Oleh (Tim Dosen):

Dr. Ir. Eko Widianto, MT

Dr. Ir. Benyamin, MT
Dr. Ir. M. Burhannudinnur, MSc
Jurusan Teknik Geologin
Fakultas Teknologi Kebumian dan Energi
Universitas TRISAKTI

2013

5. Reservoir Rock

LECTURE MATERIALS
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

Introduction
Level of Petroleum Investigation Plate Tectonic
Petroleum Sedimentary Basin
Hydrocarbon Source Rock
Reservoir Rocks
Hydrocarbon Trap and Seals
Hydrocarbon Migration
Data Analysis
Exploration Risk Assessment
Prospect Analysis
Petroleum Geology of Indonesia
2

Reservoir Rock
Physical Properties
1.
2.
3.
4.

Porosity
Permeability
Reservoir Continuity
Areal Continuity

Reservoir Classification

1. Carbonate
Porosity evolution of Carbonate rock
Classification of carbonate reservoir
2. Sandstone
Porosity of sandstone reservoir
Classification of sandstone reservoir

Main Reference
Most of the text and pictures are
quoted from:
IHRDC, 2004; IPIM Learning

RESERVOIR ROCK
The only common rock types that normally have the favorable combination of porosity and
permeability to be reservoirs are sandstones and carbonates (Figure below). Many porous rocks
are useless as reservoirs, because their passageways or pore-throats are too small to allow
petroleum to move through them. This can be due to fine grain size ( as in siltstones and shale ), or
to poor sorting ( where fine and coarse grain sizes are intermixed and the finer particles clog the
passageways.

Significant Differences between Terrigenous and Carbonate Deposits

Carbonate sediments generally originate within their basin of deposition they do
not derive from terrigenous erosion and are not transported into the basin of
deposition as sedimentary detritus. Most detrital carbonate grains, as well as most
lime muds, are biogenic in origin and are produced by carbonate-secreting organisms,
nearly always within the basin and commonly within a few kilometers or so of
deposition. Accordingly, grain types provide strong indications of depositional
environment.
Although shapes, sizes, and sorting of sedimentary grains are more significant in
terrigenous clastic sediments than in carbonates, these parameters do have relation
for carbonates, with respect to both environment of deposition (particularly skeletal
detritus) and transporting currents. Carbonate sediment accumulation can be very
rapid, leading to constructional "buildups" that may form barriers to water circulation.
Environments of deposition are influenced primarily by hydrographic controls
(Ginsburg 1956), and patterns of water circulation become dominant influences in
shallow shelf areas where waters are commonly less than 30 ft (10 m) deep.
Carbonate sediments are prone to early diagenesis, including both submarine and
subaerial cementation, as well as penecontemporaneous chemical alteration related
to highly restricted, evaporitic coastal environments.

POROSITY

Porosity
Porosity is the first of two essential requirements for a rock to act as a
hydrocarbon reservoir. It is simply a measurement of the pore or void spaces in a
rock and is usually expressed as a percentage using the formula:
Porosity (%) = (volume of void / total volume of rock) x 100

There are three main types of porosity: interconnected, connected and

isolated. Interconnected porosity utilizes multiple pore throat passages to
connect neighboring pores Connected, or dead-end, porosity has only one pore
throat passage (a) connecting with another pore space Isolated porosity has no
connections between pores Interconnected and connected pores constitute
effective porosity because hydrocarbons can move out from them. In the case
of interconnected porosity, oil and gas flowing through the pore space can be
flushed out by a natural or artificial water drive. Connected porosity is unaffected
by flushing but may yield some oil or gas by expansion, as reservoir pressure
drops. Reservoirs with isolated porosity are unable to yield hydrocarbons. Any oil
or gas contained entered the pore spaces before they were closed by compaction
or cementation. Thus, isolated porosity contributes to the total porosity of rock but
not to the effective porosity.
Porosity can be classified into two major types according to its origin (Murray,
1960). Primary porosity is formed when a sediment is deposited. Secondary
porosity forms after deposition.

Interconnected porosity utilizes multiple pore

throat passages to connect neighboring pores

Isolated porosity has no connections between pores

Connected, or dead-end, porosity has only one pore

throat passage (a) connecting with another pore space

The frequency of oil and gas reservoirs plotted against porosity

Primary Porosity
Primary porosity is divisible into two types: intergranular or interparticle porosity, which
occurs between the grains of a sediment and intragranular or intraparticle porosity, which
actually occurs within the sediment grains themselves.

Intergranular porosity is more typical of sandstones. It is also generally found within

newly-deposited lime sand. However, in lime sands it is seldom preserved because of porosity
loss by cementation. With intergranular porosity, the pore spaces are connected, one to
another, by throat passages. Unless there is extensive later cementation, reservoirs with
intergranular porosity generally have both good interconnected porosity and good
permeability. Effective porosity in these reservoirs is equivalent to total porosity.

Intragranular porosity is more typical of newly-deposited skeletal lime sands. Next figure is

a sketch of a thin section of a limestone reservoir showing pore spaces within skeletal grains.
It is unusual for such pores to be preserved. They are generally infilled during early burial by
cementation but, in some cases, the cement may be leached out to leave the original intra
particle pore.

