Solution to Final Exam

TPG4160 Reservoir Simulation, May 29, 2007

page 2 of 11

Question 1 (11 points)

a) Make sketches of Black Oil fluid properties Bo , Bg , Bw , Rso , o , g , w . Label bubble
point pressure, and saturated and undersaturated regions.
b) Express reservoir densities for the three fluids in terms of Bo , Bg , Bw , Rso , ! oS , ! gS , ! wS .
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)

Express the density of the part of the reservoir oil that remains liquid at the surface.
Express the density of the part of the reservoir oil that becomes gas at the surface.
Express the gas density using real gas equation.
Write the definition for fluid compressibility.
Write an expression for pore compressibility

a)
Bw

Bg

Bo

b)

Rso

! oS + ! gsRso
Bo
!
! g = gS
Bg
!o =

!w =

! wS
Bw

c)

! oL =

! oS
Bo

e)

PV = nZRT .

! " g = " gS

f)

! gsRso
Bo

d)

! oG =

g)

1 "!
c r = ( )( )T
! "P

P ZS
Z PS

1 "V
c f = !( )( )T
V "P

Solution to Final Exam

TPG4160 Reservoir Simulation, May 29, 2007

page 3 of 11

Question 2 (12 points)

For a completely water-wet system, make sketches of saturation functions (including labels
for important points/areas)
a) Oil-water system: imbibition and drainage krw , krow , Pcow vs. Sw
b) Oil-gas system: imbibition and drainage krg , krog , Pcog vs. Sg
c) Typical contours of three-phase kro in a ternary (triangular) diagram (axes So , Sw , Sg )
For a mixed-wet oil-water system, sketch
d) imbibition Pcow vs. Sw . Also label areas of spontaneous and forced imbibition.
a)
Drainage curves
Kr

Pcow
oil
water
Pcd
Sw
1.0

Swir

1.0

Swir

Sw

Imbibition curves
Kr

Pcow
oil
water

Swir

1-Sor

Sw

Swir

1-Sor

Sw

b)
Pcog
Kr
Drainage
process

gas
oil

So =1

Pdog
Sorg

1-Sgc

So

Sorg

1.0

So

Solution to Final Exam

TPG4160 Reservoir Simulation, May 29, 2007

page 4 of 11

Pcog
Kr
Imbibition
process
oil

oil
gas

So =Sor

Sorg

1-Sgro

So

Sorg

1-Sgro

So

c)
100% gas
minimum liquid
saturation under
gas displacement

Sor

0.1
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8

100% water

100% oil
minimum oil plus
gas saturation under
water displacement

Swir

Question 3 (12 points)

Show all steps in the derivation of the following two partial differential equations for onephase flow in a one-dimensional, linear, horizontal porous material. Start with the onedimensional, one-phase, continuity equation and define the models used for fluid and rock
behavior, and state all assumptions made.
! 2 P "c !P
a)
=
!x 2
k !t
! " k !P % " c r d(1/B) % !P
'
$
' = ($ +
b)
!x # B !x & # B
dP & !t
For constant cross sectional area, the continuity equation simplifies to:
"
"
! ( #u) = ($# )
"x
"t
Darcy's equation, which for one dimensional, horizontal flow is:
k "P
u=!
.
"x
Rock compressibility:
1 "!
c r = ( )( )T ! d" = "c r
! "P
dP

Solution to Final Exam

TPG4160 Reservoir Simulation, May 29, 2007

page 5 of 11

! # k !P & !
%"
( = ()")
!x $ ! x ' !t
Fluid compressibility:
1 "V
1 "#
d#
c f = !( )( )T = ( )( )T $ #c f = ( )
V "P
# "P
dP
Right side
!
d" ! P
d# !P
!P
!P
+"
= ( #"c r + "#c f )
= #"c
("#) = #
!t
dP !t
dP !t
!t
!t
Left side:
Assume k and are constants:
! # k ! P & k ! # !P &
%" (
%"
(=
!x $ ! x ' !x $ !x '
Then
# ! 2 P & # !P & 2 d"
# ! 2 P & # !P & 2
! # !P &
! # ! P & # ! P & d" ! P
= "% 2 ( + % (
= "% 2 ( + % ( "c f
%" ( = " % ( + % (
!x $ ! x '
!x $ !x ' $ !x ' dP !x
$ !x ' $ !x ' dP
$ ! x ' $ !x '
2
" ! 2 P % " !P %
We make the assumption that $ 2 ' >> $ ' c f
# !x & # !x &
Then
# ! 2P &
! # !P &
"
)
"
%
(
% 2(
!x $ ! x '
$ !x '
2
! P "c !P
And the equation becomes:
=
!x 2
k !t
! # k !P & !
b) Substitution:
%"
( = ()")
!x $ ! x ' !t
! + ! gS Rso constant
=
Fluid density: ! o = oS
Bo
Bo
Right side
a) Substitution:

! # " & 1 !"

