BHS

110
ZIMBABWE

INTRODUCTION

TO

CULTURE AND HERITAGE

STUDENT LECTURE NOTES

CULTURE
When a group of people stay together, they develop some ways
of doing, expressing things. Societies develop culture which is
sometimes unique to them. Culture of one society/community
can be different to another community. Cultures of certain
community or group of people can be taken to other
communities and have an effect. This means therefore that
culture is not static but is dynamic. Culture can be defined in
several ways.
SOME DEFINITIONS

Culture refers to the cumulative deposit of knowledge,

experience,
beliefs,
values,
attitudes,
meanings,
hierarchies, religion, notions of time, roles, spatial
relations, concepts of the universe, and material objects
and possessions acquired by a group of people in the
course of generations through individual and group
striving.

Culture is the systems of knowledge shared by a relatively

large group of people.

Culture is communication, communication is culture.

Culture in its broadest sense is cultivated behaviour; that

is the totality of a person's learned, accumulated
experience which is socially transmitted, or more briefly,
behaviour through social learning.

A culture is a way of life of a group of people--the

behaviours, beliefs, values, and symbols that they accept,
generally without thinking about them, and that are
passed along by communication and imitation from one
generation to the next.

Culture is symbolic communication. Some of its symbols

include a group's skills, knowledge, attitudes, values, and
motives. The meanings of the symbols are learned and

deliberately
institutions.

perpetuated

in

society

through

its

Culture consists of patterns, explicit and implicit, of and

for behaviour acquired and transmitted by symbols,
constituting the distinctive achievement of human groups,
including their embodiments in artefacts; the essential
core of culture consists of traditional ideas and especially
their attached values; culture systems may, on the one
hand, be considered as products of action, on the other
hand, as conditioning influences upon further action.

Culture is the sum of total of the learned behaviour of a

group of people that are generally considered to be the
tradition of that people and are transmitted from
generation to generation.

Culture is a collective programming of the mind that

distinguishes the members of one group or category of
people from another.

THEORIES OF CULTURE
THEORY OF CULTURAL DETERMINISM

The position that the ideas, meanings, beliefs and values

people learn as members of society determines human
nature. People are what they learn. Optimistic version of
cultural determinism places no limits on the abilities of
human beings to do or to be whatever they want. Some
anthropologists suggest that there is no universal "right
way" of being human. "Right way" is almost always "our
way"; that "our way" in one society almost never
corresponds to "our way" in any other society. Proper
attitude of an informed human being could only be that of
tolerance.

The optimistic version of this theory postulates that

human nature being infinitely malleable; human being can
choose the ways of life they prefer.

The pessimistic version maintains that people are what

they are conditioned to be; this is something over which
they have no control. Human beings are passive creatures
and do whatever their culture tells them to do. This
explanation leads to behaviour g nyyyism that locates the
causes of human behaviour in a realm that is totally
beyond human control.

CULTURAL RELATIVISM

Different cultural groups think, feel, and act differently.

There are no scientific standards for considering one group
as intrinsically superior

r or inferior to another. Studying differences in culture

among groups and societies presupposes a position of
cultural relativism. It does not imply normalcy for oneself,
or for one's society. It, however, calls for judgment when
dealing with groups or societies different from one's own.
Information about the nature of cultural differences
between societies, their roots, and their consequences
should precede judgment and action. Negotiation is more
likely to succeed when the parties concerned understand
the reasons for the differences in viewpoints.

CULTURAL ETHNOCENTRISM

Ethnocentrism is the belief that one's own culture is

superior to that of other cultures. It is a form of
reductionism that reduces the "other way" of life to a
distorted version of one's own. This is particularly
important in case of global dealings when a company or
an individual is imbued with the idea that methods,
materials, or ideas that worked in the home country will
also work abroad. Environmental differences are,

therefore, ignored. Ethnocentrism, in relation to global

dealings, can be categorized as follows:
o

Important factors in business are overlooked because

of
the
obsession
with
certain
cause-effect
relationships in one's own country. It is always a good
idea to refer to checklists of human variables in order
to be assured that all major factors have been at
least considered while working abroad.

Even though one may recognize the environmental

differences and problems associated with change,
but may focus only on achieving objectives related to
the home-country. This may result in the loss of
effectiveness of a company or an individual in terms
of international competitiveness. The objectives set
for global operations should also be global.

The differences are recognized, but it is assumed that

associated changes are so basic that they can be
achieved effortlessly. It is always a good idea to
perform a cost-benefit analysis of the changes
proposed. Sometimes a change may upset important
values and thereby may face resistance from being
implemented. The cost of some changes may exceed
the benefits derived from the implementation of such
changes.

ZIMBABWEAN
VALUES

TRADITIONAL

AND

CULTURAL

MARRIAGE INSTITUTIONS
-Marriage is one of the most important institutions that was/is
highly valued by the various cultural groups that are found in
Zimbabwe.
-The marriage institution allowed procreation and therefore
continuity hence it was largely celebrated.

-This institution has largely been affected by the Western

culture and the conversion of African people into Western
religions like Christianity- How? Lesbians and Gays and also
dedicated brothers and sisters in the case of Catholics.
- People are now highly mobile in this globalized world as a
result people have largely intermarried and this has affected
the marriage institution in Zimbabwe.
- Marriage is considered an avenue to get status amongst most
ethnic groups in Zimbabwe.
-It is almost universal amongst the Bantu people that a person
is referred to using the name of the first born e.g mother of so
and so or father as so and so.
- The westerners use their first names or other tittles e.g.
Doctor ,Professor, Mr., Mrs., Reverend etc.
-parenthood is necessary to establish status among the people
of Zimbabwe
-family life is thus of outer most importance. That is the reason
why people who dont get get married are regarded as social
outcast e.g tsvimborume or mbongorori this is usually explain
as a misfortune or caused by evil sprits e.g ane chitsinha.
At this juncture ,it is important to establish how this marriages
were formed and how they functioned-marriages have varieties of forms, right and customs in
different parts of the country. The procedures for getting
married vary widely.
NB the marriage is essentially A CONTRACT BETWEEN TWO
FAMILIES. A marriage is not a contract between two people
(Bourdillion 1987,40)
QUESTION:Why do we regard marriage as a contract between
two families.
-Tezvara is a tezvara to the whole of the grooms family.

