Heat Transfer

2010
Kyoung Hoon Kim
School of Mechanical Engineering
Kumoh National Institute of Technology
Kyoung Hoon Kim

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References

References

Y.A. Cengel, Heat transfer, a practical approach, 2nd

Ed., McGraw-Hill, 2003
M.J. Moran, H.N. Shapiro, B.R. Munson, D.R. Dewit,
Introduction to thermal system engineering, John
Wiley & Sons, 2003

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Contents

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Basic of heat transfer

Conduction
Convection
Boiling and condensation
Thermal radiation
Heat exchangers

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CHAPTER 1
Basics of Heat Transfer

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1.1 Thermodynamics and heat transfer

heat and heat transfer
heat: the form of energy that can be transferred from one
system to another as a result of temperature difference
heat transfer: the science that deals with the determination of
the rates of such energy transfer
thermodynamics
it is concerned with the amount
Heat flows in the direction of
decreasing temperature.
of heat transfer as a system
undergoes a process from one
equilibrium state to another
it gives no indication how long
the process will take

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Some application areas of heat transfer

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1.2 Engineering heat transfer

rating and sizing problems

rating problems: deal with the
determination of the heat transfer rate
for a existing system at a specified
temperature difference
sizing: deal with the determination of the
size of a system in order to transfer heat
at a specified rate for a specified
temperature difference

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1.2 Engineering heat transfer

modeling in heat transfer

The descriptions of most
scientific problems involve
expressions that relate the
changes in some key
variables to each other.
Modeling is a powerful
engineering tool that
provides great insight and
simplicity at the expense of
some accuracy.

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Modeling is a powerful engineering

that provides great insight and
simplicity at the expense of some
accuracy.

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1.3 Heat and other forms of energy

forms of energy
total energy and internal energy
sensible and latent energy
chemical energy and nuclear energy
enthalpy: h = u + Pv

The internal energy u

represents the microscopic
energy of a non-flowing
fluid, whereas enthalpy h
represents the microscopic
energy of a flowing fluid.

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1.3 Heat and other forms of energy

Specific heats
1) ideal gas: Pv = RT or P = rRT
2) specific heat
3) specific heat at constant volume Cv, kJ/kgK
4) specific heat at constant pressure Cp, kJ/kgK
5) ideal gas case: Cp - Cv = R
6) Du = Cv DT, DU = mCv DT
7) Dh = Cp DT, DH = mCp DT
Specific is the energy required to
raise the temperature of a unit mass
of a substance by one degree in a
specific way.

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1.3 Heat and other forms of energy

Energy transfer
1) power = work done per unit time W, W or hp
2) heat: kJ, kcal, BTU
3) heat transfer rate, W, kcal/hr, BTU/hr
4) heat flux = heat transfer rate per unit area: q = Q / A

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<Ex 1-1> Heating of a copper ball

A D-cm diameter ball is to be
heated from Ti oC to an average
temperature Tf oC in Dt minutes.
Taking the average density and
specific heat in this temperature
range to be r kg/m3 and Cp
kJ/kgoC, respectively.
Determine a) the total amount
of heat transfer to the ball, b)
the average rate of heat transfer
to the ball, and c) the average
heat flux.

Kyoung Hoon Kim

Input Data
daimeter

D := 10.0 cm

initial temperature

Ti := 100 C

final temperature
density

Tf := 150 C
kg
r := 8950
3
m

specific heat

Cp := 0.395

time interval

Dt := 30 min

kJ
kg K

Solution
2

surface area

As := p D

As = 0.0314m

mass of the ball

p 3
mb := r D
6

mb = 4.6862kg

total amount of heat

Qtot := mb Cp ( Tf - Ti)

Qtot = 92.5526kJ

average rate of heat transfer

Qav :=

average heat flux

q :=

Qtot

Dt
Qav
As

Qav = 51.4181W
q = 1.6367

kW
2

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1.4 The first law of thermodynamics

the first law of thermodynamics
1) 1st law: conservation of energy principle
total energy entering the system - total energy leaving the system
= changing in the total energy of the system
2) energy balance: Ein - Eout = DEsystem
3) rate form: Ein - Eout = dEsystem / dt
4) steady: Ein = Eout
5) heat balance: Qin - Qout + Egen = DEsystem

In steady operation, the rate of

energy transfer to a system is
equal to the rate of energy
transfer from the system.