Intergranular or interparticle porosity

Intragranular porosity

Secondary Porosity
Secondary porosity is porosity formed within a reservoir after
deposition. The major types of secondary porosity are:
Intercrystalline;

Solution (moldic and vuggy);

Fracture.

Secondary Porosity

Secondary Porosity Development

Sandstone Burial
Most modern sands are
deposited with porosities of
somewhere between 40 and
50 percent. In general, this
porosity
is
lost
with
increasing depth of burial.
Sandstones lose porosity
with burial at various rates
according to several factors.
Next figure illustrate the
effect of mineralogy.

The geothermal gradient also affects the rate of the chemical reactions that cause porosity
destruction. In general, the higher the geothermal gradient, the greater the rate of porosity
reduction with depth (Galloway, 1974). Next figure shows porosity: depth relationships for
sandstones associated with two different temperature gradients in northeast Pacific Basin. It
indicates a greater rate of porosity reduction associated with the higher temperature
gradient.

Overpressure can help to preserve porosity at great depths (Plumley, 1980). Next figure

is a graph of porosity versus depth in a well in the United States Gulf Coast; it shows
preservation of porosities below the top of the super-normal pressure zone.

Cementation
Figure-1 is a sketch of a thin section of a sandstone reservoir rock from the Brent field in
the North Sea. The angular shape of many of the grain boundaries is due to silica cement
that has grown over them in continuity with the original grain. It is the crystal faces of the
secondary cement which give the pore spaces their angular boundaries. Many sandstone
reservoirs have lost some of their porosity by secondary silica cementation of this type.
Many other types of cement are found in sandstone reservoirs, especially calcite and the
clay minerals.
Figure-2 is a sketch of a thin section of a sandstone showing porosity having been totally
destroyed by cement of large calcite crystal.

Figure below is a graph on which porosity is plotted against permeability on a

logarithmic scale, showing the porosity: permeability distributions for illite-cemented
sands and kaolin-cemented sands from some North Sea gas fields. It should be noted
that the porosity is mostly between 5 to 25 percent, irrespective of the type of clay,
but the permeabilities for kaolin-cemented sands are far higher than the
permeabilities of the illite-cemented sands.

Summary: Diagenetic Pathways

Sands are deposited with porosity of some 40 to 50 percent (a). As these sands encounter shallow burial,
their porosity diminishes by compaction and cementation to some 20 to 30 percent (b). Deep burial can
lead to a total obliteration of porosity by extensive cementation and compaction (c). Deeper burial may
eventually lead to metamorphism. At any point during burial, either deep or shallow, secondary porosity
may be induced by leaching (d). Good reservoir rocks may therefore be found at depths at which one
might expect most primary porosity to have been destroyed by compaction and cementation. The best
event that can possibly happen to a sand is for oil or gas to invade pore spaces (e). Once this happens,
cementation is inhibited and any further porosity loss is minimal, caused only by compaction.

Limestones
Like terrigenous sands, lime sands and skeletal carbonates have initial porosities of 45 to
50 percent, but in most ancient limestones that porosity has been almost totally
destroyed. We shall now take a close look at diagenetic pathways for carbonates.
The next figure is shows the various routes that may be taken by a skeletal lime sand as it
is buried and undergoes diagenesis.

CARBONATE
Classification of Porosity

The most useful classification of carbonate pore types is that published by Choquette and Pray (1970).
They recognize two basic categoriesfabric selective and not fabric selective ( Figure below,
Classification of carbonate pore types ). Fabric-selective elements of porosity are those that are related to
the depositional fabric of the rock; they include:

Intergranular. This is the porosity between

the particles of a grain pack

Intra granular. This refers to porosity within
particles.

Intercrystalline . This is the porosity

between randomly oriented, poorly packed

crystals of a recrystallized carbonate.

Moldic. This type of porosity is formed by

the selective dissolution of particles
suspended in a sediment or rock matrix.

Shelter porosity occurs in space that is

"sheltered"
deposition.

Fenestral

from

sediment

infill

during

porosity occurs when primary

pores are larger than the particles that
constitute the matrix sediment. This type of
porosity is often developed at exposed
(supratidal) depositional surfaces by a variety
of processestrapped gas bubbles, rottedout organic matter, microborings, etc.

Porosity Evolution of Carbonate rock

Burial Diagenesis
Modern carbonate sediments are very porous, averaging about 45% and ranging as high as 70%,
with only rare occurrences of marine-cemented rocks having porosities of less than 10%. Young
sediments that have been exposed to early subaerial diagenesis for a few hundred thousand years
(Pleistocene rocks) are less porous, but still average about 25% porosity and have few
representatives with porosities of less than 10%.
Ancient carbonate rocks that have been buried in
the subsurface, on the other hand, are mostly tight.
Taken as a whole, subsurface carbonates with
porosities greater than 10% are rather rare. It is
clear that diagenesis continues after burial and has
a profound effect on porosity.
Our understanding of burial diagenesis is very
limited. The processes occur over long periods of
geologic time, encompassing a broad range of
possible temperatures, pressures, and fluid
chemistry conditions. Experiments provide some
insight but cannot duplicate the natural processes,
especially with regard to geologic time. Therefore
we are limited, at present, to inferences derived
from petrographic observations and geochemical
studies.