-people usually say we have married such and such a family

-negotiations for marriage require participation by senior
representatives of each family. PROCEDURES THAT ARE
FOLLOWED
The process of marriage varies with status, region and cultural
beliefs. Normal procedures of marriage are as follows; it all
begins with informal courting which can also involve private
engagement i.e the exchange of love talking (nduma) between
the agreed parties. The love tokens included the pieces of
under clothing from the girl
-This has largely been replaced by public agreement where
engagement rings will be exchanged.
-This will be followed by the formal and public engagement in
this case the suitor approaches the girls family through a
messenger that is munyai with some gifts .
-The pride price is then negotiated and paid but nor in fullmukusha should remain in debt
- Terms included in the bride price include rutsambo, mombe
yehumai, roora
-Rutsambo was associated with sexual rights and was only paid
to virgins.
Roora was paid in the form of cattle; this gave the husband
rights over children born to the woman
-Mombe yehumai cow of motherhood was committed to the
matrilineal ancestors
-The bride price should not be equated to other transcations e.g
buying a home or a car
- the wife is not a supply bought as property or a slave might be
bought and sold again
-the husbands family may not pass her on to a third family

-in the case of divorce she must be officially returned to her kin.
OTHER TRADITIONAL FORMS OF MARRIAGE
1.
2.
3.
4.

Elopement i.e kutizira

child marriage i.e kuzvarira/kuzvarirwa
service marriage i.e kutema ugariri
church marriage i.e this was borrowed from the European
marriage customs
5. court marriages i.e this was borrowed from the European
marriage customs

AFRICAN TRADITIONAL MEDICINES

-Sickness usually requires an explanation among the people of
Zimbabwe-we have two categories of explanations
1. Scientific explanation
2. Spiritual explanation
-If an ailment occurs or should it become serious and life
threatening, it requires an explanation beyond the ancestral or
scientific explanation e.g HIV/AIDS
For this reasons we had to believe in both the western
medicines/ western medicated treatment and traditional
treatment
-Scientific medicines were only introduced into Africa by the
white man but before then there were native doctors/healers.
-With the coming of the white man and western medicine and
Christianity
traditional
medicines
were
discouragedmissionaries attempted to discourage the use of traditional
medicines.
-The traditional healers (native doctors) where considered to be
devil worshippers, who were doomed to hell unless they turned
to Christianity- they are regarded nyangas or varoyi

-Many people now shun or are ashamed of visiting the

traditional practitioners because of the stigma attached to
traditional treatment and medicines.
-Nowadays western scientific medicines are given first choice.
-But there are cases in which scientifically trained doctors fail to
diagnose the cause of illness. In that case native doctors have
to be consulted.
-African worldview-Abnormal illness are caused by ancestral
spirits, ngozi (avenging spirits), mashave (wondering spirits)
and witches)
- it is important to note that illness is believed to be caused by
angered spirits, witchcraft or sorcery-Even HIV and AIDS.
-in this case it is not wise to rely on scientific medicines which
only cure the physical being rather than the spiritual being.
-most Zimbabwean people like other African groups believe
that their well being depends on their relationship with spirit
guardians who control their lives.
- The living are protected by the- native doctors or healers.
-The living dead are belied to have the protective powers-so
that evil does not enter the homes-thats the reason why there
is the kurova guva ceremony.
-if a person a person becomes sick it means the spiritual world
will have removed their protective powers as punishment some
corrective rituals should be carried out to appease these spirits
to get the protection once again.
-in order to reconnect with the world with the world of the
departed (nyikadzimu) who control what happens in the under
world people have to go the relevant person .i.e the nanga or
healers.
-the traditional healer has the power to power to communicate
with the world of the departed ones-not any other ordinary

person can do that; same with the faith healers these days=not
all persons can speak a hear God (vanzwi vedenga)
- There are two types of traditional healers
1. One who specialize in divinity
2. One who specialize in herbalist (therapy)
-The professional diviner gives the diagnosis for the illness and
sometimes prescribes the remedy.
-the diagnosis includes curve hakata /gata i.e. throwing of the
divining dices which can be carved wood, ivory or bone. Dices
-these
divers
have
different
chirume,nhokwara,kwadzima,ngwena,kivani.

names

of

-treatment can include

1. Brewing of millet in honor of the sprit guardian
2. Use of herbal remedies(herbs) or other therapies solutions,
blood etc 3 kutemwa nyora-making incisions on the skin and
rubbing some mechanical powder or smoking out the foreign
elements in the body 4 some medicines are taken by mouth
e.g. powders and liquid form.
AFRICAN TRADITIONAL DANCE/ZIMBABWEAN
-dance is an important aspect of African people in general and
Zimbabwean culture in particular.
-in Zimbabwe different ethnic groups have unique traditional
dances which were performed at different functions and
occasions.
-song and dances in the past were important vehicles of
communication between the living and the living deadRELIGIOUS, SOCIAL AND CEREMONIAL PACKAGE.
-the traditional songs and dances can be very spiritual.

-Dances are also used as a vehicle of transmitting traditions,

good value and customs from one generation to the next. They
therefore have meanings.
-Dancing can also used to arouse the spirits-if one dances he is
quickly possessed.
-Traditional dances were also performed for simple enjoyment
or entertainment.
-The dances can be classified into three main groups
1. Ritual dances
2. Commemorative
3. Ritual dances
-Zimbabwean people fall into several ethnic and sub ethnic
groups which include the Ndebele, shona(ndau),Zezuru,
Manyika, Karanga,Korekore and kalanga, and other community
groups such as the Machangana,Tsonga, Venda, Shongwe,
Nambia
-the traditional dances of the Zimbabwean people include
Muchongoyo,
mbkuamba,
shangara,
mhande,
chinyanhera,mbende (jerusalema),gule Wamukulu (Nyao) jiti,
Ngororombe,
Mbaqanga,
imbongi,
Tsotsa,
isitshikisha,
Zvipumha.
-these different traditional dances
historical and spiritual contexts.

have

unique

cultural

- They are also accompanied by peculiar material culture which

includes costumes and instruments.
-Different skills are needed to perform the different dances e.g
acrobatics
-According to Mataga (2008) traditional dances are a unique
form of cultural expression

-these dances are an important aspect of our heritage which

should be preserved for posterity.
-efforts have been made to preserve these traditional dances
and document them by the Zimbabwe National Traditional
Dance Association (ZINTDA) and the National Arts Council
(NAC)
-these traditional dances are still being performed mainly in the
rural areas, farms and townships mostly by the elderly.
-however majority of Zimbabwean people have since
abandoned traditional dances because they are considered
backward and against their Christian beliefs
-it is not possible to cover all dances in detail in this
lecture.
Three traditional dances will be covered in this lecture i.e
Mbende/Jerusalema, Muchongoyo and Gule Wmukulu.

