery
Device (ERD), Clean-In-Place (CIP)
System, and Programmable Logic
Control for each Unit.
The four (4) RO units were
shipped assembled to assist the
client in the construction process
and streamline the project
schedule.
RO Unit No. 4 1st Stage Shipment
Los Angeles, CA: Summary

Client:
City of Santa Monica
Contract Date:
February 2009
Total Plant Capacity:
9.28 MGD (35.1 Mld)
Start-Up Date:
February 2011
Contractor:
Black & Veatch Construction
Scope of Works:
Turnkey Reverse Osmosis Filtration System
196
a. Turnkey Projects
The Biwater system was based
on a two stage design that
utilised Energy Saving Nanofiltration
(ESNA) membranes which was
selected to be the most cost
effective solution for the city.
Boca Raton Nanofiltration Softening Plant, the largest

membrane trains in the United States of America.
Process Description:
The Boca Raton plant is designed
to treat shallow ground water
with a TDS less than 500 mg/l
TDS to remove hardness, colour,
and other contaminants to meet
Florida drinking water quality
standards.
The plant is comprised of ten

14.2 million and two 7.1 Mld membrane softening trains and will operate at a minimum
of 85% permeate water recovery. The plant is designed for continuous operation. The
commissioning was completed in March 2003.
Biwater AEWT, Inc. is one of the premier manufacturers of large capacity systems for
the production of high purity drinking water using state of the art membrane
separations technology.
Boca Raton, Florida: Summary
Location:
Boca Raton, Florida, USA
Client:
City of Boca Raton
Completion Date:
July 2005
Plant Capacity:
190 Mld (50 MGD)
Scope of Works:
Turnkey construction of Nanofiltration reverse osmosis plant
Work Types:
Nanofiltration Reverse Osmosis System
Participation:
100%
197
a. Turnkey Projects
vi. Microfiltration Water Treatment Plant, Lye Oak, UK
Mechanical and electrical, civil design, supply
and installation of Lye Oak microfiltration water
treatment plant, Lydden, Kent. Installation of a
cryptosporidia barrier for raw water sources from
three boreholes.
The works were being undertaken for Folkestone
& Dover Water Services Ltd on a site that is
environmentally sensitive as it is classified as an
area of outstanding natural beauty, surrounded
by areas of ancient woodland with an adjacent
Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI). The project included; process system and
performance design, civil and building work layout design, design, supply, delivery,
construction, erection, commissioning, testing and putting into service of:
New borehole pumps/rising main

500 micron pre-screening
Continuous micro-filtration system
Associated ancillary equipment
Waste washwater treatment
Electrical control panel with master PLC
Transfer pumps
UV system for sterilisation
Modification to existing gas dosing system
New surge suppression installation
Construction soakaway
New treatment building and modification to existing building
On-site pipeline modifications
Lye Oak, UK: Summary
Location:
Client:
Plant Capacity:
Scope of Works:
Work Types:
Participation:
Lydden, Kent, UK
Folkestone & Dover Water Services
7.5 Mld
Turnkey construction of water membrane plant
Microfiltration
100%
198
b. Integrated Membrane Systems
199
b. Integrated Membrane Systems
200

i. Skid Mounted
Key Features (BAS):

4-20 mA instruments displayed on
instrument centre
Variable frequency drive (VFD) for
high pressure pump
6-inch colour display. Primarily
text
operating
screens,
Touchscreen controls
GE Fanuc Micro VersaMax
processor
Motor starter for boost pump
Stand alone master control enclosure, skid mounted local control enclosure with
terminal strips
Membrane/energy recovery device (ERD)/boost pump and pump/prefilter located on
separate skids.
Premium Features (PRE)
4-20 mA instruments on touchscreen
12-inch color display. Text and pictorial operating screens. Touchscreen controls
GE Fanuc VersaMax processor
Primary and final pressure transmitters
Variable frequency drive (VFD) for high pressure pump
Motor starter for boost pump
Automated valves and control for feed flush upon shut down
Stand alone master control enclosure, local control enclosure with remote I/O
Membrane/energy recovery device (ERD)/boost pump and pump/prefilter located on
separate skids.
Operating Parameters
Design Feed TDS
45,000 ppm NaCl
Maximum Recovery
45%
Nominal Rejection
95-98%
Operating Temperature
1.6 to 29.4C (35 to 85F)
Minimum Inlet Pressure
2 Bar (30 psig)
Design Temperature
25C (77F)
201

i. Skid Mounted
Instrumentation
Flow Meter
Permeate, concentrate, Low Pressure (LP) ERD inlet, High Pressure

(HP) ERD outlet
Conductivity
Permeate
PH
Feed
Pressure
Pre-filter, post-filter, primary, final, permeate, concentrate, LP ERD

inlet, LP ERD outlet, HP ERD inlet, HP ERD outlet (PRE Feature=
Primary, Final transmitter)
Pressure Switches Feed, permeate, concentrate, primary

Instrument Center Thornton 770 MAX
Materials of Construction
Frame
Painted Carbon Steel
Cartridge Filter
RO.Zs 05-40, 5-micron nominal
Cartridge Filter Housing
GRP (glass reinforced plastic)
Membrane Elements
8" 400 - 440 sq ft SWRO

Membrane
Membrane Housing
FRP
Low Pressure Pipe
Schedule 80 PVC
High Pressure Pipe
Duplex 2205
Enclosures
NEMA 4
Optional Features
Allen Bradley control system
Multi-Media filters
Clean-in-Place (CIP) units
Chemical feed systems
Transfer pumps and storage tanks
60Hz or 50Hz Systems.
Documentation Included
Operation and maintenance manual
Control narrative
Drawings: piping and instrumentation, electrical and general dimensional
202

i. Skid Mounted
MODE L
MODEL
Permeate rate:
Concentrate Rate:
Feed Rate:
SWRO
SWRO-550
-550
SWRO-1090
SWRO-1650
550 m3/day (100 gpm)

1,021 m 3/day (186 gpm)
1,571 m 3/day (286 gpm)
1,090 m 3/day (200 gpm)

2,022 m 3/day (371 gpm)
3,111 m 3/day (571 gpm)
1,650 m 3/day (300 gpm)

3,064 m 3/day (557 gpm)
4,714 m 3/day (857 gpm)
Manufacturer:
Quantity:
HP Pump HP and Type:
Boost Pump HP and Type:
Fedco
2
75 kW (100 Hp) TEFC
7.5 kW (10 Hp) TEFC
Fedco
2
150 kW (200 Hp) TEFC
14.9 kW (20 Hp) TEFC
Fedco
2
186 kW (250 Hp) TEFC
29.8 kW (40 Hp) TEFC
Model:
Manufacturer:
Quantity:
Design Flow Rate:
PX-220
ERI
1
40.9 m 3/hr (180 gpm)
PX-220
ERI
2
40.9 m3/hr (180 gpm)
PX-220
ERI
3
40.9 m3/hr (180 gpm)
Membranes quantity:
Memb. housing style:
Banking Arrangement:
42
7 element long, 4 port
6, parallel
84
12, parallel
126
18, parallel
RO.Zs05-40XK
40 (102 cm)
22 per change out
RO.Zs05-40XK
40 (102 cm)
54 per change out
RO.Zs05-40XK
40 (102 cm)
108 per change out
4.0 flange
3.0 flange
3.0 flange
2 Bar, minimum
7 Bar, oil -free
1428 m 3/day (261.9 gpm)
220/380 VAC, 3 -phase, 50Hz
220 VAC, 1 -phase, 50Hz
6.0 flange
3.0 flange
6.0 flange
2 Bar, minimum
7 Bar, oil -free
2,857 m 3/day (524.1 gpm)
220/380 VAC, 3 -phase, 50Hz
8.0 flange
4.0 flange
6.0 flange
2 Bar, minimum
7 Bar, oil -free
4,285 m 3/day (786.1 gpm)
220/380 VAC, 3 -phase, 50Hz
221 cm (87 )
196 cm (77 )
823cm (324 )
221 cm (87 )
196 cm (77 )
823cm (324 )
221 cm (87 )
229 cm (90 )
823cm (324 )
3,725 kg (8,215 lb)
5,560 kg (12,260 lb)
6,990 kg (15,410 lb)
257 cm (101 )
196 cm (77 )
533 cm (210 )
257 cm (101 )
196 cm (77 )
533 cm (210 )
257 cm (101 )
196 cm (77 )
533 cm (210 )
2,220 kg (4,895 lb)

760 kg (1,680 lb)
2,845 kg (6,270 lb)

1,525 kg (3,360 lb)
3,220 kg (7,095 lb)

2,285 kg (5,040 lb)
Cartridge Filter:
Filter Length:
Filter Quantity:
Inlet:
Permeate:
Concentrate:
Inlet Water Pressure:
Air Pressure:
Drain to be Sized for:
Power:
Control Circuit:
Membrane/ERD Skid
Height:
Width:
Depth:
Weight Estimate for
fo r
Shipping Purposes:
Pump/Prefilter Skid
Height:
Width:
Depth:
Weight Estimate for
fo r
Shipping Purposes:
Membranes:
Summary
Biwater AEWT's SWRO Series Reverse Osmosis Systems can either be designed and
built as skid mounted units, or containerised units for fast and easy site installation.
203

ii. Containerised
Single pass, single stage, twelve
pressure vessels total. Each pressure
vessel contains 7 thin film
composite elements in series for a
total of 84.
The System produces 1,091 m3/day
(45 m3/hr, 200 gpm) of product
water at 40% recovery.
Key Features (BAS)
Container designed for overseas
transportation
High Pressure Centrifugal RO
Feed Pump w/380/460V 3 phase
50/60 Hz TEFC motor
VFD for Booster Pump & Feed Pump
Valves: Permeate diversion valves, diaphragm valve for ERI reject out, isolation
butterfly valves.
TDS
37,000-45,000 mg/l (as NaCL)
Recovery
36-40%
Nominal Rejection
>98%
25 to 35C (77 to 95F)
3 Bar (45 psig)
SDI15
<3
Membrane Rejection
99.6%
Note:
Temperature and high salinities will
reduce system productivity.
Instrumentation
Flow Meter
Energy recovery feed, Permeate, Booster pump discharge
Conductivity
Permeate, Final product
Gauge Panel
Four low and three high pressure readings available via 5 way
Pressure Gauges
Liquid filled for high and low pressures
Pressure Switch
RO pump
204

ii. Containerised
Power Distribution Panels
NEMA 12
Control Enclosure
NEMA 4X
Sample Valves on vessels, feed, permeate and reject PVC