Significance of Burial Diagenesis

Figure below shows data collected by Halley and Schmoker (1982) on porosity as a
function of subsurface depth on the Florida peninsula.
The total section ranges from
Upper Jurassic to Pleistocene in
age, and consists almost entirely of
shallow
water
carbonates
representing a broad range of
depositional
environments. A
regression line through the scatter
of points plots as a simple
compaction curve showing rapid
porosity reduction with depth.
However, at any one depth, there is
considerable scatter, indicating that
the rocks do not respond uniformly
to burial. It would be possible to
add data from other sources that
would show porosities greater than
15% at depths greater than 15,000
feet.

Moldic and Vuggy Porosity

Moldic and vuggy porosity present special problems in evaluation. The common porosity logs will record the total
porosity as it exists in the rock, although the sonic log may indicate slightly less porosity than the neutron or
density log because the sound waves take a shorter passage through the rock framework. The resistivity log will
often indicate high resistivity even though the pores have a high water saturation, because the water is not well
connected between the isolated pores. Such high-porosity coupled with high-resistivity readings could be
interpreted as pay, when in fact they are not.
Cores from moldic or vuggy rocks can also be misleading. The sight of a 20-ft core with 30% porosity bleeding oil on
the rig floor would, at first glance, be very exciting. However, the fact that the oil was retained in the pores during
the coring operation indicates a very low matrix permeability and, probably, moldic or vuggy porosity.
Vug. Porosity created by solution
enhancement of preexisting pores,
especially moldic pores. As with moldic
porosity, vuggy porosity can be
ineffective if not interconnected.

( Left Figure is Solution-enlarged vuggy

porosity from a Permian core in West
Texas).

SANDSTONE
Classification of Sandstone Porosity
There are three types of matrix-related sandstone porosity intergranular porosity, nonintergranular porosity and microporosity. These three porosity types can be shown as end
members of a ternary diagram that represents total matrix porosity.

Intergranular porosity and microporosity is either primary or secondary in origin, but nonintergranular porosity is of secondary origin only. For more detailed, descriptive purposes, the end
members of this ternary classification scheme can be recalculated to 100 percent and presented
on a daughter ternary diagram.

Factors Influencing Creation of Secondary Porosity

Many processes create secondary porosity in sandstones. These processes can operate from the
time of sedimentation of a sand, throughout its entire course of diagenesis from sand, to buried
sandstone, to incipient metamorphism or erosion.
Many direct and indirect causes for mineral dissolution exist because of the diverse and
continually changing conditions of diagenetic environments. (A summary of some of these variable
factors appears as Table below.)
Causes for mineral dissolution in sandstones.
Water
- Seawater
- Meteoric water
- Evaporitic brines
- Evolved subsurface water
Advective flux of water
Convective flux of water
- Temperature convection
- Salinity convection
- Dissolved gas convection
- Variation of temperature
Variation of pore pressure and variation of the ratio of pore pressure to overburden
pressure
Variation of salinity
Variation of solute composition
Generation of diagenetic reactants (e.g., H+, OH-, CO2, H2S and organic acids
Clearly, many factors influence the development of secondary porosity. Usually, the interplay of
several of these factors determines a particular porosity change of a sandstone at a specific point
in time and space.

Dissolution Porosity
By far, the largest volume of
secondary porosity is created by
the
dissolution
of
detrital
constituents
and
authigenic
minerals,
which
is
nearly
ubiquitous in sandstones. It is
especially prevalent in sandstones
of intermediate-to-deep burial
depth (> 2.0 km) and elevated
thermal maturity (R0 > 0.5 percent)
as described in a large body of
literature (e.g., McDonald and
Surdam, 1984; Hutcheon, 1989a);
and references therein). Secondary
porosity due to dissolution may
also form extensively during
exposure (resulting, for example,
from uplift and erosion) at
unconformities.
Figure of Textures of intergranular
secondary porosity identical to or
modified from precursor primary
porosity

Diagenic pathways towards quartz-rich

sandstone
composition
due
to
preferential dissolution and alternation
of feldspars and rock fragments

Genetic classes of secondary

sandstone porosity

Loss of porosity by an increase in solid volume - lithology I - and by a decrease of rock

bulk volume - lithology II. Porosity loss of lithology I can be easily be restored if the
cement consists of a soluble mineral -e.g. carbonate. It is much more difficult to
restore porosity in lithology II because of the low intergranular space - especially if the
cement consists of quartz.

In many instances, it is important to determine the factors that influence the extent of conversion
of primary porosity to secondary porosity because secondary porosity resists destruction by
mechanical and chemical compaction to a much greater extent than does primary porosity. This
resistance is caused by preferential dissolution of ductile and labile grains, and the development of
interlocking grain contacts that create a more stable grain framework. For example, in next Figure,
the porosity-depth plot suggests that secondary porosity replaced good primary porosity at about
6,000 ft. and that most of this porosity was preserved to depths of about 11,000 ft. The one
sample with very high porosity at 11,000 ft. is an exception and reflects significant net
addition of secondary porosity at depth.