MBENDE/JERUSAREMA
-Jerusarema dance was traditionally performed by the Zezuru
people of Murehwa and Uzumba Maramba Pfungwe districts
-The Jerusarema dance was originally called Mhende
-The dance was originally performed as a war dance which was
devised to distract the enemy.
-The mbende dance was performed in order to confuse the
enemies in the same way as the Haka dance of the All Blacks in
rugby today.
-The Zezuru would put forward women, too old and too young,
to dance before the war so that the enemy would think the
battle would be too easy.

-long after the threats of war had disappeared, the Mbende

dance continued to be an important part of Zezuru people.
-The Christian missionaries considered many African dances to
be lustful, indecent and provocative. And also that leads and
promoted laziness.
-Many African dances were outlawed and prohibited and were
replaced with ballroom, walt dances during colonial period.
-Just like traditional medicines most of these dances were
viewed as part and parcel of devil worshipping.
- Mbende was officially outlawed in 1910
-The Zezuru then changed the name from Mbende to
Jerusarema so that they could continue with their dances.
Mbende was thus christened Jerusarema.
-The Jerusarema dance took a sexual emphasis along the way. it
is too seductive and erotic.
-Some scholars would want to view Jerusarema as a dance that
was performed at night by men and women of marrying age as
a form of entertainment. Provided opportunities for cover to
meet
-Mbende remains important to the people of Zimbabwe since
the Mbende drumming is is used on ZBC.
-Due to its importance in 2005 Mbende /Jerusarema was listed
on the Unesco Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage
of humanity list
MUCHONGOYO
-The Muchongoyo dance is most popular cultural activity among
the Ndau people of Chipinge.
-Chongoyo is a Ndau word meaning stamping ones feet in pain.
-The Muchongoyo dance developed from the Nguni war dance
called Amahubo

-Soshangana (a runaway commander of Tshaka the Zulu

brought this dance to Gazaland
-the war regiments would dance with their spears and shields in
their full military regalia.
-the dance included some summersaults and walking on hands
to show strength and display aggression and submission.
-Muchongoyo served no ritualistic or religious purpose.
-long after the Mfecane wars the Muchongoyo dance continued
to be performed for purely entertainment purposes.
-This should be contrasted with other dances e.g. Mbende
which are primarily carried out in religious ritual contexts like at
the kurova guva ceremony.
GULE WAMUKULU/NYAO/NYAWO DANCE
-Gule Wamukulu literally means the big or great dance aka
Zvinyau/Zvigure dances
-This dance was introduced to Zimbabwe by migrant workers
Malawi and Zambia who came to work in commercial farms and
mines during the 1950s
-Gule Wmukulu is now a religious institution which features at
the core of the Chewa culture of Nyaja people
-Nyau masked dancers are understood to be spirits of the dead
and are usually done by men.
-in order to do the Gule Wamukulu one should be initiated with
the secret society and this involves staying/residing in a
wooded grove/place of the dead i.e. grave yard
-Gule Wmkulu is a religious dance whose function is to
communicate with the ancestral world.
- the dance goes back to the Great Chewa empire of the 17 th
century. However, it did not began as a religious dance.

-it is understood that Gule Wamukulu originated during the time

of Great famine and it came up as a means of survival as it
allowed its members to dance and entertain people in return for
food.
-it was invented by KALANZI PHIRI, eventually it was joined by
Chiefs and headmen who had no desire to be exposed or
recognized as participants as a result the dance ended up being
a masked dance.
-it was eventually transformed into a religious dance that it has
become today.
-in Zimbabwe Gule Wamukulu is popular in farm and mine
compounds and is rather done purely for entertainment
purposes.
-the dance is also staged at funeral ceremonies and at boys
and girls initiation ceremonies (Chinamwari)
IMPACT OF MODERNISATION ON TRADITIONAL DANCES
-traditional dances in Zimbabwe are constantly changing.
-though some of the dances remain the same the purpose has
since changed e.g. some of the religious dances are now
carried out of context at dance competitions like the Chibuku
Neshamwari Traditional Competition.
-with the incoming of Christianity most of these dances are
view negatively. They are largely seen as devil worshipping as
such most people shun joining institutions like Gule wamukulu.
-modern religious beliefs tend to be against traditional dances
e.g. Apostolic families dont want their children to participate in
traditional dances which they see as evil.
-dances have been weakened due to the
modernization, migration of diversity of religions.

effects

of

-the material culture used in the dances have also changed

through time e.g. attire and instruments.

-we now have new forms of dances e.g chibhasikoro,

borrowdale, kochekera bheriya, pantsula which are now popular
in townships, farms and growth points.
MODERNITY,
GLOBALIZATION
CULTURAL VALUES

AND

ZIMBABWEAN

- {Q} what is modernity and what is globalization?

{Q} when did globalization start?
(Q) Is globalization civilizing or destructive? i.e bad or good
(Q) Is globalization equivalent to westernization?
(Q) What has been the impact of modernity and globalization
on Zimbabwean cultural values?
(Q) Should we equate globalization to European colonization,
imperialism and neo colonialism?
INTRODUCTION
Terms like modernity and globalization are frequently used in
the day to day vocabulary. However, the exact meaning of
these terms remains problematic.
-frequently we hear people saying that we are now living in a
global village a term which was coined by Mcluhan. But what
exactly is meant by the concept global village does it mean
one world, one culture, whose culture for whose benefit?
DEFINITIONS OF GLOBALISATION
-Hochschild (1998) defines globalization as the removal of
national boundaries as impediments to the free flow of capital,
of goods and of services. THE ECONOMIC PERSPECTIVE
-Giddens cited in Sengupta (2001) defines globalization as the
intensification of worldwide social relations which link distant
localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by
events miles away and vice versa= THE SOCIAL
PERSPECTIVE

-Senguta (2001) looks at globalization as the process by which

the people of the world are incorporated into a single society,
i.e the global society.
-some would simply want to view globalization as the increased
contact between people, their values, ideas and way of life.
- How is this achieved? By travelling, communication e.g. tv,
internet, mobile phones airplanes satellites.
-it is now much easier to reach out other parts of the world in
short space of time.
WHEN AND HOW DID GLOBALIZATION BEGIN?
-According to Guttal (2007) the routes of globalization can be
traced back to colonization of Asia, Africa and the Americas by
the dominant economic powers of Europe.
-The exact periodization and nature of globalization has been a
matter of dispute.
-Some would like to view globalization as a phenomenon which
began with the voyages of discovery in the 15 th century e.g.
Christopher Columbus-vasco dagama etc.
-globalization is thus viewed as a byproduct of European
imperialism and colonization.
-the cross border flows of investment, knowledge flow and
other cultural goods and people are therefore not new
phenomena
-As a byproduct of colonization globalization is frequently
looked at as negative development
-critics argue that globalization is demonic and antagonistic to
local cultures, economies etc.
-globalization has largely been associated with destruction of
cultural identities, victims of accelerating of homogenized,
westernized consumer culture.