Membrane Elements
Spiral wound thin film composite
Membrane Housing
Multi ported FRP 1000 psi rated
Low Pressure Piping
Schedule 80 PVC
Membrane Rejection
99.6%
High Pressure Piping
Zeron 100
Low Pressure Tubing
Polyethylene
High Pressure Tubing
Parflex
Options Available
A: Pretreatment Container with multimedia & cartridge filters (SWRO PT-2725C)
480L x 96W x 6H
B: ASME Code stamped pressure vessels
C: Post-treatment degasifier
D: 380 V, 3 Ph, 50 Hz fuse, A/C, lighting kit
E: pH meter and H SO4 chemical feed 2
F: NaOCl pretreatment chemical feed
G: SBS chemical feed
H: Installation and commissioning supervision/services are available

Physical Data and Demensions
480 L x 96 W x 96 H (12,192 mm L x 2,438 mm W x 2,438 mm H)
SWRO-1090C: 7,500 kg (16,500lbs) .membrane weight not included
Membrane weight: 1,525 kg (3,360lbs)
Power Consumption: Approx 3.0 kW hr/m3
Summary
Biwater AEWT's SWRO Containerised Series allow for quick and easy site
installation. They lend themselves to remote sites for the construction industry,
industrial, oil and gas industry and for emergency supply.
All necessary equipment required for independent operation is provided, given the
necessary pretreatment precautions are taken.
205

iii. Pretreatment Containerised
Single pass, three vertical pressure filters total. Each pressure
vessel contains anthracite and sand media.
System produces 2725 m3/day (114 m3/hr, 500 gpm) of
filtrate suitable as feed for the reverse osmosis (RO) system
SWRO-1090C (1090 m3/day production).
Standard Features
Container designed for overseas transportation
Three 84-inch (213 cm) diameter pressure vessels, rated at
100 psig (6.9 bar)
Three 22-round cartridge filter housings, rated at 150 psig
Manual butterfly valves for control of service/backwash
sequences.
Design Temperature
25C (77F)
4.8-6.9 Bar (45 psig)
Product Flow
500 gpm (2725 m3/day)
Max Feed Turbidity
< 10 NTU
Feed Loading Rate
3-7 gpm/ft2
Back Wash Loading Rate
12-15 gpm/ft2
Cartridge Filter Loading Rate
2.5 gpm/TIE
Note:
Required 4.8 bar (70 psi) minimum customer constant pressure to filter inlet.
Temperatures will impact BW loading rates. Exceeding the feed turbidity/TSS limit will
shorten run times.
Instrumentation
Flow Meter
Pressure
Backwash waste outlet

Main MMF feed, MMF outlet, and cartridge outlet on gauge panel;
local indication at each MMF inlet
206

iii. Pretreatment Containerised
Media Filter Vessels
Neoprene lined carbon steel, 100 psig rated
Cartridge Filter Vessels
FRP, 150 psig rated
Piping
PVC Sch 80
Ball Valves
PVC with EPDM seats
Butterfly Valves
Nylon-11 coated ductile iron discs with EPDM seats
Optional Features
Air scour feature available with Chem-Aire ABS piping.
Physical Data and Dimensions:
Dimensions: 480 L x 96 W x 96 H (12,192 mm L x 2,438 mm W x 2,438 mm H)
Weight: 34,500lbs (15,650 kg) dry.
Summary
This specification defines the integrated design requirements for the Biwater
AEWT SWRO pretreatment line of containerised systems for the Industrial, Power
and Municipal markets.
All necessary equipment required for independent operation is provided given
the necessary pretreatment precautions are taken.
This SWRO PT-2725C pretreatment container is designed perfectly for the
SWRO-1090C seawater reverse osmosis system.
Optional configurations available based on application requirements.
207

i. Skid Mounted
Key Features (BAS)

4-20 mA instruments displayed on
instrument centre
GE Fanuc QuickPanel 6.0-inch
monochrome display Touchscreen
controls
GE Fanuc Versamax Micro
Communication: Rs232
UL 508 listed
Premium Features (PRE)
4-20
mA
instruments
on
QuickPanel
GE Fanuc QuickPanel 12-inch
color display. Text and pictorial operating screens
Touchscreen controls
GE Fanuc VersaMax processor
Primary and final pressure transmitters
RO permeate flush on shutdown
UL 508 listed
Recovery
65-85%
Nominal Rejection
95-98%
1.6 to 29.4C (35 to 85F)
2 Bar (30 psig)
Design Temperature
15.6C (60F)
Average membrane flux
16-18 GFD
Membrane Rejection
99.6%
Instrumentation
Flow Meter
Permeate, concentrate
Conductivity
Permeate (PRE Option Feature = Added feed control sensor)
PH
Feed
Pressure
Pre-filter, post-filter, primary, final, permeate, concentrate, pump

discharge
Pressure Switch
Feed, permeate, concentrate
Instrument Center hornton 770 MAX

208

i. Skid Mounted
Frame
Painted Blue Carbon Steel
Cartridge Filter
ROsave.Zs 1-micron nominal
Cartridge Filter Housing
316 Stainless Steel
Membrane Elements
8" 365-440 sq ft BWRO Membranes
Membrane Housing
FRP or 316L SS
Low Pressure Pipe
Schedule 80 PVC
High Pressure Pipe
Stainless Steel, Sch.10
Enclosures
NEMA 12
Options Available
Allen Bradley control system
Vortex flow meters
Soft starters
Variable frequency drives
Multi-media filters
Clean-in-place (CIP) units
Chemical feed systems
Transfer pumps and storage tanks
50Hz or 60Hz systems
Documentation Included
Operation and maintenance manual

Control narrative
Drawings: piping and instrumentation, electrical and general dimensional
Summary
Biwater AEWT BWRO Series Reverse Osmosis Systems are designed and built for
rigorous industrial duty operations which demand reliable equipment. Completely
packaged and assembled in corrosion proof powder coated steel skids, BWRO
Series systems are factory tested prior to shipment and incorporate the latest
technology.
209
12
1 1 1
M embranes quantity:
M emb. housing style:
Banking Arrangement:
210
Height:
W idth:
Depth:
Shipping W eight
Estimate:
Inlet:
Permeate:
Concentrate:
Inlet W ater Pressure:
Air Pressure:
Drain to be Sized for:
Power:
Control Circuit:
Housing M odel:
Cartridge Filter:
Filter Length:
Filter Q uantity:
76 (193 cm)
46 (117 cm)
194 (493 cm)
4500 lb (2040 kg)
3400 lb (1542 kg)
3.0 flange
3.0 flange
1.5 flange
30 psig, minimum
100 psig, oil- free
133 gpm (30.2 m3/ hr)
O ption: Ask Factory
BW RO -818
HX- 0740-3.0-V -316

RO .Zs01-40XK
40 (102 cm)
7 per housing, 14/ change out
Cartridge Filtration
36
3 2 1
M embrane Elements and Housings
SS24009
O smonics/ Tonkaflo
1
60 Hp (45 kW ) TEFC
200 gpm (45.4 m3 / hr)
270 psig (18.6 Bar)
Pumps and M otors
150 gpm (818 m3/ day)

50 gpm (570 m3 / day)
200gpm (1090 m3/ day)
6000 lb (2720 kg)
76 (193 cm)
46 (117 cm)
274 (696 cm)
Skid
3.0 flange
3.0 flange
1.5 flange
30 psig, minimum
100 psig, oil- free
200 gpm (45.4 m3 / hr)
Installation and Utility Requirements
HX- 0740- 3.0- V- 316

RO .Zs01-40XK
40 (102 cm)
24
3 2 1
76 (193 cm)
46 (117 cm)
194 (493 cm)
2.0 flange
1.5 flange
1.0 flange
30 psig, minimum
100 psig, oil-free
67 gpm (15.2 m3/ hr)
HX-0740-3.0-V -316
RO .Zs01- 40XK
40 (102 cm)
SS8516
O smonics/ Tonkaflo
1
25HP (18.6 KW ) TEFC
75 gpm (17 m3/ hr)
240 psig (16.5 Bar)
M odel:
M anufacturer:
Q uantity:
M otor HP and type:
Design Flow Rate:
Design boost pressure:
SS12512
O smonics/ Tonkaflo
1
40 Hp (30 kW ) TEFC
150 gpm (30.2 m3/ hr)
260 psig (17.9 Bar)
BW RO -550
100 gpm (550 m3/ day)
33 gpm (180 m3/ day)
133 gpm (730 m3/ day)
BW RO - 275
50 gpm (275 m3/ day)

17 gpm (90 m3/ day)
67 gpm (365 m3/ day)
M O DEL
Permeate rate:
Concentrate Rate:
Feed Rate:
Biwater AEWT BWRO Models

BW RO- 1090
7000 lb (3175 kg)
76 (193 cm)
80 (203 cm)
194 (493 cm)
4.0 flange
3.0 flange
2.0 flange
30 psig, minimum
100 psig, oil- free
267 gpm (60.6 m3 / hr)
HX-0740-3.0-V -316
RO .Zs01- 40XK
40 (102 cm)
48
6 4 2
AS40407
O smonics/ Tonkaflo
1
60 Hp (45 kW ) TEFC
300 gpm (68.1 m3 / hr)
220 psig (15.2 Bar)
200 gpm (1090 m3/ day)

67 gpm (365 m3/ day)
267 gpm (1455 m3/ day)
BW RO -1635
9500 lb (4305 kg)
76 (193 cm)
80 (203 cm)
274 (696 cm)
4.0 flange
4.0 flange
2.0 flange
30 psig, minimum
100 psig, oil-free
400 gpm (90.9 m3/ hr)
HX-0740-3.0- V-316
RO .Zs01-40XK
40 (102 cm)
72
6 4 2
AS40409
O smonics/ Tonkaflo
1
75 Hp (56 kW ) TEFC
400 gpm (90.9 m3/ hr)
250 psig (17.2 Bar)
300gpm (1635 m3/ day)

100 gpm (545 m3/ day)
400gpm (2180 m3/ day)
BW RO -2455
14,000 lb (6350 kg)
99 (251 cm)
80 (203 cm)
274 (696 cm)
6.0 flange
4.0 flange
3.0 flange
30 psig, minimum
100 psig, oil- free
600 gpm (136.3 m3 / hr)
HX- 0740- 3.0- V- 316