Sandstone Mineralogy
The impact of differences in mineralogical composition on the development of secondary porosity
is often quite striking. Next figure shows an example of the porosity evolution of two adjacent
sandstone laminae that differ in volcanic rock fragment content. In the volcanic-rich sand,
alteration of volcanogenic grains created a large amount of ductile grains, which caused rapid
compaction of primary porosity.
In contrast, few grains become ductile
in the volcanic-poor sand and
compaction was much less severe.
When
carbonate
cementation
followed, significant primary porosity
was present only in the volcanic-poor
sandstone. Subsequent dissolution
preferentially affected the carbonate
cement
and
created
excellent
secondary porosity in the volcanic-poor
laminae,
while
dissolution
of
framework grains created only a minor
amount of secondary porosity in the
volcanic-rich sandstone. It is possible
that more secondary porosity would
have been created in the volcanic-rich
sandstone if it had been the only
sandstone lithology present to react
with the acidic pore water.

Diagenetic Traps
A practical application of the understanding of porosity evolution in sandstones lies in the search for diagenetically
trapped hydrocarbons. The original concept of the diagenetic trap as outlined by Wilson (1977) was based on the
observation that the presence of hydrocarbons in sandstone reservoirs inhibits diagenetic alteration of the
sandstone, but diagenetic porosity reduction processes will continue below the oil/water contact. Therefore, a
diagenetic bottom seal is created in a structural or stratigraphic trap and, after tilting, the hydrocarbons are
retained by a new seal in an up-dip direction. The next Figure is Diagenetic sealing of the wet zone traps
hydrocarbons even after destruction of the original trap.
A, B and C indicate the sequence of events).
Examples of these diagenetically trapped oil
fields are the Pleasant Valley and Guijarrel Hills
fields in California. Many sandstone fields with
tilted oil/water contacts or an absence of any
water drive are likely to be diagenetic traps
In essence, any factors that cause different
parts of a sandstone reservoir to react
differently from each other during burial have
the potential to create diagenetic traps.
Localized areas of secondary porosity can
create diagenetic trapping conditions, as can
localized areas of extensive cementation. Local
variations in diagenetic response caused by
differences in detrital mineralogy can create a
zone of rock with significantly different
properties from the rocks around the zone. In
the giant Elmworth gasfield in Alberta,
diagenetic
differences
have
led
to
conglomeratic gas reser voirs being sealed by
diagenetically altered sandstones (Cant, 1983).

Fracturing
General Considerations
Fracturing is just one aspect of the general field of rock mechanics. The details of how fractures develop under
varying conditions of stress is much too complex to be dealt with here. For our purposes we need only consider in
a qualitative way those factors that promote a high density of closely spaced fractures.
In carbonates with significant matrix porosity and permeability, closely spaced fractures enhance transmissibility,
resulting in higher rates of production. In rocks with little or no matrix porosity and permeability, the close spacing
of fractures is even more important. The fractures provide the only storage space for hydrocarbons; hence the
more fractures per unit volume, the greater the capacity of the reservoir. In addition, the more closely spaced the
fractures, the greater the likelihood that a small borehole will encounter a fracture that is connected to the
remainder of the fracture system.
With distantly spaced fractures, one could expect wide variations in productivity between closely spaced wells.

Fracture Criteria
There are three factors that qualitatively control fracture spacing:
Stress Concentration The more concentrated the stress, the more closely spaced are the fractures. Tight folds will
have more fractures per unit area than broad, open folds.

Ductility Contrast The greater the ductility contrast, the closer the fractures. Shales and evaporites have the
greatest ductility. Carbonates interbedded with these lithologies will readily fracture under differential stress. Even
within the carbonates there are ductility contrasts. Under burial compression dolomite will fracture, while an
interbedded limestone will deform plastically, limiting fractures to the dolomite bed.
Bed Thickness The thinner the bedding, the more closely spaced the fractures. Given 50 ft of dolomite
interbedded with 50 ft of anhydrite, there will be more closely spaced fractures in the dolomite if the individual
interbeds are 10-ft rather than 25-ft thick.
The negative side of fracturing is that tightly cemented carbonates that have no matrix permeability and should
serve as good seals often contain microfractures that allow hydrocarbons to escape from traps.