-the critics see globalization as a soundless extension of

western cultural imperialism therefore there is a general
assumption that globalization destroys local indigenous
identities and cultural values (acculturation)
-it is a fact that Europeans have always viewed their culture
and values as universal and superior that is ethnocentrism- the
tendency to use their own groups culture as the basis or
yardstick for charging others (Gwirayi, 2010 p70) they usually
view other cultural values as bad and inferior.
-from this perspective globalization on the socio-cultural sense
can be equated to cultural imperialism i.e we have antiglobalisation activists
- globalization is therefore seen as acculturation- which is
resulting in the domination of western values and symbols.
-in Africa we have been just losing our political institutions,
social values, central identity.
THE EFFECTS OF GLOBALIZATION ON ZIMBABWEAN VALUES
-THERE IS NO DOUBT that globalization has both good and bad
effects on cultural values.

THE NEGATIVE EFFECTS

1. It has resulted in the abandonment of traditional values and
practices.
-Zimbabweans in general are now xenocentric i.e. they prefer
goods, services and cultural values that are foreign.
-they largely consider their culture and practices as inferior to
those from other country (Gwirayi 2010)
-we have a high appetite for goods from other countries e.g.
S.A and Europe and recently Dubai.

2. Globalization has seen the dismantling of the economic basis

on which Zimbabwean cultural values should survive/depend
von e.g. In an economic set up where agro pastoral activities
form the economic base- rainfall will be important thus people
will contribute with their rainmaking ceremonies. We now have
industries in town which dont directly rely on good harvest
new professions e.g. Teachers, soldiers, lawyers.
- Our cultural values depend upon socio economic
contexts if these are removed the values will be affected
as well. E.g. roora in the form of cattle mombe yehumai
you cant bring it to the town.
3. Globalization has also resulted in the imposition of western
values in Zimbabwe. e.g most evident is the way we dress
what was wrong with our own traditional dress.
- Language we treat western languages as superior we
continue to use the language of our former colonizers.
- With globalization the Nollywood film industry and
entertainment have some to dominate thus affecting the
lifestyles of the youth.
- The international dominance of U.S films is just one aspect
of the spread of western culture.

TOTEMISM
What is it?
It is the belief that people are discerned from animals, plants
and other natural objects.
-these natural objects are symbolized as totems which are
associated with clans/groups of families with common descent
(ancestry)

-however, Shona cultures doesnt believe that people

necessarily originate from animals and other objects but they
identify themselves with certain animal species for the purpose
of social identity.
-most Bantu people have these totems for instance Zulu,
Xhosa, Swazi and Australian Aborigines.
-Totemism happens to be as old as Shona culture itself-totenism
is a key component of the Bantu religious beliefs.
-the French anthropologist Guile Durklein using the functionalist
approach contends that totemism is the simplest and most
basic form of religion.
-A clan lives on large extended family with its members sharing
certain duties and obligations. each clan has its own totem
usually animal and animal body parts, the totem acts as a
symbol.
-the totem is the emblem of the clan as Durkein puts it it is its
flag I, its the sign by which its clan distinguish itself from
others
-Durklein noted that a totem is more than a mere symbol it is
rather a religious, sacred symbol.
-Shona society is divided into multiplicity of clans and sub-clans
which distinguishes themselves from each other on the basis of
totems.
-these use at least 25 idendifiable totems Shona society with at
least 65 praise names
-the totems include:
shoko, moyo, shava, ngara, gumbo, tsivo-gushungo , gwayi,
mbizi. Nzou, Shumba, bonga, nyati, dziva, nheta, beta,
garwe, mbeva, mbano, mhembwe, nguruve/humba, shiri,
mhara, mhari, mvuu e.tc

Shoko/soko has 6 praise names, mukanya, bvudzijena,

wachemuka, murehwa, mutadza, Gumere, mudyavevana
-praise names are used to identify a sub-clan
-Moyo, tsivo and Gumbo are not animals but organs of animals.

WHY ADOPTING TOTEMS?

-it is difficult to explain why the shona people adopted totems,
however, from our observations about the functions of totems
we can hypothesis.
-it appears totems were a strategy of survival
-it seems from his origin man has drawn inspiration for survival
from nature-in any case man is dependent on nature for
survival e.g. Food., shelter, clothing, medicine
-man find all solutions to problems from nature
-with the increase in population there was need to have social
identity, we saw that the animal kingdom is made up of distinct
species of animals others very aggressive and others friendly
and others simply shy.
-it may be because of this that the earliest ancestors decided to
adopt certain animals as their totems in order to represent the
social differentiation that was taking place in their society and
they were increasing in numbers.
-particular animals were chosen as totems because of certain
attributes which they possessed.
-the attributes were found to be very useful if imitated by
human beings
-these attribute made human society more stable and
organized to achieve their daily needs e.g monkeys live as a
group which translate into a clan/family. Monkeys care for each
other and they fight to protect members of their group.