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1.4 The first law of thermodynamics

Energy balance for closed systems
1) Ein - Eout = DU = m Cv DT
2) stationary closed system: Q = m Cv DT
Energy balance for steady flow systems
1) mass flow rate: mdot = r V Ac
2) volume flow rate: Vdot = V Ac
3) net heat transfer: Qdot = mdot Cp DT
Surface energy balance
1) Q1 = Q2 + Q3
In the absence of any work
interactions, the change in the
energy content of a closed
system is equal to the net heat
transfer.

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<Ex 1-2> Heating of water in an electrical teapot

Liquid water of mw kg initially at Ti oC is to be heated to Tf oC in a teapot equipped with a P W
electric heating element inside. The teapot is mp kg and has an average specific heat of Cpp
kJ/kgoC. Taking the specific heat of water to be Cpw kJ/kgoC and disregarding any heat loss
from the teapot, determine how long it will take for the water to be heated.

Input Data
mass of water

mw := 1.20 kg

specific heat of water

Cpw := 4.18

kJ

mass of tea pot

kg K
mp := 0.50 kg

specific heat of teapot

Cpp := 0.70

kJ
kg K

initial temperature

Ti := 15 C

final temperature

Tf := 95 C

electric power of heat

P := 1200 W

Solution

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input energy to water

Ew := mw Cpw ( Tf - Ti)

Ew = 401.2800kJ

input energy to teapot

Ep := mp Cpp ( Tf - Ti)

Ep = 28.0000kJ

total input energy

Etot := Ew + Ep

Etot = 429.2800kJ

heating time

Dt :=

Etot
P

Dt = 357.7333s

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<Ex 1-3> Heat loss from heating ducts in a basement

A L-m-long section of an air heating system of a house through an unheated space in the
basement. The cross section of the rectangular duct of the heating system is W*H. Hot air
enters the duct at P kPa and Tin oC at an average velocity of V m/s. The temperature of the air
in the duct drops to Tout as a result of heat loss to cool the space in the basement under steady
conditions. Also, determine the cost of heat loss per hour if the house is heated by a natural
gas furnace that has an efficiency of h %, and the cost of the natural gas in this area is c
$/therm (1 therm = 100,000 Btu = 105,500 kJ).
Input Data
length
width
height
pressure
velocity

L := 5 m
a := 0.20 m
b := 0.25 m
P := 100 kPa
V := 5 m s

inlet temperature
Tin := 60 C
outlet temperature Tout := 54 C
efficiency of furnace h := 80 %
dollor
cost of natural gas c := 0.60
therm

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Solution
reference temperature Tr :=

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Tin + Tout
2

+ 273.15K

specific heat of air

Cp := Cp_air( Tr)

density at inlet

r :=

mass flow rate

mdot := r V ( a b )

heat transfer

Q := mdot Cp ( Tin - Tout )

cost of heat loss

C1 := Q c

P
Rair Tr

Tr = 330.1500K
Cp = 1.0086

kJ
kg K
-3

r = 1.0554kg m
mdot = 0.2638

kg

s
Q = 1.5967kW
dollor
C1 = 0.0327
hr

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<Ex 1-4> Electric heating of a house at high elevation

Consider a house that has a floor space of A ft2 and an average height of H ft at E ft elevation
where the atmospheric pressure is Pat psia. Initially the house is at a uniform temperature of T1
oC. Noe the electric heater is turned on, and the heater runs until the air temperature in the
house rises to an average value of T2 oC. Determine the energy transferred to the air assuming
(a) the house is air-tight and thus no air escapes during the heating process and (b) some air
escapes through the cracks as the heated air in the house expands at constant pressure. Also
determine the cost of this heat for each case if the cost of electricity in that area is c $/kWh
Input Data
area of floor space
average height of house
average elevation
initial temperature