Fracture Porosity
Fractures are the most easily recognizable form of secondary porosity. Fractures are most
commonly developed in lithified sandstones, but some fractures are also found in unconsolidated
sands. It is useful to differentiate microfractures (less than 2 cm in length and less than 50 microns
in width) from larger macrofractures. It is also important to distinguish natural fractures from
those produced during drilling and handling of cores. The description of fractures should include
the following observations:

length (common range is a few microns to a few decameters)

width (common range is a few tenths of a micron to a few centimeters)
frequency of microfractures
frequency and spacing of macrofractures
orientation and curvature of macrofractures
location of fractures with respect to lithology, stratigraphy, sedimentary structures,
erosional surfaces, faults and structural position
relative timing of intersecting generations of fractures
diagenetic modification of fractures by cementation, dissolution, compaction and tectonic
stress
connectivity of fracture system
fracture porosity as a percentage of volume

Based on this information, the impact of fractures on fluid transmission and recovery efficiency
can be evaluated. The storage capacity of fractures is negligible in most sandstone reservoirs but
may, on occasion, noticeably contribute to effective porosity. Rock fractures greatly increase
permeability and may interconnect pore space that was isolated in the unfractured formation. As a
result, fractures may enhance both productivity and hydrocarbon recovery.

PERMEABILITY

Permeability
Permeability is a measure of a rock's ability to conduct fluids. Next figure shows how the
permeability of a rock sample can be measured. A fluid of known viscosity is pumped through a
rock sample of known cross-sectional area and length. The pressure drop across the sample is
measured through pressure gauges.

The unit of permeability is the Darcy. A rock having a permeability of one darcy allows a fluid of
one centipoise viscosity to flow at a velocity of one centimeter per second for a pressure drop of
one atmosphere per centimeter. The formula for Darcy's Law as formulated by Muskat and Botset
(Botset, 1931; Muskat and Botset, 1931; Muskat, 1937) is as follows:

Where:
q = rate of flow
k = permeability
(P1 - P2) = pressure drop across the sample
A = cross-sectional area of sample
m = viscosity of fluid
L = length of the sample
Since most reservoirs have permeabilities that are much less than a Darcy, the millidarcy ( one
thousandth of a Darcy ) is commonly used for measurement. Permeability is generally referred to
by the letter k.
In the form shown above, Darcy's law is only valid when there is no chemical reaction between the
fluid and rock, and when there is only one fluid phase present completely filling the pores. The
situation is far more complex for mixed oil or gas phases, although we can apply a modified Darcytype equation. Average permeabilities in reservoirs commonly range from 5 to 500 millidarcies.
Some reservoirs , however, have extremely high permeabilities. Some of the Cretaceous sandstone
reservoirs of the Burgan field in Kuwait, for example, have permeabilities of 4,000 millidarcies
(Greig, 1958).
Since flow rate depends on the ratio of permeability to viscosity, gas reservoirs may be able to flow
at commercial rates with permeabilities of only a few millidarcies. However, oil reservoirs generally
need permeabilities in the order of tens of millidarcies to be commercial.

Factor affecting the permeability : Grain size, grain sorting and rock fabric
Grain Size
Porosity is independent of grain size. Permeability, however, is very different. All other things being
equal, finer grain sizes of sediment mean lower permeabilities. This is because the finer the grain
size, the narrower the throat passages between pore spaces and, therefore, the harder it is for fluids
to move through a rock. Therefore, permeability declines with decreasing grain size. Porosity is
generally unaffected by grain size but permeability increases with increasing grain size. The effect of
grain size on porosity and permeability can be illustrated by Figure 1.

Grain Sorting
In the poorly-sorted sand, there are many fine-grained particles occurring between the framework
of coarser grains. The pore spaces are being plugged up by the finer particles; thus porosity and
permeability may both be low. By contrast, in the well-sorted sand, the grains provide a clean
framework, with no finer-grained material to fill the pore spaces or block the throat passages.
Such well-sorted sands will have relatively high porosity and permeability.
Figure 1 is a sketch of a poorly-sorted sand and well-sorted sand. Figure 2 illustrates the effect of
sorting on porosity and permeability: the better sorted the sand, the higher are both the porosity
and permeability.

Rock Fabric
Fabric refers to the way in which the grains in the sediment are actually arranged. There are two
aspects of the fabric to consider: the way in which the grains are packed, and the way in which the
various particles are actually oriented.
Theoretically, there are six ways in which spheres can be geometrically packed. These range from
the loosest cubic style (Figure below), where porosity can be as high as 48 percent , down to the
tightest rhombohedral style where the porosity can be as low as 26 percent. Intuitively, one might
expect sediments which are deposited under the influence of gravity, such as grain flows and
turbidites, to exhibit looser grain packing and hence higher porosity than those laid down by
traction currents. It is most probable, however, that post-depositional compaction causes rapid
packing adjustments and porosity loss during early burial.

The above discussion of packing is based on the assumption that sediment particles are spherical.
This is seldom true of any sediment except for olites. Most quartz grains are actually slightly
elongated. Sands which contain flaky grains of mica or clay and those which are constituted of
skeletal carbonates have still more eccentric grain shapes.
Thus, the second element of fabric, orientation, is probably more significant than packing when
considering porosity and permeability variations. Although the way in which grains are oriented
has little affect on porosity, it has a major effect on permeability.
Figure below is a sketch of a typical bedded sandstone consisting of quartz grains elongated
parallel to current direction and mica flakes and other particles aligned parallel to the bedding.
Current direction is from left to right along the X axis. Permeability along the X axis will generally
be at a maximum, and along the Y axis at a minimum. The permeability measured in the Z axis will
generally be midway between these two values.