-monkeys have a clear social structure were the younger ones

respect the elders
-elephants represent strength i.e the clan is against laziness
FUNCTION OF TOTEMS
1. They are the basis of social identity. They dont only
identify people socially but also historically and culturally.
e.g. the study of Shona totems is an avenue in knowing
and approximating Shona history and culture.
2. Totems are important in a society because they are the
basis for solidarity and unity. People of the same totem are
basically relatives who share a common ancestry. As a
result they always see each other as one.
3. they have a religious function. the belief in totemism
emphasis some of the central traits of religion e.g.
amongst the Shona totemism is one of the fundamental
pillars of their religion. we use totems and praise names to
communicate to mwari and the departed ones (family
spirits)
4. Totenism is an important basis for socialization not only
among man but also between man and women. Totenism
regulates gender relations. each and every individual
through totemic identity is given a particular social
position which is respected by members of his / her clan
as well as members of other clans.
5. Totems also regulate marriage. Most Bantu people are
EXOGAMOUS. A woman can only marry into a different
clan where she will be considered Mutorwa.
6. totenism plays an important role in the solving of conflict.
In Shona society when people of the same totem wrong
each other they are persuaded to forgive each other
because they are children of the same clan.- similarly
people of different totems are persuaded to solve their
differences because of fear of ngozi.
7. Totems also serve as the basis for dividing roles and
responsibilities to members of different clans. People
negotiate their roles through totems.

8. Totems also regulate the environment. hunting

regulated by clans they do not hunt or eat their totems

is

TOTEMISM IN CONTEMPORARY SOCIETY

-As knowledge form totemism is fast losing its significance
although Shona people still identify themselves using
totems.
-some of the important rituals and beliefs associated with
totems have been abandoned
-all cultural values are found in totems-totenism is a
package of values
-it appears that today totenism is a symbol that has been
emptied of its contents due to the encroachment and
embrace of western cultural values by Africans.
-totenism is an important aspect of Bantu religious beliefs
when Christian missionaries came they denigrated African
religious beliefs branding them paganist practices.
-with many Africans converting to Christianity with the
passage of time the significance of totenism begun to
decline
-cases of people with the same totem who marry each
other are on the rise.
-elite Africans and their children have totally lost
knowledge about totenism and their cultural values in
general
-increased physical mobility among Africans means that
many have moved from their traditional homes to go to
mining and commercial farm areas and cities as they seek
employment.
-Africans no longer identify themselves with their clans
-Prostitution, men who indulge in prostitution do not
bother to ask about the prostitutes totem
-in spite of the impact of western culture totenism to some
extend is still being celebrated.
The Shona religion
The spiritual hierarchy

MWARI/MUSIKAVANHU

NATIONAL/INTER TERRITORIAL SPIRITS/MHONDORO

FAMILY SPIRITS/MUDZIMU
-The shona believe in the high God whose personal name is
Mwari with various names such as Nyadenga, Dedza,
Musikavanhu, Dzivaguru, Chikara, Mutakangakugara
-Mwari is considered a spirit (mudzimu) since he has other
vadzimu below him he is the supreme mudzimu.
-Shona religion is one of the few religions in Africa and the
entire world that believes in the existence of one god
(monotheistic religion)
-Mwari who is the god of the Shona people was one of the
earliest of the Shona people called Murenga whose epithet
were Pfumojena or Sorojena and he was the son of Tovela.
-he was elevated to the position of God because of his extra
ordinary activities.
-he was a warrior leader who was eager to fight for his people.
-He was a charismatic leader whose people always depended
on him for their security and survival.
-consequently when he died he became a legend emulated by
all people.
-in shona religions history his spirit did not possess any human
medium heart could communicate to its followers from trees,
rocks, caves and from the sky.
-below Mwari
Makombwe)

are national or territorial spirits (Majukwa?

-These are spirits who also were elevated to without status

because of extra ordinary deeds in society.
-While each ruling dynasty had its own chiefly spirits same of its
activities went beyond the boundaries of the chiefdoms hence
the label inter-territorial spirits e.g. Chaminuka. Kaguvi and
Nehanda.
-with the establishment of the modern Zimbabwean state these
spirits became known as NATIONAL SPIRITS
-On the bottom of the hierarchy are the family spirits.
-These are the 3 levels in the Shona spiritual hierarchy- this is
very important in understanding the religious practice of the
people.
-Spiritual needs were satisfied at different levels e.g. Mwari s
responsibilities are intended to gravity the Shona people as a
whole through providing rains, freeing society from wars,
epidemics drought and other human
and non- human
catastrophes thus when people approach Mwari they do it as a
group and not individuals.
-God ensured the fertility of the land.
-at the Chiefdom level the Chiefly spirits(mhondoro) were
involved in the activities which affected the Chiefdom part
rain making ceremonies, giving day, to see that no one violated
chisi and also to sanction the installation of the chief. At the
family level each family had the responsibility to do rituals to
satisfy their needs as families.
- The Shona people just like other Bantu cultural groups have
many traditional ceremonies to mark significant occasions in a
persons life
DEATH AND BURIAL IN SHONA SOCIETY
-death in Shona culture is considered as a rite of people.

-it is the avenue from the physical to the metaphysical world

(spirit world)
-For the Shona it is believed that a human being made up the
spirit and the flesh.
-And the death means the separation of the two.
-however while the body/flesh will decompose the spirit
continues the live the spirit is immortal.
-The Shona people believe that every death has a cause
whether it is a toddler, a young adult person or an adult or old
age.
-Reasons of death are visible or invisible e.g car accident there
is a visible and invisible cause.
- The visible reason/ the manifest cause is not adequate in
explaining the cause of the death to satisfy the Shona people.
-the Shona people try to explain death through reference to the
invisible causes i.e those which go beyond the visible reasons.
- These are attributed to evil spirits that may be tormenting the
family of the victim that may be tormenting the family of the
victim.
- all misfortunes whether they are death or any other levels of
suffering are always attributed to the work of evil spirits which might be manipulated by some people who are against
the success of other individuals and families.
- The Shona people attribute death to mostly witchcraft
activities.
-witchcraft is the most hated and feared form of evil in Shona
culture.
- The reason for this intense hatred is that witches believe in
the values that are the
antithesis of what the Shona people
celebrate in their culture.