!(1/B) 1 d" !P
d(1/B) !P "c r !P
d(1/B) !P
+"
=
+"
=
+"
% (=
!t $ B ' B !P
!t
B dP !t
dP !t
B !t
dP !t

or
Left side

)c
! #"&
d(1/B) , !P
% ( = constant "+ r +
*B
!t $ B '
dP .- !t

! # k !P & ! # constant k !P &

! # k !P &
%"
(= %
( = constant %
(
!x $ ! x ' !x $ B
!x '
!x $ B !x '

Thus, the flow equation becomes:

! " k !P % )c r d(1/B) , !P
+
$
'=(
!x # B !x & +* B
dP .- !t

Solution to Final Exam

TPG4160 Reservoir Simulation, May 29, 2007

page 6 of 11

Question 4 (10 points)

Use Taylor series and show all steps in the discretization of the following two equations:
! 2 P "c !P
a)
=
!x 2
k !t
"
! k !P % " c r d(1/B) % !P
'
$
' = ($ +
b)
!x # B !x & # B
dP & !t
a) Right side:
"!t
("!t) 2
("!t) 3
P #(x,t + !t) +
P ##(x,t + !t) +
P ###(x,t + !t) + .....
1!
2!
3!
Solving for the time derivative, we get:
!P
P t +"t # Pit
( ) ti +"t = i
+ O("t) .
!t
"t
Left side:
!x
(!x) 2
(!x) 3
"
"
"
P(x + !x,t + !t) = P(x,t) +
P (x,t + !t) +
P (x,t + !t) +
P """(x,t + !t) + .....
1!
2!
3!
(!"x)
(!"x) 2
(!"x) 3
P(x ! "x,t + "t) = P(x,t) +
P #(x,t + "t) +
P ##(x,t + "t) +
P ###(x,t + "t) + .....
1!
2!
3!
By adding these two expressions, and solving for the second derivative, we get the following
approximation:
t +"t
! 2P
P t +"t # 2Pit +"t + Pi#1
( 2 ) ti +"t = i+1
+ O("x 2 )
!x
("x) 2
Substituting into the equation, we get:
t +!t
t +!t
Pi+1
" 2Pit +!t + Pi"1
$c Pit +!t " Pit
#(
)
!x 2
k
!t
P(x,t) = P(x,t + !t) +

b) Right side:
We use the same approximation for the pressure derivative as in a):
) " c r d(1/B) % (P ,t +/t ) " c r d(1/B) %,t +/t Pit +/t 1 Pit
0 +!$ +
'( ).
'.
+!$ +
dP & (t -i
dP &-i
/t
* #B
* #B
Left side:

" k !P %
" k !P % (x /2 ! " k !P % ((x /2) 2 ! 2 " k !P %
(
)
=
$
'
$( ) ' +
$( ) ' +
$( ) ' + .....
1! !x # B !x &i
2! !x 2 # B !x &i
# B !x &i+1/ 2 # B !x &i
" k !P %
" k !P % ()x /2 ! " k !P % (()x /2) 2 ! 2 " k !P %
= $( ) ' +
$( ) '
$( ) ' +
$( ) ' + .....
1! !x # B !x &i
2!
!x 2 # B !x &i
# B !x &i(1/ 2 # B !x &i
combination yields

" k !P %
" k !P %
( ) '
( $( ) '
$
! " k !P % # B !x &i+1/ 2 # B !x &i(1/ 2
+ O()x 2 ) .
$( ) ' =
!x # B !x &i
)x

Using similar central difference approximations for the two pressure gradients:

Solution to Final Exam

TPG4160 Reservoir Simulation, May 29, 2007

and

page 7 of 11

" !P %
P (P
= i+1 i + O()x)
$ '
# !x & i+1/ 2
)x

" !P %
P ( Pi(1
= i
+ O()x) .
$ '
# !x & i(1/ 2
)x
the expression becomes:
" k Pi+1 ) Pi %
" k P ) Pi)1 %
( )
) $( ) i
$
'
'
*x &i+1/ 2 # B
*x &i)1/ 2
! " k !P % # B
$( ) ' (
!x # B !x &i
*x
or
! " k !P %
k
Pi+1 ) Pi
k
P )P
) ( ) i)1/ 2 i 2 i)1
$( ) ' ( ( ) i+1/ 2
2
!x # B !x &i B
*x
B
*x
Thus, the difference equation becomes:
t +"t
+ %c
k
P !P
k
P !P
d(1/B) (. Pit +"t ! Pit
( ) i+1/ 2 i+1 2 i ! ( ) i!1/ 2 i 2 i!1 # -$' r +
*0
B
"x
B
"x
dP )/i
"t
, &B

Question 5 (12 points)

For two-phase flow of oil and water in a horizontal, one-dimensional porous medium, the flow
equations can be written (including well terms):
! " kk ro !Po %
! " *So %
$
' ( q)o = $
'
!x # o Bo !x &
!t # Bo &
! " kkrw !Pw %
! " *Sw %
$
' ( q)w = $
',
! x # w Bw !x &
!t # Bw &
where
Pw = Po ! Pcow
So + Sw = 1
a) Write the two flow equations on discretized forms in terms of transmissibilities, storage
coefficients and pressure and saturation differences (Do not derive).
b) List the assumptions for IMPES solution, and outline briefly how we solve for pressures
and saturations
c) What are the limitations of the IMPES solution?
a)

Txoi+1 2 ( Poi+1 ! Poi ) + Txoi!1 2 ( Poi!1 ! Poi ) ! q"oi

= Cpooi ( Poi ! Poit ) + Cswoi ( Swi ! Swit ),

i = 1,N

Txwi+1 2 [( Poi+1 ! Poi ) ! ( Pcowi+1 ! Pcow i )] + Txwi!1 2 [( Poi!1 ! Poi ) ! ( Pcowi!1 ! Pcow i )] ! q"wi
= Cpowi ( Poi ! Poit ) + Cswwi ( Swi ! Swit ),

i = 1,N

b) In the IMPES solution, all coefficients and capillary pressures are evaluated at time=t. The
two equations are combined so that the saturation terms are eliminated. The resulting equation
is the pressure equation:
ai Poi!1 + bi Poi + c i Poi+1 = di , i = 1,N

Solution to Final Exam

TPG4160 Reservoir Simulation, May 29, 2007

page 8 of 11

which may be solved for pressures in all grid blocks by Gaussian Elimination Method, or some
other method. Then, the saturations may be solved for explicitly by using one of the equations.
Using the oil equation, yields:
1
t
t
t
t
Swi = Swit +
Txoi+1/
, i = 1,N
2 ( Poi+1 ! Poi ) + Txoi!1/ 2 ( Poi!1 ! Poi ) ! q"oi ! Cpooi ( Poi ! Poi )
Cswoit
c) The approximations made in the IMPES method, namely the evaluation of coefficients at
old time level when solving for pressures and saturations at a new time level, puts restrictions
on the solution which sometimes may be severe. Obviously, the greatest implications are on
the saturation dependent parameters, relative permeability and capillary pressure. These
change rapidly with changing saturation, and therefore IMPES may not be well suited for
problems where rapid variations take place.

IMPES is mainly used for simulation of field scale systems, with relatively large grid blocks
and slow rates of change. It is normally not suited for simulation of rapid changes close to
wells, such as coning studies, or other systems of rapid changes.
However, provided that time steps are kept small, IMPES provides accurate and stable
solutions to a long range of reservoir problems.
Question 6 (23 points)
For a one-dimensional, horizontal, 3-phase oil, water, gas system, the general flow equations
are (including well terms):
! " kk ro !Po %
! " *So %
$
' ( q)o = $
',
!x # o Bo !x &
!t # Bo &
! " kk rg !Pg
kk !P %
! " *S
*S %
+ Rso ro o '' ( qg) ( Rsoqo) = $$ g + Rso o ''
$$
!x # g Bg !x
o Bo !x &
!t # Bg
Bo &
! " kk rw !Pw %
! " *Sw %
$
' ( q)w = $
'
!x # w Bw !x &
!t # Bw &
a) Explain briefly the physical meaning of each term in all three equations.
b) What are the criteria for saturated flow? What are the functional dependencies of
Rso and Bo ?
c) What are the primary unknowns when solving the saturated equations?
d) What are the criteria for undersaturated flow? What are the functional dependencies of
Rso and Bo ?
e) What are the primary unknowns when solving the undersaturated equations?
f) Rewrite the equations above for undersaturated flow conditions.