RO .Zs01-40XK
40 (102 cm)
108
9 6 3
AS40409
O smonics/ Tonkaflo
2
75 Hp (56 kW ) TEFC
600 gpm (136.2 m3 / hr)
290 psig (20.0 Bar)
450 gpm (2455 m 3/ day)

150 gpm (815 m3/ day)
600 gpm (3270 m 3/ day)

i. Skid Mounted

ii. Containerised
Key Features
Container designed for overseas
transportation
Reverse osmosis configurable
process flow to meet various
water demands; two pass or two
train operability in a single system
1-micron cartridge filtration for
superior protection of reverse
osmosis elements
Two filtration vessels including
activated carbon media for free
chlorine removal
Three injection ports for chemical
addition.
Connections and Dimensions
Power
480, 60Hz/400, 50Hz, 3- ph
Single Pass Product Flow 200 gpm (45 m3/hr)
Connection Type
PVC, 150# ANSI Flange
Two Pass Product Flow
100 gpm (23 m3/hr)
Inlet
4-inch (10 cm)
Recovery
60-75%
Permeate
4-inch (10 cm)
Design Temperature
50F (10C)
Concentrate
2-inch (5 cm)
Operating Range
50-85 F (10-30C)
CIP Inlet1
4-inch (10 cm)
60 PSIG (4 bar)
Permeate CIP Outlet
3-inch (7.6 cm)
Nominal Rejection
95-99%
Concentrate CIP Outlet 2-inch (5 cm)
Trailer Length
40 ft (12.2 m)
Trailer Height
9.5 ft (2.9 m)
Trailer Width
8 ft (2.4 m)
CIP = clean-in-place system

Summary
BWRO-1090C mobile unit provides prefiltration (activated carbon) and reverse
osmosis all in one container.
The units are designed to produce water at flow rates up to 1,090 m3/day (200
GPM) in 3 single pass mode and up to 545 m3/day (100 GPM) in double pass mode.
Optional features include a plug in silica analyser and inlet pressure control valve.
211

i. Reverse Osmosis Antifoulant and Antiscalent Selection Guide
Improved performance of reverse osmosis systems with Biwater AEWTs well
formulated range of Antifoulant/Antiscalents, Cleaners, Microbiocides, and Pre and
Post Treatment Chemicals.
Note:
Application Manual and Product Data Sheets for more application detail at
www.biwater-aewt.com
All Products are manufactured with NSF certified Drinking Water additives; ANSI/NSF
Standard 60
All Products ended with letter P (Potable) have NSF certification under ANSI/NSF
Standard 60
Feed rate dosages can be fine tuned using the Hyd-RO-Dose Software
Available in 208, 114 or 57 litre plastic drums and in 23 or 19 litre plastic containers.
Product ID
Form
Components
Application
CaCO3 CaSO4 BaSO4 Metals
SrSO4
SiO2 Dispersancy
Chlorine
Oxidizer
Tolerance
SCALE-GON
100P
Liquid Phosphonate blend
Good
SCALE-GON
120P
Liquid Phosphonate blend
Poor
SCALE-GON
170P
Liquid
Key:
= Excellent
Phosphonate
Polymer blend
= Good
Excellent
= Fair
212
= Not recommended

i. Reverse Osmosis Antifoulant and Antiscalent Selection Guide
Cleaners are available in 5 and 23 litre plastic containers.
Microbiocides are available in 208, 114 or 57 litre plastic drums and in 23 or 19 litre
plastic containers.
Organic
Biwater
chelant &
AEWT Powder polyphos400
phate blend
Organic
chelant, pH
Biwater
buffer &
AEWT Powder
polyphos410
phate blend
Biwater
AEWT Powder
460
Chelates,
polyphosphate &
organic
cleaner
compound
blend
Biwater
AEWT Powder
470
Organic
chelant,
polyphosphate, pH
buffer &
surfactant
blend
Low pH: Formulated cleaner

for hardness scale & metal
deposit
Low
3.0+/-0.5
Low pH: Formulated cleaner

for hardness scale & metal
deposit
Oil & Grease
Low
3.0+/-0.5
TFC pH during
Cleaning
Application
Micro-biological
CA
Foulant
Metals
Composition Membrane Cleaning

Type
Condition
Colloidal Particles
Suspended solids
Form
Hardness Salts
Product
ID
High
10+/-0.5
High pH: Formulated cleaner

for metal fouling, suspended
solids & microbiological
foulants
Neutral
7.5+/-0.5
Neutral pH: Formulated

cleaner for metals, suspended
solids & organic foulants
Biwater
AEWT
150
Liquid
Isothiazoline
based
Microbiocide
N/A
Microbiological fouling
and control
Biwater
AEWT
160
Liquid
DBNPA
based
Microbiocide
N/A
Microbiological fouling
and control
213

ii. Reverse Osmosis Feedwater Treatment Chemicals
Biwater AEWT 330 Powder is available in custom containers including 100 and 400
pound, non-returnable fibre drums. 23 litre containers are available by special order.
Biwater AEWT 340 Liquid is available in 208, 114 or 57 litre plastic drums and in 23 or
19 litre plastic containers.
Product ID
Form
Application
Biwater AEWT 330
Powder
A powdered product designed to neutralise and remove chlorine in the feed water.
Biwater AEWT 340
Liquid
A liquid product designed to neutralise and remove chlorine in the feed water.
iv. Reverse Osmosis Post Treatment Chemicals

Available in 208, 114 or 57 litre plastic drums and in 23 or 19 litre plastic containers.
Product ID
Form
Application
Biwater AEWT 300P
Liquid
A liquid product designed to increase the alkalinity (pH adjustment)

of the permeate water.
Biwater AEWT 148P
Liquid
A liquid zinc bonded product utilised for aggressive water

to control corrosion and scale in the potable water distribution system.
Biwater AEWT 700P
Liquid
The best liquid phosphate based product utilised to control

corrosion and scale in the potable water distribution system.
Biwater AEWT 800M
Liquid
A liquid blend of stabilised phosphate and silicate utilised to

control corrosion and scale in the potable water distribution system.
Biwater AEWT 850P
Liquid
A liquid zinc bonded product utilised for highly aggressive water

to control corrosion and scale in the potable water distribution system.
214
f. Package Membrane Bio-Reactor

A Membrane Bio Reactor (MBR) is a sewage treatment plant based upon the robust
activated sludge process, where a membrane is used to separate the final effluent
from the mixed liquor.
The membrane is suspended in the mixed liquor and the product is drawn through the
membrane with either a pump or in some circumstances a siphon arrangement. The
membrane has a very small pore size of less than 0.1 microns which means that the
effluent is of an outstanding quality and typically has less than 2mg/l BOD and 1mg/l
suspended solids. For carbonaceous treatment only an MBR will achieve this consent
within 24 hours, unlike conventional works where the works has to be operational for
several days before the final effluent achieves discharge consent. The outstanding
effluent quality enables the effluent to be re-used or may permit discharge into sensitive
receiving waters.
Wastewater Treatment Membrane Bio-Reactor Package Plants

Model No
Flow (m3/d)
No. of Modules
AV. Flux l/m2/h
BI-MBR-225
225
20
BI-MBR-480
480
20
BI-MBR-960
960
20
BI-MBR-1440
1,440
20
Custom Design Larger Membrane Bio-Reactor Plants 1,500m3/day 700,000m3/day
215
Consultancy Services
Overview
CONSULTANTS
Biwater Consultants is a leading consultant to the worlds water, effluent and

desalination sectors. Our Consultancy activity develops and manages sustainable
solutions for the world in which we live. We combine our specialist skills from strategy
development, technical solution and practical field support services. Our skills are
transferable into other utilities, infrastructure and commercial sectors such as airports,
highways, rail, and solid waste. Focusing in:
Engineering Solutions & Design
Water Asset Management
Operations & Maintenance
Technical Advisory Services
Institutional Strengthening
Based in the UK, Biwater Consultants is backed by over 50 years experience in
engineering, environmental monitoring, asset survey and management. Biwater
Consultantss diverse capability brings a significant volume of work from long-term
contracts. Our long-standing clients appreciate the value added by our focused service
quality, supported by the intellectual capacity that ensures appropriate application of
resources for projects of this importance. This work is delivered through the
undertaking of a wide range of studies to solve infrastructure issues. Our engineers,
consultants and surveyors benefit from being part of a large diverse group, with
support services and a wide resource base. Our techniques have been applied to many
Biwater owned projects throughout the world, giving our engineers, consultants and
analysts a broad and practical outlook on these applications.
217
Engineering
Biwater, has a culture of creating

world class engineering innovation
and design solutions. This design
heritage has been central to the
success of our parent, Biwater
International, both in the UK and
overseas, with the benefit to our
clients of least cost highest
value in constructed and fully
functional assets.
In the UK, Biwater Consultants
originate from Engineering
Engineering innovation and design solutions
innovation and design solutions
derived from the regulatory and
efficiency driven privatised
water sector where, within partnering and alliance teams, we have devised innovative
solutions for water assets such as Eastbourne Marine Treatment Works, an
underground below sea level waste water plant, and Campbeltown Membrane
Bioreactor, the first competitively evaluated membrane wastewater plant.
Overseas, Biwater Consultants activities reflect the growing requirements of world
development banks for sustainable and robust systems, enabling the effective planning
and management of capital investment. Through this type of structured finance
strategy, Biwater has delivered Institutional Strengthening projects in Ghana and Sudan.
These projects include the Biwater Distribution Management System (BDMS) and also
use investment reporting, recommendations for institutional strengthening, as well as
the implementation of performance indicators for measurement of a Utilities quality,
customer and commercial service. Biwater Consultants are involved in developing
further projects in Sri Lanka, Rwanda, Vietnam, Libya, Mexico and Nigeria.
218
Design
Biwaters engineering design teams have provided

sustainable solutions with unique designs which are
now well proven over 50 years of specialist assistance
to our clients.
Our Project design teams are multi-disciplinary,
coming from a turnkey background with world
Specialists and skills covering:
3D design of Filter Gallery
Process
Chemistry
Mechanics
Electric and instrumentation control automation
Civil and structures
Architecture
Our Infrastructure teams specialise in environmental engineering such as:

Water and sewerage monitoring and modelling
Sustainable drainage solutions, SDS (SUDS)
Open water, river and coastal modelling
Unsatisfactory intermittent discharges - flooding
Water quality and diffuse pollution tracking (monitoring and genetic tracking)
Forestry and agronomy
Our Environmental teams specialise in:
Energy efficiency
Energy from waste
Recovery and recycling
Environmental impact assessment
Stakeholder management
219
Electrical, Instrumentation, Control and Automation (EICA)
Biwater has complete in-house EICA

capability. Our dedicated EICA
section
includes
specialist
instrumentation and control experts
who provide a complete service,
from specification, procurement and
design,
to
installation
and
commissioning. We are also able to
offer support and upgrade services
to meet the requirements of existing
installations.
With our Instrumentation, Control
and Automation (ICA) expertise, we
can also add the electrical
dimension, where our experienced electrical engineers provide the support of design,
procurement and commissioning for the electrical components, beyond the ICA
boundaries. As part of our multidisciplinary capability for design and construction of
major capital projects, this has been identified as a standalone capability for our
consultancy business.
EICA Capability
A typical Biwater Consultancy project spans from site requirements investigation,

specification, procurement and installation to commissioning. Besides delivering the
optimum solution, we expect to deliver confidence and satisfaction to our client to
allow the end user to feel confident in operating and maintaining plant throughout the
life of the installation.
220
Scientific Services
Biwater Consultants provides a
range of laboratory and scientific
services, which includes the on-site
testing and treatment facilities for
water, wastewater and sludge. We
employ qualified process scientists,
chemists and technicians who have
considerable experience in providing
client
orientated
investigative
programmes. These include the
optimisation of a new treatment
process or a treatability review of an
original source.
Biwater Laboratory Services
We have mobile and easily transportable laboratory units. Each unit is fully equipped to
enable wide ranging analysis and treatability studies to be carried out. The organic
loadings to the plant can be accurately determined, along with the flow volumes, which
helps to give improved understanding of the process. Existing processes can be
optimised by auditing the operating regime, which can lead to significant reductions in
running costs.
Heavy metal analysis can be carried out using a state of the art Atomic Absorption
Spectrophotometer (AAS). This can detect the presence of toxins such as Cadmium,
Chromium and Mercury.
The laboratory is equipped to analyse the following:
pH, alkalinity, total hardness and turbidity, Biological Oxygen Demand and Chemical
Oxygen Demand
Suspended solids, total dissolved solids, organic and volatile solids content
Moisture content and conductivity of sludges
Sodium, potassium, iron, manganese, aluminium, silica, lithium and copper
Cadmium,Chromium (Total and Hexavalent), Lead, Mercury, and other metallic elements
Calcium hardness, magnesium hardness
Carbon dioxide, ammoniacal nitrogen and kjeldahl nitrogen
Nitrates, nitrites, chlorides, sulphates, sulphides, free and total chlorine measurements
Water treatment studies, sewage treatment studies
Microbial analysis, sieve analysis, oil and grease, stirred sludge index and sludge viscosity
Pesticide analysis, yeast/mould counts and water samples to conform to
EEC regulation 80/77.
221
Regulatory Reporting
The utility sector is a highly
regulated market, in economic and
environmental terms. This places
high demands upon both Regulators
and
regulated
companies.
Regulators need to establish systems
that deliver the intended market
outcomes. The companies need to
invest heavily in systems and
processes to deliver the information
required by Regulators.
Regulatory reporting
Biwater Consultants have developed

in depth knowledge of the reporting
environment which it can use to support clients in both setting up and responding to
new regimes and in delivery of regulatory reports within existing systems.
Biwater Consultants provides:
Support to Regulators in establishing new regulatory systems
Benchmarking of regulatory systems
Advice on assessing regulatory Impacts
Support in the delivery of corporate level reports to regulators
Assessment of asset condition and performance at the company level to support
regulatory reports
Valuation of assets within the regulatory reporting process
Delivery of corporate level data cleansing, integration and analysis for provision of
company wide regulatory reports.
Advice to companies on meeting new and forthcoming regulatory reporting
requirements, such as the Water Framework Directive and the Common Framework
Approach.
Reviews of the company IT systems and data collection processes required to meet
different reporting requirements
Advice on the integration of regulatory reporting systems with business reporting
systems.
222
Clean Water Network Management
Clean water network management

uses hydraulic studies to solve water
infrastructure problems and enhance
their performance. Whilst above
ground assets are visible and hence
are able to be managed, those below
ground pose a significant challenge.
By using modern measurement
equipment, data management
systems, and software, our engineers
can assess the performance of
existing water system assets to
provide best value from investment
Clean water network management
in new or refurbished plant, pumps
or pipe-work. The assessment of
buried pipe performance is of crucial significance in the successful control of leakage
and improving service sustainability. Non-revenue water is a principal performance
indicator for system health and commercial viability, so Biwater Consultants has
developed a fully integrated asset management capability with extensive field based
resources supported by effective data systems.
Biwater Consultants use an Integrated Network Management Strategy (INMS) to
ensure that the maximum benefit is derived from any investment. By utilising a
balanced mix of strategic planning, detailed network investigation, analysis and design,
supported by our highly qualified leakage management and field technicians, we can
ensure the maximum savings are achieved. Network modelling is a powerful tool in
analysing and solving customer level of service issues, for example low pressure areas
or poor water quality problems. Models are also crucial in network investment planning
and distribution demand forecasting. By linking models to Geographic Information
Systems (GIS), customer contact databases, billing information, future development
plans and pipe failure records, a targeted and optimised investment plan can be
formulated.
223
Clean Water Network Management
As well as steady state modelling, Biwater can model surge effects in systems. This not
only allows the design of treatment works, pumps and trunk mains to be optimised, but
allows the Engineer to test drive the system and identify potential operational problems.
Biwater Consultants provide a comprehensive range of clean water network services:
Planning and implementation of water network management strategies
Asset mapping, valuation and condition survey including GIS
Analysis of consumption and revenue optimisation
Leakage control systems
Leak detection services
Network analysis (all mains and strategic model building)
Rehabilitation design
Design of pressure managed areas and audit of pressure control valves
Flow and pressure measurements, survey and equipment hire
Transmission and trunk mains hydraulic performance and surge pressure analysis
224
Wastewater Network Management
Drainage Area Planning (DAP) is the

term used to describe the study of
the complete sewerage system
within a drainage catchment. The
area plans are used to examine and
assess the water companys asset
data, including information on
hydraulic and structural condition,
records of the pollution of water
courses and any future development
within the catchment area. Biwater
Consultants, as part of its Asset
Management capability, offers water
companies and environmental
agencies consultancy services for:
Wastewater network modelling
Asset management planning (AMP)

Drainage area plans
Flooding identification, assessment and provision of cost effective solutions
Development impact assessment consultancy
Combined sewer overflow survey, assessment, cost effective design of outline and
detailed solutions
Structural assessment of sewers with cost effective solutions to identified deficiencies
Prioritisation of sewerage deficiencies in accordance with client's specification
Sewers for adoption/ sewer laterals data management
Biwater carries out work for clients taking a holistic approach using in-house capabilities
for data collection, including manhole surveys, CCTV surveys and flow surveys. We
believe this improves our understanding of the assets concerned. For example, flow
monitor sites are assessed immediately after interim data is downloaded. Logical
increase in flow downstream, along with scattergraphs, are used to consider re-siting
flow monitors. Stringent external and internal Quality Assistance is adhered to
throughout projects. Biwater believes individual catchment problems should be
optimised as part of the whole catchment with flow deficiencies and water quality
issues being considered together to produce robust solutions with least risk and lowest
overall cost.
225
Wastewater Network Management
Asset Management Planning (AMP)

Asset Management Planning can be undertaken in accordance with clients or
regulating body requirements to assist in future financial planning whilst providing a
comprehensive data register of assets and their condition.
Developer Impact Assessment
Catchment capacity for new development can be assessed utilising local council
development plans, historical discharge values and hydraulic modelling of the
catchment. These models can be used to examine the adequacy of the sewer network
to cope with dry weather flow and surcharge from adjacent areas during times of
extreme weather conditions.
Biwater assess combined sewer overflows quickly for existing performance in terms of
frequency of spill, annual spill volume, actual setting, impact on the water course
depending on its size and aesthetic problems.
Options for improvements to CSO's (Combined Sewer Overflows) can be produced
with costed solutions and detailed designs, whether required for aesthetic or pollution
problems.
Structural Assessment and Planning of Rehabilitation
Structural assessment and rehabilitation is normally initiated by CCTV survey, however
it can be in response to an individual complaint such as a collapse or persistent
blockage. CCTV surveys are carried out on critical sewers with appropriately detailed
plans being issued to the clients contractor or Biwater CCTV team. Careful checking
and quality control are essential at this stage. CCTV reports are considered in
appropriate detail depending on the clients requirements. Sewers are then classified by
sewer criticality and structural performance grade. Depending on the clients priorities
rehabilitation is then designed and costed.
Prioritisation of Sewerage Deficiencies
Prioritisation of sewerage deficiencies is normally carried out for drainage area planning
or Asset Management Planning (AMP) to enable financial planning or a programme of
works to be drawn up.
226
Industrial Services
With ever stringent environmental

legislation being imposed on
companies today, Biwater are ideally
equipped to solve our customers
environmental issues. Water and
wastewater management is critical
to all companies, no more so than
those within the industrial sector.
With over 50 years experience in
water and wastewater management,
Biwater can provide innovative, cost
effective and reliable solutions to all
water and environmental problems.
Environmental losses at airports
With a full range of design and installation services under one roof, Biwater activities
already include:
Specialist treatment
Abstraction and discharge control
Abstraction and discharge analysis
Data verification and asset survey
Field measurement and investigation
Process evaluation and optimisation
Environmental impact studies
Management of leakage
Asset survey and GIS, clean water and wastewater network management, engineering,
EICA and scientific services activities currently offered to water companies, are all
offered to industrial and commercial clients. Each project draws on the key skills within
Biwaters multidisciplinary teams to ensure that a cost effective, quality solution is
delivered, from one day leakage control exercises to the design and commissioning of
process solutions.
Biwater clients outside the water industry already include local, national and
international commercial organisations and government agencies. Diverse sectors such
as railways, airports, highways, ports, bus/train operators, non-water utility companies,
blue chip companies and supermarket chains have formed part of our extended client
listing.
227
Asset Survey and Geographic Information Systems
Asset Management, UK
The basis of any good investment decision is good information. Without good
information on the location and condition of assets, the targeting of investment
becomes riskier and less effective. Biwater Consultants have developed an integrated
approach to the collection and management of data that has repeatedly demonstrated
long term cost savings.
We offer a wide range of Asset & Data Management, such as:
Assessment of internal and external stakeholder needs to develop integrated data
strategies
Development of Company wide Data Management Strategies, covering all business
systems Asset Registers, GIS, Works Management, Finance and Customer
Relationship Management
Support to companies in the design and roll-out of new IT system functionality
Support to companies in the design and delivery of new business processes
Design and management of corporate level data improvement programmes
Corporate level data migration and integration
Corporate level data cleansing
228
Asset Survey and Geographic Information Systems
Management and delivery of company wide asset data collection programmes

