CVE 419: SURFACE AND GROUNDWATER HYDROLOGY

Course Outline
1.0
Introduction
1.1
Definition of Hydrology
1.2
Engineering Hydrology
1.3
Hydrologic Cycle
1.4
Element of Hydrology
1.4.1 Precipitation
1.4.2 Infiltration
1.4.3 Subsurface Percolation
1.4.4 Evapotranspiration
2.0
Collection and Analysis of Precipitation Data
2.1
Collection of precipitation data
2.2
Analysis of precipitation data
2.2.1 Estimation of missing precipitation data
2.2.2 Estimation of consistency of precipitation data
2.2.3 Estimation of a real mean precipitation
3.0 Collection of Stream Data Flow
3.1
Collection of stream flow data
3.2
Methods of stream flow measurement
4.0 Analysis of Stream Data Flow
4.1 Statistical analysis/probability analysis
Graphical method
Probability distribution function
4.2 Hydrograph
4.3 Flood Routing
5.0

Groundwater
5.1
Occurrences of groundwater and distribution
5.2
Well hydraulics/factors that affect water movement
5.3
Flow patterns in aquifers/factors that affect aquifer yield
5.4
Principles of groundwater investigation/exploration

Dr A.W. Salami

CVE 419: SURFACE AND GROUNDWATER HYDROLOGY

Land Mark University

Page 1

1.0
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Definition of Hydrology
Hydrology is the science which deals with the occurrence, distribution and movement of water
on earth, in the atmosphere and below the surface of the earth. It also concerned with their
chemical and physical properties as related with the environment and the living things.
1.2
Engineering Hydrology
Engineering Hydrology includes those parts of the hydrology related to the design and operation
of engineering projects for the control and use of water. Hence, hydrology is used in engineering
mainly in connection with the design, operation of hydraulic structures. However, the typical
questions that hydrologists is expected to answer include;
i.
what flood flows can be expected at a spillway or highway culvert in a city drainage.
ii.
what reservoir capacity is expected to ensure adequate water for irrigation or municipal
water supply.
In order to understand better, the occurrence, distribution and movement of the water on the
earth, it is best explained using hydrologic cycle presented as follows;
1.3
Hydrologic Cycle
The earth water circulatory system is known as the hydrologic cycle. Hydrologic cycle is the
continuous process by which moisture is transported from the atmosphere to the earth in the form
of precipitation, conveyance of rainfall-runoff by streams and rivers to the ocean and evaporation
back to the atmosphere. This natural circulation of water is presented in Figure 1.

Figure 1:

Dr A.W. Salami

Hydrologic Cycle

CVE 419: SURFACE AND GROUNDWATER HYDROLOGY

Land Mark University

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The driving force of the circulation is derived from the radiant energy received from the sun. The
bulk of earths water is stored on the surface in oceans (see Table 1). Hence, it is logical to
consider the hydrological cycle as the beginning with the direct effect of the suns radiation on
the largest reservoir. Heating of the sea surface causes evaporation, the transfer of water from the
liquid to the gaseous state, to form part of the atmosphere. The water vapour changes back to the
liquid state again through the process of condensation to form clouds and with favourable
atmospheric condition, precipitation (rainfall or snow) is produced either to return directly to the
ocean storage or via the land surface through runoff. Snow may accumulate in polar regions or
on high mountains and consolidate into ice, in which may be stored naturally for very long
period (Table 1). In more temperate lands, rainfall may be intercepted by vegetation from which
the intercepted water may return at once to the air, by evaporation. Rainfall reaching the ground
may gather to form surface runoff or it may infiltrate into the ground. The liquid water in the soil
then percolates through the unsaturated layers to reach the water table where the groundwater
becomes saturated or it is taken up by vegetation from which it may return to atmosphere by the
process of transpiration. The surface runoff and groundwater flow and join together in surface
streams and rivers which may be held up temporarily in lakes but finally flow into the oceans.
The land phases of the hydrological cycle have an enhanced importance in nature since
evaporation is a purifying process, the salt sea water is transferred into fresh precipitation water
and therefore water sources and storages on the continents consists largely of fresh water. The
exceptions include groundwater storages with dissolved salts (brackish water) and surface water
polluted by man or natural suspended solids.
Table 1 gives the estimates of the worlds water.
Occurrence
Volume
Percentage
6
3
10 km
(%)
1370
94.2
Oceans
60
4.13
Groundwater
1.65
Ice
sheets
and 24
glaciers
0.019
Surface water on 0.28
land
0.08
0.0055
Soil moisture
0.0012
0.00008
Rivers
0.014
0.00096
Atmospheric
vapour