A := 2000 ft
H := 9 ft
z := 5000 ft
T1 := 50 F

Solution
reference temperature

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T1 + T2

isobaric specific heat

+ 459.67R

2
Cp := Cp_air( Tr)

Tr = 519.6700R
kJ
Cp = 1.0058
kg K

isovolume specific heat

Cv := Cvair( Tr)

Cv = 0.1717

volume of house

V := A H

V = 1.8000 10 ft

mass of air

ma :=

a) model of constant volume

input energy
energy cost
b) model of constant pressure
input energy
energy cost

Tr :=

final temperature
T2 := 70 F
atmospheric pressure P := 12.20psi

dollor
cost of electricity
c := 0.075
kWh

BTU
lb R

4 3

P V
Rair ( T1 + 459.67R
)

ma = 1.1631 10 lb
3

Ein := ma Cv ( T2 - T1)
C1 := Ein c

Ein = 3.9936 10 BTU

C1 = 0.0878dollor

Ein := ma Cp ( T2 - T1)
C2 := Ein c

Ein = 5.5883 10 BTU

C2 = 0.1228dollor

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1.5 Heat transfer mechanisms

1) conduction
2) convection
3) radiation

1.6 Conduction
1) conduction
- liquids & gases: collisions and diffusion
- solids: vibration and transport by free
electrons
2) Fourier's law
Qdot = - k DT / Dx , W
where k = thermal conductivity, W/mK

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<Ex 1-5> The cost of heat loss through a roof

The roof of an electrically heated home is H m long, W m wide, and L m thick, and is made of a
flat layer whose thermal conductivity is k W/moC. The temperatures of the inner and outer
surfaces of the roof one night are measured to be T1 and T2, respectively, for a period of Dt.
Determine the rate of heat loss through the roof that night and b) the cost of that heat loss to
the home owner if the cost of electricity is c $/kWh.

Input Data
length

a := 8 m

width

b := 6 m

thickness

L := 0.25 m

inner temperature T1 := 4 C
Solution
area

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outer temperature

T2 := 15 C

time interval
thermal conductivity

Dt := 10 hr
W
k := 0.8
m K

electricity cost

c := 0.08

A := a b

dollor
kWh
2

T2 - T1

heat transfer

Q := k A

total input energy

Ein := Q Dt

electricity cost

C1 := Ein c

A = 48.0000m

Q = 1.6896kW
Ein = 16.8960kWh
C1 = 1.3517dollor

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1.6 Conduction

A simple experimental setup

to determine the thermal
conductivity of a material

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1.6 Conduction

The range of thermal

conductivity of various
materials at room
temperature.

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1.6 Conduction

The variation of the thermal

conductivity of various solids,
liquids, and gases with
temperature.

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<Ex 1-6> Measuring the thermal conductivity of a material

A common way of measuring the thermal conductivity of a material is to sandwich an electric
thermofoil heater between two identical samples of the material. The thickness of the resistance
heater, including its cover, which is made of thin silicon rubber, is usually less than 0.5 mm. A
circulating fluid such as tap water keeps the exposed ends of the samples at constant
temperature. The lateral surfaces of the samples are well insulated to ensure that heat transfer
through the samples is one dimensional. Two thermocouples are embedded into each sample
some distance L apart, and a differential thermometer reads the temperature drop DT across
this distance along each sample. When steady operating conditions are reached, the total rate
of heat transfer through both samples becomes equal to the electric power drawn by the heater,
which is determined by multiplying the electric current by the voltage. In a certain experiment,
cylindrical samples of diameter D cm and length L cm are used. The two thermocouples are
placed d cm apart. After initial transient, the electric heater is observed to draw I A at V V, and
both differential thermometers read a temperature difference of DT C. Determine the thermal
conductivity of the sample.
Input Data
diameter
length
distance of thermocouple

D := 5 cm
L := 10 cm
d := 3 cm

electric current
voltage
temperature difference

I := 0.40 amp
DE := 110 volt
DT := 15 C

Solution
electric power consumed
heat transfer
cross sectional area
thermal conductivity

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We := DE I
We
Q :=
2
p 2
Ac := D
4
Q d
k :=
Ac DT

We = 44.0000W
Q = 22.0000W
2

Ac = 19.6350cm
k = 22.4090

W
m K

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<Ex 1-7> Conversion between SI and English units

An engineer who is working on the heat transfer analysis of a brick building in English units
needs the thermal conductivity of brick. But the only value he can find from his handbook is
k W/moC. To make matters worse, the engineer does not have a direct conversion factor
between the two unit systems for thermal conductivity. Can you help him out?