Management and delivery of company wide data input and update programmes
Benefits Management. Quantification and reporting on the business benefits of data
improvement for internal and external stakeholders
PRINCE 2 accreditation for Project Management
Collection of the data is only the first stage. The information from site is combined with
existing datasets, drawings, paper records and numerous other sources to give as
complete a picture as is possible. All data sources are cleansed to ensure inaccurate
information is not used and each asset is given a confidence grade. A confidence grade
allows an organisation to assess the quality and reliability of the data and weight their
decisions towards the more reliable information. To ensure that the maximum use can
be obtained from the information, a data flow map is used. This identifies the
stakeholders who need access to the information and their needs. A data model is
developed ensuring that all business needs are evaluated, striking the fine balance
between too little information to be useful and too much information incurring
excessive cost to collect.
Biwater utilise powerful spatial analysis tools and Geographical Information Systems
(GIS) to process and display the information.
Data Management has its own range of skills. Modern asset management practices
generate vast quantities of data. Management of this data can be a major
consideration requiring in-house software development for databases and data
processing applications, which must be backed up by procedures to ensure adherence
and audit tracing. This leads to more standardisation to allow data to be cleansed,
better organisation to keep up with system maintenance issues, and optimisation
leading to new methods of working to reduce operational costs and improve reporting
systems.
Extending this philosophy of integration, linking GPS location surveys with in-vehicle
GIS record systems which transfer information bi-directionally with office based
reporting systems, has resulted in Biwater recently receiving an Innovation Award.
229
Asset Location & Mapping Services
Biwater undertakes above and below

ground utility location and mapping to
suit client requirements. We employ
the techniques of Radiodetection and
ground penetrating radar to locate
below ground utilities. Once located,
underground asset locations are
marked on the surface. These points
are surveyed using GPS or total station
allowing efficient transfer into
AutoCAD for further processing.
Located above ground assets can then
be inspected and all data recorded
electronically.
GPS location surveys
This data is stored in a database for easy management and client handover upon
completion.
Methods of Location
Radiodetection: Biwater Consultants use the latest technology to detect buried assets.
Both active and passive methods are used to ensure all possible detectable services are
located. Radiodetection uses the principles of electromagnetics to detect underground
utilities. This principle works on the basis that a current flowing along a conductor
creates a magnetic field which extends around the conductor. A receiver coil can be
used to detect the amplitude of this magnetic field.
Ground Penetrating Radar: Radiodetection techniques are unable to detect nonmetallic buried services including plastic water and gas pipes and clay drainage pipes.
To overcome this, the use of Radiodetection and Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) is
often combined. GPR is able to detect non metallic as well as metallic pipes. It will also
give an indication of the location and depth of buried services but will not identify
them.
There is a growing interest in and need for asset management worldwide, and Biwater
Consultants is uniquely placed to assist in meeting the challenges involved. We have
experience in and understanding of preparing asset management plans, and our staff
are fully trained and equipped for undertaking asset surveys.
230
a. References
Client:
Project Value:
Project Type:
Key Features:
Key Points:
Project Includes:
Thames Water Utilities

6,000,000 per year
Leakage Management & Detection
Reducing Leakage; Working for Thames Water in North West London
providing of high volume leakage detection resource with
management structure and admin team for workflow process.
Provision of specialist technicians working on DMA validation work,
water balance and trunk main leakage.
Management and implementation of Zetacorr rollout through North
West London
Provision of a teams working to detect leaks on the clean water
network. This involves working closely with the clients Zonal
Management team, performance management and reporting as well
as being an integral part of the work flow process.
Provision of validation teams. Proving and investigating DMA
integrity for clients Zonal Management team.
Provision of validation teams for DMA proving for Victorian Mains
Replacement programme. Working for the clients Engineering Services
department, undertaking DMA nightline proving works.
Provision of NSTs: Providing experienced technicians to work on gang
assist, customer contacts and emergency call outs.
Provision of teams working on Trunk Main Leakage: Teams
undertaking trunk main leakage detection, working for the clients
Trunk Main Leakage team.
Provision of teams undertaking Water Balance work: Teams flow
monitoring work on the trunk main system working for the clients
Water Balance team.
Night Time Leakage Detection: Working in two man teams, leakage
detection is undertaken in DMAs identified as having high nightlines
by Thames water Zonal Management team.
ZetaCorr Programme: Managing and undertaking work at all stages of
the ZetaCorr process. This includes planning work, logger deployment
and retrieval, data analysis, and follow-up detection work. Leaks
detected are created on the job promotion system by Biwater admin
staff. All processes are quality managed by Biwater to conform to
Thames Water KPIs.
DMA proving: Validating DMAs, planning work, undertaking risk
assessments ZPTs, valve checks, dry shuts. Meter validation confirming
direction of flow and accuracy of meters.
Water Balance & Trunk Main Leakage. Undertaking flow monitoring
and validation work to localise and detect leaks on trunk mains.
231
a. References
Client:
Project Value:
Project Type:
Scottish Water Solutions

6,000,000 per year
INMS Framework for(Leak Detection Management; Programme
Management & Design; Catchment planning
Key Features:
Programme management and design for Capital Investment
programme for non-infrastructure new build.
Drainage Impact Assessments for Catchment Planning, utilizing field
and technical resources for solution development.
Leak detection management in selected areas of Edinburgh,
Glasgow and Forth Valley utilising 2- and 1-man teams with full
range of detection aids.
INMS framework for distribution management design and
implementation.
Up to 60 staff for data management/modelling/ technical support
and leak detection (2 teams +support).
50% of the bonus was based on achieving the target leakage
reduction of 20Ml/d, 25% on DMA compliance and 25% on
pressure management targets achieved.Up to 60 staff for data
management/modelling/ technical support and leak detection
(2 teams + support).
Network models for Greenock/ North Paisley/ Edinburgh etc.
Design of DMAs in Glasgow Forth Valley and Edinburgh etc.
Key Points:
Network Analysis modelling
DMA establishment from initial site investigation for data
cleansing of records to DMA design
Project Management of meter installations
Set up and monitor new DMAs
Calibration of results
Preparation of rehabilitation packs for handover to contractors
Project Includes: Find and fix trials
Step testing
Zero pressure tests
Sounding of all fittings
Accurate leak location using correlators and noise loggers
Providing information for updating Clients records
Using in-house software to provide management with
information on performance of teams
232
b. Optimisation
Introduction
The management and optimisation of assets has become a key area in the development of
the water and sewerage sector worldwide. Development Banks, Governments, and
Municipal Utilities are recognising the importance of optimising existing systems to maximise
the benefits of production and treatment-related capital investment. Biwater Consultants is
able to offer all the related consultancy services, and with a practical edge; the ability to
implement recommended works differentiates Biwater from typical consultants, and is a key
benefit that we can offer to Clients. This is achieved by drawing upon both the operational
experience gained through the ownership and/or operation of a number of utilities
worldwide, and also from past and current stand-alone optimisation projects undertaken for
water and sewerage utilities. Given its worldwide presence, we ensure that each project is
developed to suit the local conditions, understanding that a one size fits all approach does
not suit regional differences. Biwater promotes a total approach, recognising that, for
example, in systems with insufficient water, reducing leakage must be linked to ensure that
the commercial system can register and invoice the associated increase in consumption, and
the long-term utility demand investment planning takes into account the reduced leakage
level and increased revenue. For clarity, however, the available services are generally divided
into three main areas: Commercial, Technical, and Administrative, which are described below.
Commercial
Management and operation of billing and customer information systems
Tariff design
Census of users/connections
Customer database updating and design
Linking of customer database to supply system districts
Analysis and review of existing billing systems
Design, installation and commissioning of billing systems
Analysis and review of existing customer information systems
Design, installation and commissioning of customer information systems
Analysis and review of existing customer meters
Installation of customer meters
Customer meter reading, route design and billing
Biwater focus on the importance of utilities operating current and correct customer
information and billing systems. Customers who are served to a high standard are more
willing to pay, and correct invoicing maximises the revenue to the utility. With poor service
and incorrect invoicing, utilities can find themselves within a failure spiral. They would suffer
high incidences of non-payment, leading to reduced investment, leading to deteriorating
levels of service, higher levels of non-payment, etc. which has an obvious effect on the ability
of the utility to undertake any necessary investment with which to improve levels of service.
233
b. Optimisation
Biwater Consultants has the experience and ability to undertake all works relating to the
commercial section of a utility, from executing customer censuses in order to update utility
customer information and billing systems, through the analysis of existing systems to the design,
installation, and commissioning of new customer information and billing systems, and ultimately
to the actual administration of such systems. Further, we can design and execute meter reading
routes, carry out meter reading and invoicing of customers, and recommend and install suitable
types of customer meters. Accurate customer meters and meter reading are critical to the revenue
of a utility, and Biwater can ensure that the investment in this area realises its maximum benefits.
Technical
Management & operation of water supply systems
Water audits (IWA)
Design, installation and commissioning of water supply system districts/zones
Design & implementation of active leakage control policies and leakage management
Level of leakage calculations (WRC/BABE)
Leakage detection
Leakage repair
Network modeling and analysis (water, sewer storm and sanitary, water quality, pond,
hydrology, water hammer)
Asset management planning
GPS network surveys
Analysis and review of existing GIS
Design, installation and commissioning of GIS
Analysis and review of existing SCADA systems
Design, installation and commissioning of SCADA systems
Biwater promotes the execution of water audits based on the IWA methodology. This allows any
utility to gain a measure of comparison with other utilities, both regionally and on a worldwide
scale, and quickly indicates the key areas that can be optimised. Further, such water audits give
a comparison of actual leakage levels to unavoidable levels. Leakage levels drive demand-related
investment. If the levels can be reduced, investment can be delayed, invariably resulting in
financial savings for a utility. The basis of accurate and effective leakage control is the existence
of discrete hydraulic districts within a water supply system. Biwater therefore promotes the zoning
of systems and can undertake the design, installation and commissioning of such zones, as well
as the subsequent related leakage management and the design and implementation of active
leakage control polices, including the calculation and monitoring of leakage levels using WRC
(Water Research Commission) and BABE (Burst And Background Estimate) methodologies.
Biwater can also undertake the associated leakage detection and repair, with services ranging
from the supply of equipment and key personnel to train utility personnel, to the supply of full
leakage detection and leakage repair teams.
234
b. Optimisation
As a further aid to operational control, Biwater can provide the following services: GPS
network surveys to confirm asset location, system modeling of both water and
sewerage systems and the updating and/or design, installation and commissioning of
GIS.
Biwater can also provide systems which link the system model and GIS (Geographic
information Systems), to give total graphical control of any system, as well as the
design, installation and commissioning of SCADA systems to give remote, supervisory
control of key system elements.
Asset management planning is another key area in the administration of utilities. The
knowledge of current asset data, including value and planned date of
replacement/rehabilitation is critical to the effective operation of a system, be it water
or sewerage. Biwater can produce asset management planning reports for utilities for
any determined planning horizon, utilising many of the previously described activities
to produce the necessary standard of source data to allow accurate analysis,
forecasting, and control.
Administrative
The following services are available for the administrative areas of utilities:
Management & operation of water & sewerage utilities
Business planning for utilities
Analysis & review of management & control structures
Institutional strengthening
Advances in the commercial and technical areas of utilities must be properly monitored
and controlled. Biwater is able to advise utilities on short, medium, and long-term
business planning, taking into account all commercial, technical, and administrative
aspects of the utility to ensure long-term viability of the water supply and sewerage
services.
Optimum management and control structures allow the free flow and easy access of
key data. Biwater provides services to undertake the analysis of existing structures, to
identify critical points within them, and to help a utility in the implementation of
necessary changes. This can be achieved by acting in a management consultant role,
and/or by providing key members of staff to the utility for a period of time to train local
staff, hence ensuring the continuation of robust managerial and operational control.
235
b. Optimisation
i. Panama City, Panama
Key Features:
Supply & installation of a
Graphical Information System
(GIS)
Installation of 110,000 metres of
supply pipeline
Supply & installation of 196,000
micro & macro meters
Census of 250,000 customers
Detection and repair of over
3,500 network leaks
Design of hydraulic zones across
the Clients entire distribution
network.
Panama Canal
Panama City is home to nearly half of the country's 2.9 million people and like other
cities that have experienced rapid population growth, providing its citizens with access
to clean water is a major problem.
Biwater International, was awarded the two year contract in July 2003 by the Instituto
de Acueductos y Alcantarillados Nacionales, (IDAAN), to provide optimisation of the
distribution network via management and consultancy services, including survey and
digital mapping of Panama City, Colon, Arraijan and La Chorrera.
The network modelling of the IDAAN distribution network and the subsequent
identification of network inefficiencies will provide the Client with tangible efficiencies.
This coupled with installation of new mains and meters, a new commercial system,
location of illegal connections and training to staff to provide fast, effective leak
detection and repair will have a significant impact.
Biwaters expertise is providing IDAAN with an optimised solution to their network
requirements, providing a manageable, effective network with improved access to
water for more people.
236
b. Optimisation
i. Panama City, Panama
The Panama City project involves:

The design, supply, installation and commissioning of; Management information and
commercial system and a Graphical Information System (GIS)
Census of all 250,000 clients/connections within the companys supply area
A Cadastral survey of the network including consumer connections using real-time
GPS equipment
The supply and installation of 106,000 micro-meters including the installation and/or
relocation of the communication pipes
The supply and installation of 90 macro-meters
The design, construction and calibration of a hydraulic model of the network,
including the subsequent design of hydraulic zones
The installation and commissioning of the hydraulic zones, including the supply and
installation of all necessary boundary valves
The detection and repair of 3,515 (non-visible) leaks
Panama: Summary
Location:
Client:
Project Duration:
Scope of Works:
Work Types:
Panama City, Colon, Arraijan & La Chorrera

Instituto de Acueductos y Alcantarillados Nacionales
(IDAAN)
24 months
Survey and digital mapping of Panama City, Colon,
Arraijan and La Chorrera
Census
Macrometering
Micrometering
Cadastral survey
Hydraulic modeling
237
b. Optimisation
ii. Tamale, Ghana
Key Features:
Supply & installation of a
Graphical Information System
(GIS)
Construction of a Strategic
Network Model
Design & Installation of 96,400
metres of distribution pipeline
Development of a hydraulic
structure for the Clients entire
distribution network
Design & Implementation of
District Metered Areas (DMA)
Detection and repair of leaks
Customer Categorisation and Per
Capita Consumption Study
Client training and customer
education
The White Volta river, Tamale
The water supply for Tamale and the surrounding region is abstracted from the White
Volta River. Water is treated at an existing 20 Mld water treatment plant before being
pumped along a 450mm main to the treated water storage compound. The Tamale
distribution system currently suffers from an acute shortage of water. Rationing is in
effect, with areas receiving water for two to two and a half days per week.
The Biwater project upgraded the intake works, added 25 Mld to the water treatment
plant and a new 700mm transmission pipe to a new service reservoir, which will feed
the town by gravity. The project will also strengthen and extend the distribution system
with 94km of pipe.
Alongside the construction project, Biwater Consultants implemented an Integrated
Network Management System (INMS) which enabled the reduction in non revenue
water. Additionally, this approach facilitates targeted programmed investment,
maximising the return on capital investment in the distribution network. The
programme was undertaken in three phases.
238
b. Optimisation
ii. Tamale, Ghana
The Tamale project involves:

Phase 1 involved the collection of information and the development of strategic
network models and a GIS system to prioritise the investment in the network.
Phase 2 involved the design of District Meter Areas (DMAs), rationalising the
hydraulic structure, outlined the design of distribution enhancements and extensions,
leakage detection, control and repair. At the end of Phase 2, a zone asset plan was
produced giving investment recommendations for distribution pipe repair,
refurbishment and replacement.
Phase 3 of the project implemented the key projects identified in Phase 1 and 2.
Ghana: Summary
Location:
Client:
Project Duration:
Scope of Works:
Work Types:
Tamale, Ghana
Biwater Contracting BV
24 months
Development of a water distribution management
strategy
Geographical Information System (GIS)
Hydraulic modelling
Non revenue water (NRW)
District metering areas (DMA)
Leakage surveying
PCC and customer categorisation
239
Infrastructure Ownership,
Investment & Operation
Infrastructure Ownership, Investment & Operation

Summary
Biwater is a specialist investor and operator of water and wastewater systems.

Biwater continues to build and develop upon its global reputation for service,
innovation and environmental responsibility for which Biwater had become known.
Whether it is the operation and development of existing utilities or the creation of new
facilities, Biwater provides efficiency, performance and customer satisfaction.
Biwater is committed to constantly improving service standards to its customers and
focuses on:
Operational efficiency
Investment
Customer services
Training
Biwater seeks to hold water company assets, invest in and operate water and
wastewater facilities worldwide. The company has experience of owning water
companies in twelve countries across four continents where its mission is to deliver high
quality water services.
Key Facts:
Biwater provided water services to over three and a half million people in seven
countries;
Has water and wastewater experience in:
Concessions
BOOT Projects
Lease and Management contracts
Has ISO registered companies
Operates in four continents across culturally diverse regions of the world
241

a. Bournemouth & West Hampshire Water, UK
Key Features:
ISO 9001, 14001 and OHSAS

18001 accredited
194,000 connections
130 million investment

Bournemouth and District Water
Company and the West Hampshire
Water Company were purchased by
Biwater during the privatisation of the
water industry in England and Wales in
the late eighties. The two companies
were amalgamated in 1994 to form
Bournemouth & West Hampshire Water Plc (BWHW). BWHW supplies a population of
430,000 through 194,000 connections. Supply covers an area of just over a 1,000
square kilometres and delivers up to 250 Mld of water, through nearly 3,000 kilometres
of underground pipes. Since 1989 the company has invested 130 million in capital
projects which has been aimed at maintaining the serviceability of existing assets,
meeting needs for growing demand, improving the service and quality of drinking
water to keep pace with increasing standards set by the Government.
The Company is regulated by the following bodies;
Water Services Regulation Authority (OFWAT), for prices and standards of service
The Environment Agency (EA), for the water environment
The Drinking Water Inspectorate (DWI), monitors and enforces compliance with
statutory drinking water standards
Water is abstracted from a range of surface and groundwater resources, which provide
flexibility to cope with the large seasonal flow variations. BWHW is also proud to state
that it has never restricted supplies to its customers.
The implementation of a Geographic Information System (GIS) for its entire service area
has proved invaluable in asset management and in improving overall operational
efficiency. Job management, customer records and digital maps are available to all field
staff in their vehicles to maximise efficiency even through droughts.
242

a. Bournemouth & West Hampshire Water, UK
BWHW has one of the lowest unit operating costs in the water industry in England and
Wales due to a low rate of leakage and a 99.9 percent water quality compliance level.
BWHW has OHSAS 18001 health and safety certification, ISO 9001 quality assurance
and ISO 14001 environmental management accreditation for all its activities. It is one
of very few UK Water Companies to have earned the Governments Charter Mark for
excellence in public services and also provides home emergency insurance services,
plumbing, printing, fishing and mooring facilities.
Demand for Water - The company actively promotes sustainability and water efficiency in
its own operations and by its customers. The area served has a very high summer peak
caused by garden irrigation and an influx of tourists to its popular seaside resorts. Demand
management is a key issue and the company has an active metering programme.
Project Management - The company is a vertically integrated public water supplier
organised on functional lines. Capital expenditure is managed by an in-house team of
project engineers. Day to day operational functions are managed internally utilising
both direct staff and contract staff working in partnership. Each five years the company
produces a long term business plan which is reviewed by the Regulators to set the
investment plan and price limits for the following five year price review Asset
Management Plan (AMP) period.
Revenue Collection - Metered customers are billed six months in arrears and
unmetered customers are billed in advance. The Company offers a variety of easy-pay
options and assistance to those customers who have difficulty in paying, including a
monthly budget plan. Despite not being able to disconnect domestic customers for
non-payment by law, the collection rate is high. The Company operates a fully
integrated billing and collections software system.
Summary
Location:
Client:
Project Type:
Project Duration:
Regulator:
Population Served:
Production Capacity:
Southern England - owned by Biwater 1993 - 2010