RESERVOIR
CONTINUITY

Reservoir Continuity
Unfortunately, most oil fields do not occur in single sheet-shaped reservoirs of great lateral
continuity with uniform porosity and permeability distributions. Most oil accumulations occur in
heterogeneous reservoirs with permeability barriers because of shale breaks or local cemented
zones.
Figure 1 is the reservoir engineer's dream: a blanket sand of uniform porosity and permeability
distribution. This occurs with a single oil: water contact. In this case for a well drilled at location 1
or through the reservoir of any other location, gross pay equals net pay.
Figure 2 is somewhat different: the sand is shaling out from right to left across the section, thus for
a well drilled at location 2 the net pay of the reservoir is less than the gross pay. There is still one
oil accumulation, or at least one major one, but there is a small separate accumulation with its
own oil: water contact in the lower left-hand part of the figure.
Figure 3 shows another situation. There is a series of separate oil pools with their own oil: water
contacts. This is not a genuine anticlinal structural trap, but a series of stratigraphic traps which
pinch out towards the crest of the structure. For each reservoir, net pay equals gross pay.
These figures show the importance of establishing continuity of reservoir beds. This can only be
done effectively when the development geologist and the petroleum engineer work together. The
geologist tries to establish the depositional environment of the various reservoir units and, using
that knowledge, he tries to make predictions about where the reservoir may be expected to
thicken and thin.

Areal Continuity
The following is based on the scheme proposed by Potter (1962). Refer to Figure 1.
The upper is an areal view of an ideal reservoir, a sheet of great lateral extent with a
length: width ratio of about 1 to 1. The remaining map views show different types of
elongated reservoirs with a length: width ratio greater than 1 to 1.
The belt variety is essentially a sheet sand with isolated holes replaced by shale. The
dendroid variety has length: width ratios which are generally greater than 3 to -1. This
is typically encountered in fluvial and deltaic sands which trend perpendicular to the
paleo-shoreline. The depositional environment of this type of sand body is illustrated
in Figure 2.

The ribbon or shoestring sands are characteristically produced by marine barrier bar
sands and usually trend parallel to the paleo shoreline. The depositional environment
of this type of sand body is illustrated in Figure 3 .
Lastly, there may be isolated pods which are hard to find and harder still to develop.
These often Occur where erosion has removed much of the sand and replaced it with
shale, leaving isolated pods of sand.

CARBONATE
RESERVOIR

CARBONATE
RESERVOIR
General
Setting

Sedimentary

A world map showing areas

of
modern
carbonate
sedimentation conveys their
clear preference for shallow,
tropical, marine waters.
Notice that deposition of
modern carbonates does not
generally occur in proximity
to river deltas that provide
abundant fine terrigenous
sediment.
Tropical oceanic waters are essentially saturated with respect to calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Any
process by which carbon dioxide (CO2) is removed from saturated seawater encourages the
precipitation of CaCO3. Consideration of the chemical and biochemical factors involved in
precipitation of carbonate minerals from seawater (Milliman 1974; Bathurst 1975) suggests that
circulation and agitation of the water body are also necessary because these two activities tend to
remove CO2. Wilson (1975) concluded that the principal factors controlling carbonate
sedimentation are warmth, light, and water movement.

General Carbonate Depositional Settings

Ecology of calcareous marine algae; depsositional environments

along an idealized profile of a carbonate shelf margin.

Carbonate Beach Depositional Model (Coastal)

Modern Examples
Carbonate beach sands fringe most islands in modern carbonate environments, reproducing some of the most
spectacular and idyllic locations for tropical resorts, such as Miami Beach, New Providence and Eleuthera,
Bahamas; Cancun, Yucatan; and the Australian Great Barrier Reef. Left Figure (Generalized beach model illustrating
the most simple and common beach setting) shows the subenvironments of the generalized beach model, together
with characteristic electric-log patterns, grain size, sorting, lithology, sedimentary structures, and depositional
processes.
Reservoir Characteristics
Carbonate sands deposited on beach
foreshores have very high initial porosity and
permeability. Unfortunately, such attractive
porosity is often preferentially occluded by
subsequent diagenetic effects. Because of the
preferred geometry of carbonate beaches,
however, it may be expected that porosity
developments in carbonate beach sands will
bear some relationship to the original
sedimentary body. However, different parts of
the model may end up with commercial
porosity, depending on the subsequent
diagenetic history.
If primary porosity is adequately preserved,
beach reservoirs will tend to be rather narrow,
elongate bodies, sometimes with multiple
zones "stacked" successively. The single
carbonate beach sand may typically be 5 to 15
m thick, with sand dominant

Shelf Carbonate
Patch Reefs
Patch reefs in modern carbonate environments are localized concentrations of biotic communities, dominated by
coralline algae and coral and characterized by abundant and rapid construction of skeletal/colonial carbonate
debris. In some cases, patch reefs seem to be localized by bedrock prominences or breaks-in-slope; in other cases,
their location seems to be either random or related to subtle factors beyond present limits of geological resolution.
Typically, they may range in diameter up to perhaps 1,000 m.