-the Shona people are survivalists, as such they celebrate

human existence- witches on the other land take pride in
terminating human life they are against social progress
-When a person is about to die certain precautions were taken
The person would be moved to a hut that was not frequently by
outsiders
-As birth occurs in private, so too should occur behind closed
doors.
-Outsiders were not supposed to know about the illness
because many of them might be people responsible for illness.
-People would ask him /her if they were any outstanding debts
so that they could be settled.
-in the very traditional Shona past sometimes a person was
given medicines to make the passing away easier.
-soon after death the villagers were notified of death through
drums and horns or by word of mouth.
-The body of deceased was walled in preparation for burial by
close relatives.
-Burials differ e.g. Chiefs and headman Their place for burial
and death was not normally announced in public e.g. stay for
months.
-chiefs were not buried underground but in caves i.e. ninga.
-Burial known in different words e.g.
kuviga, kuradzika.

kuchengeta, kurasha,

-During the burial there were rituals to protect body of the

deceased.
KUROVA GUVA CEREMONY/MAGADZIRO
{SETTLING THE DECEASEDS SPIRIT}

The ceremony is known by different names among the Shona

sub-cultural
groups
e.g
karangamagadziro,kugadzira
mudzimu, Zezuru-kurova guva (to beat the grave),korekore
kutamba mudzimu, kutora mudzimu or bona.
-however, the ceremony generally is performed during the
same season of the year to save a common function.
-Some rites may differ here and there but the function of ritual
is the same i.e to invite the spirit of the deceased into the
family.
-The ceremony is directly linked to the burial ceremony due to
the fact that when the burial ceremony is being conducted it
is done in anticipation of performing the kurova guva in the
near future.
- It takes place a year after burial
-The Shona belief that the body will have to completely
decompose .however, there are instances where it can take
place immediately after burial.
-This would be due to some difficulties surrounding the
condition of the deceaseds spirit.
-When a person dies the Shona be believes that the spirit of the
deceased wonders in the wilderness awaiting the kurova guva
ceremony.
-Post burial period the spirit is considered dangerous and can
be manipulated by evil spirits.
-Musha mutema- there is a dark cloud that wonders in the
family.
-The ritual can also be held after more than one year in some
cases after 30 to 40 years due to several factors.
1. In poor families this was mainly due to lack of livestock
especially cattle or the scarcity of grain to brew beer and food
to feed people at the ceremony.

2. Sometimes there were droughts which would force people to

post pone the ceremony.
3. The person might have died in a distant place
4 rituals are performed according to spirituality hence they
have to wait until the seniors kurova guva has been done.
5. Family conflicts in some of them held to do with the
deceases wealth and widow.
6. In modern days the impact of western religious (Christianity)
-The ceremony was held during the dry season (August) dry
season=religious and social activities.
It was seen after harvest that food will therefore be plentiful.
-There were certain taboos that were supposed to be respected
between the burial and the kurova guva ceremony by the
members of the family e.g. The children were not supposed to
..
-The spirit should be there to bless ..
-They also wanted to to prevent shock to the incoming of new
members in the family.
-You were not supposed to temper with the estate of the
deceased since it will have to wait the inheritance ceremony
which is held after the KUROVA GUVA ceremony and this might
include the widow.
-the widow herself was not to marry or indulge in sexual
relation s until after the kurova guva and nhaka ceremony.
-if a widow or widower decided to marry before kurovaguva
ceremony thats violation which referred to as kupisa Guva
PROCEDURES TO BE TAKEN IN THE KUROVA GUVA
CEREMONY
-The rituals differ from place to place and region to region.

- They consult a nanga to find out the procedure they should

take.
- Consulting a nanga is done to make sure that the ritual will
be performed in a way that is acceptable to the spirit.
-From this stage all the steps will be done with amultation with
the deceaseds spirit.
-the ritual should have the approval of the family spirits.
-if one wants to marry there should be consultation.
-Millet beer will be brewed by elderly woman who are
beyond child bearing stage with no sexual relations(kupedza
Ura)
-she will be helped by the small boys and girls (pre pubescent
boys and girls)
-members of the family are advised not to have conflict when
preparing for the ceremony.
-On the evening before the ceremony the beer is concentrated
to the spirit of the deceased by the eldest member of the
family.
-The concentration marks an all night celebration that involves
singing and dancing in honour of the spirit.
-Music is important because it enables communities between
the living and the dead person.
-The next morning involves rite of inviting the spirit from the
grave.
-This rite varies from area to area
-In some areas they remove one or two stones and ------ of
porridge and beer are poured on the front of the grave to invite
the spirit.

-The elder member of the family who will be leading will

speak to the deceases asking the spirit to accept the
invitation to come home.
-after this the entourage return home to dance and feast
-sometimes the spirit is symbolizing brought home.
- For the Shangwe they tie a black cloth around the neck of a
------on the----before the ceremony and take the good outsidethe homestead and appropriate functioning will address the
spirit that they are bringing home and sacrificed the following
day.
-Among the Shona people of North E. Zimbabwe a branch is cut
from a ceremonial tree and the severed end is covered to avoid
the spirit from escaping.
- The branch is dropped to the homestead making fragment
rest to the rest the spirit.
-The spirit is cooled by pouring beer into a branch.
-The branch is tied to the wall of the house of the family head.
-Among the Korekore a pathway is made between the grave
and the homestead to provide the spirit into a road to travel
as it rejoins the family.
-among the ---- there is need to got the grave early in the
morning the spirit is invited by members of the family by
pouring water on the back of a goat addressing the spirit of
the deceased to come home.
- if the spirit accepts the invitation the goat would shake its
body vigorously.
-The goat is slaughtered and the meat is roasted and eaten
without salt.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE CEREMONY

1. It brings hope and confidence into the family considering

the unpredictability of the spirit of the deceased.
2. It marks the end of mourning in the homestead which is
referred to as musha mutema
The widow will no longer veil her head with black cloth or
wear the symbolic black dress of mourning return to
mourning.
3. It resolves problems and tensions caused by death by ..
the spirit of the deceased among the familys spirit
guardians. The living and the dead would have
restrengthened their cowardice relationship.
4. It allows one of the most important rituals in Shona culture
to take place i.e. inheritance ceremony NHAKA
5. from a general point of view the ceremony celebrates
shona religious practices and communities and re unites
the people to the fundamental tradition of their culture
6. it strengthens relationship ties as both close and distant
relatives converge at one place for a common purpose. So
it reaffirms social ties.
CHANGE- the ceremony has been replaced by memorial
service-Christianity.
RAINMAKING CEREMONIES
-Learning outcomes
1. To describe and analyze the rain making rituals
2. To establish how these ceremonies differ from place to place
and region to region.
-Bozongwana 1983 p 49 nowadays farmers speak of cloud
-seeding to help natural rainfall
- i.e commercial farmers who used to do cloud seeding with
their small airplanes. Western form of rainmaking where use
chemicals to precipitate cloud condensation.