Input Data
thermal conductivity

k := 0.72

W
m K

Solution
unit conversions

W hr ft R BTU

BTU m K hr ft R

W
m K

W hr

conversion factors

c1 :=

English unit

ke := k

BTU
m K
W

automatic conversion with MathCAD

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c2 :=

ft
m

c1 c2 c3

c3 :=

R
K

c1 = 3.4121

BTU

c3 = 0.5556

ke = 0.4160

hr ft R

k = 0.6191

c2 = 0.3048

kcal
hr m K

k = 0.4160

BTU
hr ft R
BTU

hr ft R

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1.6 Convection
1) natural(free) convection and forced convection
2) Newton's law of cooling: Q = As h DT
h = heat transfer coefficient, W/m2 K

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<Ex 1-8> Measuring heat transfer coefficient

A L-m-long, D-cm-diameter electrical wire extends across a room at Ta oC. Heat is generated in
the wire as a result of resistance heating and the surface temperature of the wire is measured
to be Ts oC in steady operation. Also, the voltage drop and electrical current through the wore
are measured to be V V and I A, respectively. Disregarding any heat transfer by radiation,
determine the convection heat transfer coefficient for heat transfer between the outer surface of
the wire and the air in the room.

Input Data
length of wire

L := 2 m

wire surface temperature Ts := 152 C

diameter of wire

D := 0.3 cm

voltage drop

DE := 60 volt

room temperature

Ta := 15 C

electric current

I := 1.5 amp

Solution
heat generation

Q := DE I

Q = 90.0000W

surface area

As := p D L
Q
h :=
As ( Ts - Ta)

As = 188.4956cm
W
h = 34.8514
2
m K

heat transfer coefficient

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1.9 Radiation
1) energy transport by electromagnetic wave form (or photons)
2) volumetric phenomena: generally surface phenomena: for solids that
are opaque to thermal radiation
3) blackbody: Qrad = s As Ts4, W
Ts = surface temperature, K
s = Stephan-Boltzmann constant = 5.67*10-8 W/m2 K4
4) incident radiation: a + r + t = 1
a = absorptivity
r = reflectivity
t = transmissivity
5) emmision: Qemit = e s As Ts4 , W
e = emissivity
6) Kirchhoff's law: e = a for same temperature and wavelength
7) completely enclosed by a much larger surface at Tsurr:
Qrad = e s As (Ts4 - Tsurr4) , W
8) combined heat transfer coefficient
Qtotal = hcombined A (Ts - Tinf)
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<Ex 1-9> Radiation effect on thermal comfort

It is a common experience to feel "chilly" in winter and "warm" in summer in our homes even
when the thermostat setting is kept the same. This is due to the so called "radiation effect"
resulting from radiation heat exchange between our bodies and the surrounding surfaces of the
walls and the ceiling.
Consider a person standing in a room maintained at Ta oC at all times. The inner surfaces of
the walls, floors, and the ceiling of the house are observed to be at an average temperature of
Twinter oC in winter and Tsummer oC in summer. Determine the rate of radiation heat transfer
between this person and the surrounding surfaces if the exposed surface area and the average
outer surface temperature of the person are As m2 and Ts oC, respectively.
Input Data
room temperature

Ta := 22 C

Ta := Ta + Tk0

average winter temperature

Twinter := 10 C

Twinter := Twinter + Tk0

average summer temperature

Tsummer := 25 C

Tsummer := Tsummer + Tk0

surface area of the person

As := 1.40 m

surface temperature of the person Ts := 30 C

emissivity of the person

Ts := Ts + Tk0

e := 0.95

Solution
winter time
summer time

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4)
( 4
4
4
Qrs := e s As ( Ts - Tsummer )

Qrw := e s As Ts - Twinter

Qrw = 152.1596W
Qrs = 40.9900W

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