Patch reefs are characteristic

of the open-shelf, rather than
the restricted-shelf setting,
depending as they do on
continued normal oceanic
salinities for their existence.
In the geologic record, they
may be short-lived, leaving
only lenses or patches of
skeletal sediment, or they
may continue for substantial
periods, creating sea-floor
prominences and/or faciesmounds. They commonly
occur in broad belts that can
be related to hydrographic
patterns.

SHELF MARGIN CARBONATE

Ecologic Reefs
Because of the influx of marine waters onto the shallow shelf, physical and chemical conditions are
optimal for organic carbonate production, and the shelf margin is thus the natural habitat for
ecologic reefs. Modern reefs in this setting show a characteristic lateral zonation relating to depth
and wave-energy levels.

(Figure a cross-section through a zoned marginal reef illustrating the different reef
zones and environment of different reef-building organisms).

Foreslope Carbonate
Two general types of foreslope models are
recognized (McIlreath and James 1978). The
depositional type ( Figure 1 , Schematic model
for a reef-dominated depositional carbonate
margin/foreslope with sequence of deposits
from slope accretion) is characterized by
slopes of sedimentation, which thus build
gentler, accretionary slopes that merge
gradually with basin floors.
1

The bypass type ( Figure 2 , Schematic model

for a reef-dominated bypass type of
carbonate margin, with sequence of deposits
from slope accretion) is generally a steeper,
at least partly lithified, slope across which
sediment is transported from shallow to
deep water without much deposition on
portions of the slope. In either type, the
shallow-water part may be formed by reefs
and/or carbonate sand bodies. Lithification
(cementation) may be subaerial, as well as
submarine (Enos and Moore 1983).
2

Basinal Carbonate
Main Depositional Models and Facies Types
There are three main lithologies that are present in the basinal setting, as shown by studies of
modern deep-water sediments:
Euxinic basinal muds dark, organic-rich, fine-laminated, argillaceous muds; usually
petroleum source rocks.
Pelagic oozes fine-laminated, skeletal-rich, very finegrained muds that convert to
chalk.
Turbidite sands and debris-flows coarse- to fine-grained, thin-bedded sands and muds,
with frequent slump structures.

Generalized near-surface sedimentary facies map of the deep carbonate bank margins in the northern
Bahamas

SANDSTONE
RESERVOIR

SANDSTONE RESERVOIR

NON MARINE
DELTAIC
BARRIER ISLAND
SHELF MARINE
DEEP WATER

NON MARINE SANDSTONE

The first three of these are mainly deposited

by streams and can be placed in an order that
roughly corresponds to increasing distance
from an upland sediment source area. They
represent environments in which progressively
finer, more water-worked sediment is moved
and deposited. In contrast, eolian dune sands
exist in a unique, nonaqueous setting, while
lacustrine environments often combine
sedimentation regimes of many types, from
deltas to submarine fans. Alluvial fans and
braided streams are generally the higher
energy aqueous environments, where lateral
and vertical changes in lithology can occur
suddenly and often. A number of interrelated
factors determine whether channels meander
or braid. In general, braided rivers form where
gradient is relatively steep, discharge is
occasional and heavy, and sediment supply is
high.
Meandering
rivers
are
more
characteristic where gradients are lower,
discharge more perennial, and sediment is
more fine-grained, with a higher proportion of
silt and clay.
Generalized illustration of these environment

Braided Stream

As we mentioned earlier, many present-day alluvial fans grade laterally into the alluvial
plain of a braided river; that is, one characterized by an interlacing, vein-like network
of low-sinuosity channels with constantly shifting midchannel bars.

Figure 1 is Block diagram model of a braided stream system in a semiarid environment and
Figure 2 , Shifting channels in a braided river course -Durance River- near Avignon, southern
France, between 1939 and 1958. Streams and rivers tend to braid when three main factors
conspire: (1) high (though possibly seasonal) discharge, (2) relatively steep slopes, (3) large
amounts of coarse sediment.

Diagnostic Evidence of Braided Stream

Meandering Stream

Idealized block diagram showing a

meandering river system over a region
of low slope and continual subsidence

With greater distance from the sediment source

area, a meandering river becomes more typical.
Alluvial flood plains cut by a single meander
channel occur in regions characterized by
relatively low gradients, fine- to mediumgrained
sediment,
and
continuous
(nonseasonal) discharge. The boundary
between braided channels and a single
meander channel is a gradational one, but the
distinction is very important for petroleum
geology. We have seen that braided systems
deposit extensive blankets of sand, some which
have served as reservoirs for giant
accumulations. Meander channels, by contrast,
deposit more localized reservoir sands, which
host generally small, elusive stratigraphic traps.
Such rivers very often create deltas at their
mouths, and thus much of the following
discussion on deposition, geometry, and
identification has relevance to channels in this
more transitional environment. In the
sedimentary record, a large number of
preserved meander channel facies are
associated with deltas.