-the Bantu people of southern Africa together with those of san

origin also believe in rainmaking but they dont rely on cloud
seeding in the western sense.
-They believe in their supernatural powers and for the process
of rainmaking they depend on RAIN SPIRITS and their TRIBAL or
SPIRITS (e.g Ungwali) amongst the Ndebele people)
-The year they perform some rainmaking ceremonies which are
known by different names in the different areas e.g.
mukwerera.ukuphehla.izulu,makasva(manyika0,rukato
(korekore),
-Reminding
them
the
spiritual
hierarchy

MWARI,UNKULUNKULU- Tribal spirits clan spirits family spirits

-people dont pray directly to God/Mwari.
-tribal spirits have the religious powers whilst the political
powers are found in the chiefs offices.
-tribal spirits aka mhondoro spirits held the sacred duties e.g
rainmaking and agricultural ceremonies.
-the tribal spirits deal with issues such as fertility and rainfall.
-Tribal spirits are concerned with the welfare of a group / a
community /the whole tribe and individual problems
-Tribal spirits are the guardians of the land they are spiritual
protectors of the land. They closely with those who have the
political powers i.e the chiefs
-The mhondoro speaks through their medium and they are
prophets who foresee the future and every children should have
its own tribal or territorial spirit who meddle between the living
and the spiritual world.
QUESTION- What causes droughts and famine?
-in the modern day sense what causes these droughts climatic
change

-most Bantu groups including the ones in Zimbabwe believed

that drought are caused incest, prostitution, violence and by
people who do not respect taboos.
-the taboos include respect sacred days of rest or certain
animals and trees which are not supposed to be killed or cut.
Mberengwa njuzu Mermaids.
-In the times of drought the Chief should summon the rain
priests or the tribal spirits to hold the rain making rituals.
Although many people within that rain making rituals are
carried out during the time of drought in actual fact these ritual
should be carried out every year.
THE RAIN MAKING PRACTICES
-the rain making rituals are out of single event
-In some cases a domestic animal will be slaughtered and all
night ceremony will be held were they will be dancing and spirit
possession
-special rain dances and music will be sung
-the place where this ceremony and ritual will be carried out
differs.
-e.g. specific trees should be selected on the periphery of the
village egg muhacha or mukamba.
-amongst the manyika it will be held on a sacred mountain
-lots o f beer will be left at clerk trees and sacred mountains for
the spirits to drink.
-dance and song are are an important vehicle
communication between the living and spiritual world.

of

-the rainmaking ceremony includes sexual songs a, and sexual

initiative dances as a symbolic way of seducing the ancestors
to release the rain. There is a lot of symbolism which include
fertility, manhood, semen and wetness etc.

-other ceremonies include the FIRST FRUITS CEREMONY

(usually held in January/February) and HARVEST CEREMONY
(April/May)
-people may not eat the new produce before this ceremony and
before the chief allows them to do so
-Amongst the Ndebele people a day is set aside for people to go
out and clear the bush (UKUVESULA INKOZA) Taboos men
were not supposed to have intercourse with their wife- the
night prior to the day

HERITAGE
-Heritage can be regarded as all the inherited resources which
people value for the reasons beyond functional and utilitarian
reasons.
-Heritage therefore encompasses all things that a society,
group of people or even individuals deem necessary to retain
for posterity.
- International Cultural Tourism Charter, ICOMOS (1999) defines
heritage as a broad concept and includes the natural as well as
the cultural environment.
-It should encompass landscapes, historic places, sites and built
environments, as well as bio-diversity, collections, past and
continuing
cultural
practices,
knowledge
and
living
experiences.
-It records and expresses the long processes of historic
development, forming the essence of diverse national, regional,
indigenous and local identities and is an integral part of modern
life.
-It is a dynamic reference point and positive instrument for
growth and change. The particular heritage and collective
memory of each locality or community is irreplaceable and an

important foundation for development, both now and into the

future.

Types of Heritage
Heritage

Cultural

Tangible
ArchaeologicalMonuments, sites, Rock art
Ethnographical-Material
culture like clay pots etc.
Historic buildingsVictoria Hotel, Meikles
building, Italian Chapel,
Utopia House etc.
Colonial-Graves of
Rhodes, A. Wilson at the
Matopos
Liberation HeritageGraves of heroes, Regalia,
guns and weaponry, mass

Natural

Intangible
Games
Folk tales
Music
Skills
Tacit Knowledge
Dances and
songs
Rituals
Social practices
Craftsman

Mountains
Springs
Pools
Animals
Rocks
Landscapes
Caves
Fossils
Falls

-Basically, heritage can be therefore considered as something

passed from preceding generations. This means that heritage
can be something transmitted or acquired from a predecessor
(legacy)
-Zimbabwe like many other countries is rich in heritage.
-Heritage can be recognised as Natural, Cultural, Tangible and
intangible. Heritage can be movable or immovable. In
Zimbabwe there is also strong recognition of Liberation
Heritage.
-Natural heritage is that heritage that can be considered
natural and that can exist or that came into being without the

human input. Examples can be landscapes, Rocks, animals,

Falls like Victoria Falls
-Cultural heritage is a heritage that has human input. Human
beings use resources and they become important aspects of
their culture hence become cultural heritage. Examples can be
structures like Great Zimbabwe, Khami and other Zimbabwe
sites
-Tangible Heritage is that heritage which one can touch and
feel
Intangible heritage is that which we can not be touched. it is
transmitted from generation to generation like any other piece
of heritage. It is constantly recreated by communities and
groups in response to their environment, their interaction with
nature and their history. It provides people with a sense of
identity and continuity and promotes respect for cultural
diversity. Examples are practices, representations, expressions
as well as knowledge and skills. This should include
instruments,
objects,
artefacts,
cultural
spaces
that
communities, groups and in some cases individuals recognise
as part of their cultural heritage. It si sometimes called living
cultural heritage and is manifested inter alia in the following
domains
Oral traditions and expressions eg. language as a vehicle
of intangible cultural heritage
Social practices, rituals and festive events
Knowledge and practices concerning nature and the
universe
Traditional craftsman
Colonial Heritage
This is heritage that has colonial bearing. In Zimbabwe this
heritage is a painful heritage or heritage that hurts. Rhodess
grave at the Worlds view at Matopos. Actually Zimbabwes

history will not be complete without inclusion of Rhodes, Allan

Willsons grave at Great Zimbabwe in which his bones were
later buried at Matopos is another example
Historic Buildings
In Zimbabwe, historic buildings form another piece of heritage.
All the buildings that were constructed before 1890 are historic
buildings that are worth conservation. Masvingo is the oldest
town and has many historic buildings like Fort Victoria, Meikles
building, Victoria hotel, Italian Chapel, Bell and Curfew Tower
Archaeological Heritage
Zimbabwe is perhaps the only country in the world named after
an archaeological site- Great Zimbabwe. Material evidence that
is excavated by archaeologists gives very important
information about our past and cultures. It is through
archaeology that bulk of cultural information of sites like Great
Zimbabwe was unveiled. Rock art sites falls in this category of
archaeological heritage. Chamavara, Dengeni, Dianas Vow are
some examples
Liberation Heritage
It is heritage is in honour of the liberation war and the fallen
and living heroes. This heritage is relatively new heritage in
Zimbabwe. It was realised soon after independence and can be
expressed through heroes acres, provincial heroes acres, guns,
weaponry and regalia