Dr A.W. Salami

CVE 419: SURFACE AND GROUNDWATER HYDROLOGY

Rate of Exchange
3000
5000
8000
7
1
0.031
0.027

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1.4 Element of Hydrology

1.4.1 Precipitation
Precipitation can be defined as the fall of moisture from the atmosphere to the earth surface in
any form. Liquid precipitation is known as rainfall. Frozen precipitation may be in form of snow,
hail, sheet, freezing rain. If the precipitation is greater than infiltration rate, runoff occurs.
The moisture in the atmosphere, although forming one of the smallest storages of earths water,
is the most vital source of freshwater for mankind. Water is present in the air in its gaseous,
liquid and solid states as water vapour, cloud droplets and ice crystals respectively.
All forms of precipitation are normally measured with rain gauge. Methods of obtaining readings
vary from manual to autographic (charts), signed by telemetry and RADAR (remote sensing).
There are two types of rain gauge:
(i) Non-recording i.e standard 8 inches ppt gauge.
(ii) Recording type:
weighing bucket gauge
Tipping bucket gauge
Siphon or flow type gauge
Assignment
Distinguish between the three types of recording rain gauges.
Difficulties encountered in the accurate measurement of precipitation.
1. Any suitable device for use as rain gauge extends above the earth surface and creates
eddy currents which affect the amount of catch.
2. Wind affects the amount of catch. The rain gauge should be sheltered from the wind to
minimize the wind effect and at the same time clear of obstruction.
3. The measurement of precipitation is never subject to check by repetition and seldom by
duplication.
4. The samples constituting the measurement are always very small compared to the total
quantity of precipitation over the area.
The number of observation may be decided by the following consideration:
1. For area up to 250km2, one station per 125km2 area is sufficient.
2. For area above 250km2, one additional station is provided for every additional area of
250km2 or part of it.
Table below gives a rough idea of the number of gauges required in a catchment of various areas
Table 2: Number of rain gauge for specified areas
Area (km2)
No of Rain gauge station
0 80
1
80 160
2
160 320
3
320 560
4
560 800
5
800 1200
6
Dr A.W. Salami

CVE 419: SURFACE AND GROUNDWATER HYDROLOGY

Land Mark University

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Site selection for Rain gauge

While selecting the site for installation of rain gauge, the following should be observed,
1. The rain gauge should be set in an open space.
2. The distance between the rain gauge and the nearest object should not be less than twice
the height of the object. In no case, this distance should be less than 30m.
3. If a suitable level ground is available rain gauge should not be installed on top of a hill.
4. In hilly areas where level ground is difficult to find, the rain gauge should be located
where it is best shielded from high velocity winds and where wind couldnt cause eddy.
5. In case a fence is provided around the rain gauge to protect it from intruders, the distance
between the rain gauge and the fence should not be less than the height of the fence.
Assignment
Write short note on the following
1.4. 2 Infiltration/infiltration rates
1.4. 3 Subsurface percolation
1.4. 4 Evaporation
1.4 .5 Evapotranspiration
1.4. 6 Transpiration
1.4. 7 Groundwater
1.4. 8 Surface runoff.

Dr A.W. Salami

CVE 419: SURFACE AND GROUNDWATER HYDROLOGY

Land Mark University

Page 5