Depositional Processes and Lithologic Characteristics

Figure
1 illustrates
the basic
sedimentary model for meandering
channels in an alluvial flood plain. As
shown, there are three main
depositional sub environments: the
active channel, the abandoned channel,
and the flood plain itself. As with
braided streams and alluvial fans,
flooding is the main process that causes
deposition within each.
The creation of sand bodies occurs as a
result of two factors: channel migration,
with the simultaneous deposition of
point bar sand; and, channel
abandonment, where point-bar sands
are buried beneath finer-grained,
backwater material in oxbow lakes. The
former is by far the most important to
petroleum geology, since the latter
results in very thin, isolated sand layers.
Meandering stream channels display an
asymmetrical profile which reflects the
distribution of current velocity and thus
deposition and erosion.

Basically, flooding causes erosion of

outside meander ("cut") banks as
current
strength
rises,
and
subsequent deposition on the inner
banks as floodwaters recede. Point
bars build out into the channel, and
their progradation mostly keeps pace
with the erosion of the opposite cut
bank. The specific direction of their
accretion is largely at right angles to
the downstream current at any one
point. Point bars are characterized by
a fining-upward sequence of grain
sizes and sedimentary structures that
reflect the decreasing current velocity
from the gravelly channel floor to the
silts and muds of the flood plain. (
Figure 2, Idealized "outcrop" showing
upward succession of grain size and
sedimentary structures in a preserved
point bar.) Most have slopes of 10 to
20.

Diagnostic Evidence of Meandering System

DELTAIC ENVIRONMENT

Major Depositional Regimes

As illustrated in Figure 1 (Components of a delta system; major depositional regimes),
a delta may be subdivided into several basic depositional regimes.

Next figure is Time lines and lithofacies in a prograding delta illustrates the resulting oblique
configuration of time-stratigraphic depositional sequences that typically develop in a prograding
delta and the time-transgressive nature of the lithofacies units.

Classification of Deltas
Most genetic classifications of modern deltas are based on the relative intensities of
fluvial discharge, wave forces, and tidal current action. One such scheme, which has
gained wide acceptance, is the ternary classification by Galloway (1975). Next figure,
Diagram illustrating threefold division of deltas into fluvial-dominated, wavedominated, and tide-dominated types.
The value of this diagram is that
the relative influence of rivers,
waves, and tides, can be
obtained by simple visual
inspection. For example, the
Mahakam delta of Indonesia
can be seen to be about equally
influenced by fluvial and tidal
factors, whereas wave action
plays no part in shaping the
delta. The Niger delta, on the
other hand, is shown to
represent a balance between
the influence of all three
factors, with waves and
currents
somewhat
more
important
than
riverine
processes.

BARRIER ISLAND SAND

General Introduction
Longitudinal, sand-dominated barrier islands and the lagoonal tidal flat systems associated with
them are conspicuous features along many of the world's coasts. Their preserved remains in the
geologic record have proved to be very high quality reservoirs, displaying lateral continuity and
excellent petrophysical character.
These sand bodies are generally narrow, wave-built sandy islands or peninsulas that form parallel
to shore. Their distance from the mainland varies, but is usually less than 10 mi (16 km). They trap
behind them quiet lagoonal areas and thus act as "barriers," protecting a coast or bay from the
direct action of waves and marine currents.
As topographic features, they can be perennially emergent or exposed only during periods of low
tide. They most frequently occur as a linear trend of individual islands separated by tidal inlet
channels.

DEEP WATER SAND

Posamentier and Vail (1988) divide lowstand systems tracts, deposited in basins with a
discrete shelf edge, into two end members: a lowstand fan (or basin floor fan) followed by
a lowstand wedge. Lowstand fans occur when the rate of eustatic sea-level fall exceeds
the rate of subsidence at the depositional shoreline break and some or all of the shelf is
subaerially exposed.

Model of Lowstand Systems Tract with basin floor submarine fan

Streams downcut into the shelf, and sediment is deposited on the slope and on the basin floor as
point-sourced submarine fans. A portion of the slope may also be exposed causing the
downcutting of canyons. When eustatic sea-level fall is again less than subsidence at the
depositional shoreline break, lowstand fan formation generally terminates. Posamentier and Vail
emphasize that although submarine fans can be deposited at any time, they are most likely to be
deposited and have the highest sand: mud ratio during lowstand fan time. Lowstand wedges are
deposited as regressive progradational sequences after the rate of seafloor subsidence at the
depositional shoreline break once again exceeds the rate of eustatic sea-level fall.

Model of a Lowstand Systems Tract with a lowstand wedge

containing leveed channel deposits).

RESERVOIR ASPECTS

Because of their ability to provide highly productive oil and gas reservoirs, deep sea sandstones
constitute one of the most important depositional systems for the petroleum geologist. Deep sea
sands are defined as being deposited below the level of the continental shelf (below 200 m)
These sands and associated facies are deposited by a variety of gravity flow mechanisms, including
slides and slumps, debris flow, grain flow, fluidized flow and turbidity currents. Traction currents
may also play a meaningful role, particularly in the deposition of sand in submarine channels. By
far the most significant depositional mechanism, however, are turbidity currents, whose resulting
deposit is defined as a turbidite. The facies model for turbidites consists of an upward-fining
sequence of textures and structures referred to as a Bouma sequence.