The Secretary of State for the Environment, Food and
Rural Affairs (DEFRA)
Privatisation (Water)
In perpetuity
OFWAT, EA and DWI
430,000
Up to 250 Mld
243

b. The China Water Company
Baimei Reservoir, the water source for the Fuzhou Concession
Key Features:
Southeast of China
30 year water concession
Located in the southeast of China on the straits of Taiwan, Fuzhou City is the Capital
of the Fujian Province. Fuzhou has a population of 6.6 million, of which 2.43 million
live in the urban area. Fuzhou Economic and Technical Development Zone (ETDZ) is
located 10 kilometres east of Fuzhou city and was established in 1985. This zone was
one of the first of 14 ETDZs in the coastal areas of China. To date the total foreign
investment within the ETDZ is US$4.7 billion including industries such as electronics,
biochemical, pharmaceutical, mechanical, textile and food processing.
244

b. The China Water Company
In 2003, CJV (Fuzhou CWC) was establish between The China Water Company (CWC)
and ETDZ Water Company to develop and operate the water treatment facilities which
supply water to the ETDZ including industry and 150,000 domestic users. The facilities
consist of two plants with a combined capacity of 125 Mld and 93 kilometres of
distribution network, which is mainly gravity fed. Raw water can be obtained from two
sources. Normally the plants draw water from the Baimei reservoir, which is located 12
kilometres from the plant and has a storage capacity of 15 million cubic meters. In the
event of drought, water can be drawn via a pumping station from the Ming River which
is adjacent to the treatment plant.
The treatment plants consist of:
Mixing and flocculation using ploy aluminium chloride
Clarification with travelling bridge sludge collectors
Filtration
Chemical dosing
Clean Water Storage
Fuzhou CWC has successfully adopted an ISO 9001 quality management system to
construct and operate the plant. Since operation commenced under Fuzhou CWC, the
company has benefited from a number of changes that have been implemented,
including:
Technical support automatic monitoring and control of the water plant and network
Implementation of advanced management policies and procedures
Training initiatives
Improvement of the health & safety environment by introducing enhanced safety
measures
Emergency response plan which has proved invaluable during typhoons
Summary
Location:
Project Duration:
Population Served:
Southeast China
30 years - owned by Biwater until 2010
150,000
125 Mld
245

c. Subic Water, Philippines
Clarifiers at Subic Bay, Philippines
Key Features:
Population served 220,000 (varies with tourist arrivals)
The first privatised water and sewerage system in the Philippines
Biwater arranged non-recourse project finance - the first for a project in the
Philippines
New billing system implemented
This pioneering project for the privatisation of both the water supply and sewerage
services for Subic Bay Freeport and Olongapo City in the Philippines was won by
Biwater and its local joint venture partner. A local joint venture company, Subic Water
& Sewerage Company Inc. (Subicwater), was established together with the Subic Bay
Metropolitan Authority (SBMA) and the Olongapo City Government to undertake the
project by means of a thirty year concession contract.
Subicwater took over the operation and maintenance of the existing assets and is
undertaking extensive refurbishment work, upgrading treatment works, pipework
rehabilitation and the extension of water distribution and sewerage networks.
Subicwater arranged non-recourse project finance - the first for any project in the
Philippines. No government guarantees were required. The commercial efficiency of the
246

c. Subic Water, Philippines
water supply and treatment operations has improved considerably and reduction of
unaccounted for water (leakage) has been a top priority. All existing Filipino employees
were retained by the new company. Links between private and public sector agencies
have been strengthened as a result of the concession.
Subic Bay Freeport and Olongapo City are located approximately 100 kilometres
northwest of Metro Manila. The Freeport is the site of a former US naval base. Growth
in demand for water from an increasing population and industrial development has
created a need for investment in new infrastructure.
Subicwater was the first privatised water and sewerage system in the Philippines, and
is paving the way for environmental and ecological benefits in this extraordinarily
beautiful part of the world. Subicwater took over the operation and maintenance of the
existing assets serving these areas and is investing in new installations and the
refurbishment of existing facilities. Emphasis was placed on operational efficiency. A
high priority was given to standards of customer service and the installation of a
modern billing system. Subicwater worked on building its core values and increasing the
competencies of its staff. Subicwater was also successful in becoming an ISO certified
water company. Subicwater has obtained ISO 9001:2000 for product/service quality,
environmentally friendly ISO 14001:2000 and health and safety OHSAS 18001:1999.
SBMA appointed an independent Regulatory Board to monitor the quality of service
and oversee the prioritisation of capital expenditure. Subicwater improved the
treatment and disposal of effluent through a two-phase programme. Initially, low-tech
solutions were introduced, a second phase introduced an advanced wastewater
treatment system followed by the expansion of the sewerage network.
At the end of the concession period ownership of an improved, efficient, and
well-maintained water supply and treatment facility will revert to SBMA and
Olongapo City.
Summary
Location:
Client:
Project Type:
Project Duration:
Regulator:
Population Served:
Subic Bay, Philippines - Biwater owned 1997 - 2010

Subic Bay Metropolitan Authority, Olongapo
City Government
Concession (Water and Sewage)
30 years extendible for a further 25 years
Subic Bay Metropolitan Authority
220,000 (varies with tourist arrivals)
66 Mld
247

d. Adhya Tirta Batam, Indonesia
Key Features:
Non-Revenue Water has been

reduced from 49% to 30%
196 kilometres of new main have

been laid
Batam Island has enjoyed exceptionally
high investment and growth ever since
it
was
designated
a
special
development zone by the Indonesian
Government. This created a population
explosion
from
being
virtually
uninhabited twenty years ago to over
700,000 today.
Batam Island, Indonesia
The Batam Industrial Development Authority (BIDA) introduced the private sector to
assist with the development of infrastructure facilities to match the growth in
development. This not only brought in international expertise but also prevented a debt
burden on the Government of Indonesia through the use of Private Finance. BIDA
awarded Biwater and its local joint venture partner, Bangun Cipta Kontraktor (BCK) and
Syabata Cemerlang, a 25 year concession contract in 1995 to operate, manage and
develop the water facilities on the island. The partners set up a local company, Adhya
Tirta Batam (ATB), to fulfil its concession obligations. Cascal and BCK acquired Syabata
Cemerlang shareholding in November 2002 and now equally own ATB.
ATB serves a population of over 700,000 people through 120,000 metered
connections. Meter audit and leakage teams ensure that ATB maintains meters in a
functional, accurate and secure manner. Over the first ten years of operation ATB
reduced leakage from 49% to 27%. Further investment is being implemented to
reduce non-revenue water to twenty-five percent, and even lower, over the remainder
of the concession period. Specialist training to local staff at ATB formed part of the
initial technology training. ATB is responsible for operational activities from raw water
extraction, treatment, distribution, and customer services such as billing and collection
during the concession period. Capital investment also forms an important part of ATBs
responsibility. The client, BIDA, is benefiting from high investments by ATB, and
receives payments for raw water abstraction, asset rental and a 15% royalty on
declared dividends.
248

d. Adhya Tirta Batam, Indonesia
The water supply on Batam Island comprises seven water treatment plants, two of
which ATB has been constructed since taking over the concession. Production capacity
has increased from 850 litres per second to 2,085 litres per second through both the
construction and refurbishment of existing water treatment plants. The new treatment
plant in Duriankang will be expanded in stages to cope with the increasing demand for
water. Already producing one thousand litres per second, the plant is designed to
accommodate up to three thousand litres per second in the future. Construction of new
transmission mains, pumping stations and storage reservoirs will allow for upgrades as
required. Over the first ten years of the concession contract, 350 kilometres of new
water mains were installed.
Asset management planning techniques have enabled targeted investment in the water
supply network. Through the use of network modelling, data logged district metered
zones and detailed consumption analysis and forecasting, non revenue water is
controlled and the spectacular expansion has been efficiently managed. Despite the
enormous increase in production volumes, excellent water quality is maintained by
continuous sampling of the treatment plants and distribution system. In total, the
companys central laboratory analyses over 3,300 samples per month. ATB is
continuously striving to improve customer service. The year 2002 saw the opening of
a new customer service centre located in Batam centre. ATB has also developed a
unique bill payment service for its customers, expanding the number of payment points
to include branches of local banks. In 2004 ATB introduced their Water Kiosk scheme
to provide drinking water to small communities consisting of very poor families. ATB
provides bulk water to the water kiosk and then the families manage the distribution
for themselves at a very small charge.
Summary
Location:
Client:
Project Type:
Project Duration:
Population Served:
Batam Island, Indonesia - Biwater owned 1995 - 2010

Batam Industrial Development Authority (BIDA)
Concession (Water)
25 years
700,000
134 Mld
249

e. Silulumanzi, South Africa
Kingstonvale sewage treatment works, South Africa
Key Features:
Losses reduced by 6 Mld
91 kilometres of new main have been layed
1250 temporary jobs created
In 1996, Nelspruit Town Council took the decision to involve the private sector in
service delivery. This was taken just after the New Council came into power with a
revised demarcation, which at that time increased the area of jurisdiction from 36,000
to 335,000 people. Biwater focused the concession on improving and expanding
service delivery in the townships. In the first two years of operation ninety-one
kilometres of new water mains were laid as well as eighteen kilometres of sewers. At
the same time thousands of unregistered connections were found and many household
and mains leaks repaired. This has substantially reduced wastage and losses and the
savings have enabled delivery of service to other areas not previously supplied. Over six
mega litres of water per day have been saved to date; over 8,000 broken meters have
been replaced and a further 15,000 new meters have been installed to provide new
house connections and formalise existing unauthorised supplies.
250

e. Silulumanzi, South Africa
A new six million litre per day Sewage Treatment Works has been built in Matsulu
replacing the old pond at a cost of R8.3 million and the existing Sewage Treatment Works
at Kanyamazane has been refurbished at a cost of R3.3 million. The water supply to Matsulu
West has been changed from a chlorinated river supply to a fully treated potable supply.
The Concession has created permanent jobs, employee numbers rising from 158 at the
start to 250 today. The capital works has also created around 1,250 temporary jobs.
Local offices have been established throughout the concession area to provide easy
access for customers to pay their bills, raise queries, deal with complaints and report
leaks. A training centre has been established that runs in-house courses to raise basic
skills and also provides training for the community in Computer Literacy, Business Skills
development and Water Care.
Water Supplied/Demand
During the first two years of the concession the total water supplied into distribution
fell from 66 Mld to 60 Mld, despite an increase of over 30% of customers supplied.
This was achieved by reducing non-revenue water in Nelspruit and the surrounding
townships by a faster response in repairing reported leaks, by fixing leaks on customers
property and by tackling unregistered connections.
Revenue Collection
Revenue collection in Nelspruit town continues to be excellent. In both the townships
and rural areas revenue collection was a major problem but is now steadily improving
following service level improvements.
Traditional political protests involved non-payment of water bills and a change in
culture was required under the new democratic regime. Teams of specially trained staff,
called facilitators have worked intensively in the villages and townships educating,
discussing and encouraging the regular payment of water and sewage bills. Using a
variety of new and imaginative methods, ranging from formal meetings with elected
representatives, to street theatre and sports sponsorship, the message of paying
regularly is being accepted and payment rates are steadily increasing.
Summary
Location:
Client:
Project Type:
Project Duration:
Population Served:
Nelspruit, South Africa - Biwater owned 1996 - 2010