Heritage Management in Zimbabwe

The management of heritage should encompass all aspects of

care for that heritage so that its longevity is ensured. Caring for

a heritage site means that its significance is revealed and

retained to a wider audience and therefore its future is secured
(Ndoro, 2005:8). The history of heritage management in
Zimbabwe can be done tracing what was happening at the
Great Zimbabwe. It should be pointed out that although
scientific methods of heritage management particularly
conservation was brought by Europeans, it should be taken into
cognisance as Ndoro (2005) suggests that the fact that
Europeans found many monuments still intact is a testimony
that there was a form of heritage management which predates
those introduced by the west. Various taboos and restrictions
especially at sites that were considered as religious and or
shrines received a fair share of preservation before the
Europeans introduced scientific methods. Sites like Great
Zimbabwe, Khami, Slozwane, and Bomboshava among others
are cases in point here.

The modern heritage management in Zimbabwe and other

many southern countries was initially a preserve of the few and
was considered to be a highly academic subject not meant for
public consumption. This led to the management of heritage to
be under universities and Museums. These institutions were
established to research and add scientific flavour in the
management of heritage. This resulted in the researches more
focussed on typologies, categories and chronologies and
unfortunately nothing was done to link the communities living
or staying near those sites. In fact the locals were taken as
objects of study and were above all taken as tabla rasas or
blank slates. This again resulted in the alienation and driving
away of local communities from the sites as the sites were
delineated. Colonial education was undermining African
traditional values and therefore grossly discouraged Africans to
respect and honour their heritage. Modern heritage
management was stimulated or was a reaction of what was
happening after the Pioneer column disbanded at Fort Salisbury
and went on a rampage of gold searching. Targets were

dzimbabwes and ancient sites as there was a big myth of King

Solomons Gold mines.
As members of the pioneer column, went all directions in
ambitious search of Gold, there was a considerable damage
that was done to monuments like Regina(Zinjanja),
Danamombe and others and Great Zimbabwe was declared a
no go area by Rhodes. This was because of too much high
expectation of Gold at the monument. It was in 1902 that the
BASCO in effort to protect monuments from the ever increasing
activities of the settlers in destroying the sites, the Ancient
Monuments Protection Ordinance was passed. It should be
therefore taken note that although the ordinance did not cover
other forms of heritage like Rock Art, the ordinance basically
laid foundation for the modern heritage management in
Zimbabwe. The year 1902 is a land mark in heritage
management developments in Zimbabwe because it was the
same year when the Natural History Museum was established
with the mandate of managing natural history of the nation.
In 1936 there was promulgation of Monuments and Relics Act
which brought about the ranking of monuments. The act
brought the Commission for the Preservation of Natural and
Historical Monuments and Relics. This was known as
Monuments Commission. The Commission was tasked for the
documentation of all monuments in Southern Rhodesia and
keep the register. Above all the commission was to undertake
all the site maintenance and excavations.
Heritage legislation in Zimbabwe
Heritage needs to be protected and there should be an
instrument for the protection of Heritage. Legislation as an
instrument for the protection of heritage has been adopted by
many countries world wide. It is suffice to mention that almost
all southern African countries have laws that govern the
protection and use of heritage resource (Ndoro, 2005:16).
Basically, Heritage legislation should be put in place in order to
ensure the resources longevity and continuity exists for the

benefit of future generations. Legislation should ensure

development of understanding and experience of the cultural
heritage with the aim of improving quality of life. It should also
ensure protection and extraction of scientific information
contained within the cultural environment as a precondition of
describing and interpreting the history it embodies.
NMMZ ACT1
In Zimbabwe, the legislation protecting heritage is called
National Museums and Monuments Act of 1972 chapter 25/11.
This act spells out that what is considered to be heritage is that
which existed before 1890. It is through this legislation that
12000 sites have been registered. About 200 sites have colonial
ancestry. Of the 172 declared national monuments, about 143
are colonial sites or have relationship with colonial heritage.
The act is silent on liberation heritage. Generally the law puts
more emphasis of tangible heritage and is again silent on
intangible heritage. This is all stemming from the fact that the
Act is lacking meaningful review since its promulgation. In its
definition, the Act defines heritage as any building, ruin or relic
or an area of land of historical, archaeological, paleontological
or other scientific value
it is however sad that the terms
Culture and Cultural Heritage are not used in the Act.
Issues of Access
The Act states that if a monument has been discovered, it
should be immediately reported to National Museums and
Monuments of Zimbabwe. The Act grant powers to Monuments
inspectors and such powers are referred as reasonable access
to private property with the aim of inspecting the heritage.
Despite that in the 1980s and 1990s some monument
inspectors has often encountered access problems into the
white owned farms when they were denied access. This was
because the definition of reasonable access was not well
defined and also the prevalence of privacy laws which prohibit
strangers from entering private property. It should be again
acknowledged that although the law exists, in most cases the

law enforcing agents are not fully aware if not ignorant of the
existence of such legislation. From independence very few (if
there were some at all) cases that went to the courts.
Presentation and information
In terms of presentation and information, the act provides for
the extensive dissemination. There is useful and uncomplicated
provision that exhorts Museums and Monuments board to
maintain a continuous flow of information to the public
regarding the professional activities, programmes and projects
of the organisation. This means that the information should be
disseminated through a variety of means.

Incentives
The act states that if a monument is has been discovered,It
should be reported to the board without delay by (a) the
discoverer thereof and (b) the owner or occupier of the
land.when the discovery come into notice. The act ii