a)

! " kk ro !Po %
$
'(
!x # o Bo !x &
transport of oil

q)o

well potential

! " *So %
$
'
!t # Bo &

accumulation of oil

! " kk rg !Pg
kk !P %
+ Rso ro o '' (
$$
!x # g Bg !x
o Bo !x &

transport of
free gas

transport of
sol. gas

gas well
potential

qg)

Rsoqo)

! " *Sg
+
$
!t $# Bg

Rso

*So %
'
Bo '&

oil well pot.

accumulation.
accumulation
(solution gas) of free gas
of solution gas

Solution to Final Exam

TPG4160 Reservoir Simulation, May 29, 2007

! " kk rw !Pw %
$
'(
!x # w Bw !x &
transport of water

b) Saturated flow:

f)

well potential

! " *Sw %
$
'
!t # Bw &

accumulation of water

Po = Pbp and Sg > 0.

criteria
dependencies Bo = f ( Po ) and Rso = f ( Po ) .

c) Po and Sg
d) Undersaturated flow:
e) Po and Pbp

q)w

criteria

Po > Pbp and Sg = 0.

dependencies Bo = f ( Po ,Pbp ) and Rso = f ( Pbp ) .

! " kk ro !Po %
! " *So %
$
' ( q)o = $
'
!x # o Bo !x &
!t # Bo &
!"
kkro !Po %
! " *So %
$ Rso
' ( q)g ( Rsoq)o = $ Rso
',
!x # o Bo !x &
!t #
Bo &
! " kk rw !Pw %
! " *Sw %
$
' ( q)w = $
'
!x # w Bw !x &
!t # Bw &

page 9 of 11

Solution to Final Exam

TPG4160 Reservoir Simulation, May 29, 2007

page 10 of 11

Question 7 (10 points)

For a one-dimensional (z), 3-phase oil, water, gas system, outline how initial pressures and
saturations may be computed in a simulation model, assuming that equilibrium conditions
apply. Sketch the grid system, including gas-oil-contact (GOC) and water-oil-contact (WOC).
Also sketch the oil-gas and oil-water capillary pressure curves, and show the steps involved in
the calculations of initial pressures, gas and water saturations

Solution to Final Exam

TPG4160 Reservoir Simulation, May 29, 2007

page 11 of 11

Question 8 (10 points)

Using compositional fluid formulation, the flow equation for component k of a system with
N c components may be written as:
kk !P
!#
kk !P & !
) (Ckg " g Sg + Cko " o So ) ,
%%Ckg " g rg g + Cko " o ro o (( =
!x $
g !x
o !x ' !t

k = 1,N c

The Black Oil fluid formulation results in the following flow equations for oil and gas:

! " kkrg ! Pg kkro Rso ! Po % ! ) " Sg So Rso % ,

+
= +(
+
.
! x $# Bg g ! x
Bo o ! x '& ! t +* $# Bg
Bo '& .! " kk ro !Po % ! " (So %
$
'= $
'
!x # Boo !x & !t # Bo &
If we define the Black Oil model to be a pseudo-compositional model with two components,
efine the components and the fractions needed to convert the compositional equations to
Black-Oil equations.
component 1: oil k=o
kk !P
!#
kk !P & !
) (Cog " g Sg + Coo " o So )
%%Cog " g rg g + Coo " o ro o (( =
!x $
g !x
o !x ' ! t

component 2: gas k=g

kk !P
!#
kk !P & !
) (Cgg " g Sg + Cgo " o So )
%%Cgg " g rg g + Cgo " o ro o (( =
!x $
g !x
o !x ' ! t
Question: what are the fractions needed to get the Black Oil equations:
! " kk rg !Pg kkro Rso !Po % ! ) " Sg So Rso %,
+
$
' = +($ +
'.
!x $# Bg g !x
Boo !x '& !t +* $# Bg
Bg '&.! " kk ro !Po % ! " (So %
$
'= $
'
!x # Boo !x & !t # Bo &
Answer:

fraction of "gas in gas": Cgg = 1

fraction of "oil in gas": Cog = 0

! gS Rso
! o Bo
!
fraction of "oil in oil": Coo = oS
! o Bo
fraction of "gas in oil": Cgo =