Mbombela Local Council
Concession (Water and Wastewater)
30 years
335,000
112 Mld
251
Biwater Export Finance
Biwater Export Finance

Biwater can arrange competitive export finance for public and private sector clients
worldwide.
Flexible Finance for Smaller Contracts
Minimum contract value $250,000 (equivalent). This could comprise of a number of
small package plants of lesser unit value
Finance available for up to 85% of the contract value
Finance can be in domestic currency or a number of international currencies
depending upon the buyers and suppliers preferences and availability
Finance term between 2 and 5 years
Interest rates may be charged at fixed or floating rates
Simple loan documentation
Equipment supply, infrastructure and funding
Biwater international operations enable it to arrange finance for both small package
plants and equipment and major infrastructure in the water and wastewater sector.
Currently Biwater can supply equipment and arrange finance from the United Kingdom,
United States of America, China, The Netherlands, South Africa and Malaysia. Selection
is based on customer preference and the most competitive cost of finance
Finance terms for major infrastructure can extend up to 15 years following
commissioning of the facilities
A Complete Biwater Package includes:
Biwater have financed contracts in excess of $1 billion, so no project is too large
Plant and equipment to the specification of the purchaser
Detailed specifications and drawings for the civil works for the plant
Operator training and operations and maintenance manuals for the plant, or will
undertake the routine maintenance for the purchaser
Arrange the funding for the purchase of the plant
Loan repayment table
Quarterly loan repayment/$100,000 (Equivalent)
Interest rate (%/year)
Loan period
(Years)
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
10.0
25,786.10
25,944.48
26,103.24
26,262.38
26,421.89
26,581.79
13,213.31
13,358.40
13,504.29
13,650.98
13,798.46
13,946.73
9,025.83
9,168.00
9,311.38
9,455.96
9,601.74
9,748.71
6,934.67
7,076.51
7,219.96
7,365.01
7,511.66
7,659.90
5,682.04
5,524.57
5,969.12
6,115.67
6,264.21
6,414.70
253
Glossary
Glossary
Aerobic
Presence of oxygen
Anaerobic
Absence of oxygen
Aquifer
Water bearing strata
Archimedean screw
Type of inclined open spiral pump
American depository receipts
Foreign stocks issued in the United States

which are held in trust by a bank which avoid
regulatory requirements of the Securities &
Exchange Commission
Bilateral
Relationship between two parties
Biofiltration
Biological treatment by passing liquid through

a filter
Biological scrubbing
Odour removal through a biologically

active system
Biological system
A process utilising biological activity
Biosolids
Biological solids produced or removed from a

biological system
BOD
Biological Oxygen Demand
BOO
Build Own Operate
BOOT
Build Own Operate Transfer
BOT
Build Operate Transfer
Borehold system
A means of abstracting water from aquifers
Calibration
The adjustment of model data to sure that

model analyses correspond closely to
measurements of pressure and flow
throughout the system
Capital gains
The increase in value of an asset between a

period of time
Cavitation
Creation of vapour bubbles in a liquid
Centrifugally
Radial force applied by impeller to liquid
Cement mortar
Portland cement and silica sand pipe

lining material
Chemical scrubbing
Method of removing odour from the air

255
Glossary
Clarification
Solid/liquid separation normally by gravity settlement
Commercial loan
An advance made by a registered deposit taking back

to a borrower
Concession
The right to provide a service to the public sector
Collateral
Assets pledged as security to assure repayment of a

loan or lease
Cross subsidy
Where the true cost of a service is not reflected in

the charge for that service, eg where measured
customers pay more than unmeasured customers for
a similar volume a cross subsidy may exist
Desalination
Removal of dissolved salts from water
Digital map
An electronic representation of geographical data
Digital network analysis
Computer based model providing mathematical

representation of a supply/distribution network
Dividends
A return on an investment, usually in the form of

cash or shares
DMZs/DMAs
District metering zones/areas
Duty point (of pump)
Intersection of pump and system curve
Epoxy Resin
Solvent free, two component synthetic pipe

lining material
Equity Partners
Investors involved in the purchase of shares in

an enterprise
Export credits
Officially supported finance for the export of goods

and services
Flotation/Floated
Launching the sale of companys shares on the

stock exchange
Franchise
A contract for the provision of infrastructure services
GIS
Geographical information system - computer system

used to record spatial data as an overlay on a digital map
Grit Removal
Removal of grit, often from sewage
Guarantee
A pledge provided by a borrower or third party such

as an insurance company that financial, technical or
commercial support will be provided when required
256
Glossary
Industrial Revenue Bond
A bond secured by revenues generated by a project
Hydrological cycle
The circulation of water from the sea, through the

atmosphere to the land and hence by various routes
back to the sea
ISO9000
International Standards Organisation for

Quality Systems
Joint Venture
Arrangement between two or more parties in which

risks and benefits are shared in agreed proportions
Leak noise correlator
Instrument utilising noise to ascertain leak location
Leveraged leases
A direct financing lease which involves a lessee, a lessor

and a long term creditor and in which the finance is
provided without recourse to the lessor
MBR
Membrane Bioreactor
Minimum offtake
Minimum amount of service on supply which must

be taken
Molecular absorption
A method for removing odour from air using

activated carbon
Monopoly business
Where the client has no alternative supply
Multilateral
A relationship between more than two parties
Network analysis model
Digital model of a distribution network
Non recourse finance
A financing for a project in which a lender accepts

the cash flow from the project as the source of funds
from which the loan will be repaid and to the assets
of the project as collateral for the loan
Non revenue water
Water which is put into supply but which is not paid

for by, for example, illegal access or which is lost
through leakage
Offshore taxation
Corporation or other taxes imposed by a government

on the income of a corporation or individual
Polygon analysis
A process of allocating polygon attributes (e.g.

district, water quality area) to geographic data
PZT
Pressure Zero Test
Primary sedimentation
Gravity settlement of raw sewage

257
Glossary
Private sector
Free enterprise business with access to the market

for finance
Public sector
Government controlled bodies
Interest Rate exposure
Uncovered risks of changes in the interest rate
Regulator
A government control body setting standards or

striking fair balance between the interests of
consumers and the service provider
Reticulation
Sewage collection pipework
Reverse osmosis
Liquid desalination using pressure across a semi

permeable membrane
River basin management
Management of the river corridor environment,

protecting against possibilities of contamination from
other land users
Screening
Preliminary treatment process to remove coarse and

fine solids
Secondary humus/sludge
Sludge produced during biological treatment
Sludge treatment
Reduce sludge volume; render suitable for

disposal/reuse
Soft loan
A subsidised loan usually provided by

government agency
Stop testing
The sequential isolation of a water system to

prioritise leak detection to particular pipe lengths
Tariff
A structured set of charges for the supply of water

and wastewater services
Tertiary treatment
Final stage of effluent treatment to achieve high

discharge standards
Tuberculation
The narrowing of internal pipe diameter over time

reducing hydraulic capacity
Utility
A provider of essential commodities such as water,

gas, electricity or telecommunications services
258
259
260
The
Perfect
water company
Biwater Holdings Limited

Biwater House, Station Approach, Dorking, Surrey RH4 1TZ UK
tel +44 (0)1306 740740 fax +44 (0)1306 885233
Registered in England No. 929686
Registered Office Biwater House, Station Approach, Dorking, Surrey
www.biwater.com

Perfect Water Company

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Perfect Water Company

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The

Biwater Holdings Limited

The Perfect Water Company

Biwater's mission statement:

To maintain a world-class reputation

The Perfect Water Company

The Perfect Water Company

The Perfect Water Company

I do not need to tell you that there is no such thing

El Paso Reverse Osmosis Plant, Texas, in the USA where Biwater

OVERALL PERFORMANCE OF WATER COMPANIES 2008/09

Each bar represents a water company in England & Wales

TOTAL LEAKAGE 2008/09

Each bar represents a water company in England & Wales

COST OF OPERATIONS IN 2007/2008 PENCE PER CUBIC METRE

Each bar represents a water company in England & Wales

COST TO CUSTOMERS 2007/2008 PENCE PER CUBIC METRE

Each bar represents a water company in England & Wales

1. Investing in Water Assets

1. Investing in Water Assets

1. Investing in Water Assets

Biwater Funding Tombstones

1. Investing in Water Assets

1. Investing in Water Assets

1. Investing in Water Assets

1. Investing in Water Assets

Long term commitment

1. Investing in Water Assets

Water Intake Pump Station, Fuzhou Concession, China

Methods for involving the private sector

Legislation Policy, Contractual arrangement

Asset ownership, Capital expenditure

1. Investing in Water Assets

The diagram on page 17 shows the Government or Municipal Water Company

1. Investing in Water Assets

Legislation Policy, Contractual arrangement

Asset ownership, Capital expenditure

Operations and Maintenance,

1. Investing in Water Assets

1. Investing in Water Assets

1. Investing in Water Assets

Special Purpose Company

Legislation Policy, Contractual arrangement

Existing Asset Ownership, Monitoring and Control

Beneficial use of existing assets, Loan Arrangements

1. Investing in Water Assets

1. Investing in Water Assets

Pan de Azucar Water Treatment Plant, Chile

1. Investing in Water Assets

Irrigation of crops using effluent water in Antofagasta, Chile

1. Investing in Water Assets

Jar testing, Batam Island, Indonesia

1. Investing in Water Assets

Customer service centre, Subic Bay, Philippines

1. Investing in Water Assets

A Biwater financed water treatment plant, Laguna Alta, Panama

1. Investing in Water Assets

Laboratory Testing, Xinmin, China

1. Investing in Water Assets

BOOT (Build-Own-Operate-Transfer) Contract

Legislation Policy, Contractual

Monitoring, Control, Wastewater

Capital investment in a specific facility

1. Investing in Water Assets