Basic Electronics

BE MANUAL

Name: ____________________________
Student ID: _________________________
Class ID: ____________________________
Faculty: _____________________________
Teaching Assistant: ____________________

Signature:______________

Basic Electronics

Contents
BE MANUAL................................................................................................................................................... 1
LAB 1 ............................................................................................................................................................. 3
SAFETY USE OF POWER SOURCES AND METERS ...................................................................................... 3
LAB 2 ............................................................................................................................................................. 8
OHMS LAW............................................................................................................................................... 8
LAB 3 ........................................................................................................................................................... 16
SERIES RESISTIVE CIRCUIT ....................................................................................................................... 16
LAB 4 ........................................................................................................................................................... 22
PARALLEL RESISTIVE CIRCUIT .................................................................................................................. 22
LAB 5 ........................................................................................................................................................... 26
SERIES-PARALLEL ..................................................................................................................................... 26
LAB 6 ........................................................................................................................................................... 30
POWER-HEAT-LIGHT ................................................................................................................................... 30
LAB 7 ........................................................................................................................................................... 34
POWER HEAT APPLICATION .................................................................................................................... 34
LAB 8 ........................................................................................................................................................... 36
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE........................................................................................................................ 36
LAB 9 ........................................................................................................................................................... 40
HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER ............................................................................................................................ 40
LAB 10 ......................................................................................................................................................... 44
BRIDGE AS A FULL WAVE RECTIFICATION ............................................................................................... 44
LAB 11 ......................................................................................................................................................... 51
Introduction to the Transistor ................................................................................................................ 51
LAB 12 ......................................................................................................................................................... 61
TRANSISTOR TESTING ............................................................................................................................. 61

Basic Electronics

LAB 1
SAFETY USE OF POWER SOURCES AND METERS
Performance objectives:
Identify safety hazards common to the general shop and electronics lab.
Measure of electrical resistance of your body using the ohmmeter
function of multimeter.
Familiarize yourself with safety precautions to be used when working
with electronic circuits.
State the proper operating procedure when using a Power Supply.
Demonstrate the correct method of connecting voltmeters and
ammeters for circuit measurements.

Basic Concepts:
The primary safety rule for general shop and electronics lab is.THINK
BEFORE YOU ACT- DONT CLOWN AROUND!!
Voltmeters are always connected to (in parallel with) the circuit.
Ammeters are always connected to (in series with) the circuit.

Introduction Information:
Safety is everyones responsibility. Everyone must cooperate to create the
safest possible working conditions. Where your personal life and good health is
concerned, safety becomes your responsibility. Whether you step in front of a
speeding truck, or expose yourself to a lethal electric shock, are matters over
which you, as individual, have more control than anyone else. The safety rules
and discussion in the laboratory Exercise apply to individual students as well as
the class as a whole.
Power supplies are used to provide power for experimental purposes, for
testing, and for repair. Although there are hundreds of different kinds of power
supplies in general use, they all have much in common.

Basic Electronics

Meters are essential for measuring product performance and in

troubleshooting defective circuits. Like power supplies, all meters of a type are
about the same and differ only in range, sensitivity and circuit protection.

Equipments and materials:

Applied Physics Trainer
EES-200
Power Source
Milliammerter
Digital Multimeter
Voltmeter
R1
1K, 1W

0-15 Vdc
dc source
UT-55
0-30 Vdc

Exercise Procedure:

OBJECTIVE A: Identify safety hazard common to the general shop and

electronics laboratory.
The following general rules of shop safety apply to anyone who works
with tools and equipment.
Dont clown around or engage in horseplay. Most painful injuries are
caused by the careless and often thoughtless antics of the clown.
Get your instructors approval before starting your work. This will save
your time and help prevent accidents. Remember your instructor is
there to help as well as teach.
Report all injuries at once-even the slightest. A small cut can develop
serious complications if not treated at the right time.
Wear safety glasses when girding or working in areas where sparks or
chips of metal are flying. Your eyes are priceless and irreplaceable.
Keep the floors around your work area clean and free of litter that
causes someone to slip or stumble.
Use tools correctly and do not use them if they are not working properly.
Use the right tools not substitute.

Basic Electronics

Use the proper methods when handling or lifting objects. Lift from the
legs not form the back. Get help to lift heavy objects.
Do not talk or distract a fellow student when he is working.
Never leave a machine while it is running or shutting down. Stay until it
has stopped completely.
Objective B
Measure the electrical resistance of your body using the
ohmmeter function of the Digital Multimeter UT-55.
Instructors, students and workers who operate electronic equipment
face the hazard of electrical shock and, while experience and knowledge
tend to reduce the danger, the best safeguard is constant care.
Fig 1-1 shows the effects of electric shock on human body. Notice that it
is current that does the damage. Current as low as one-tenth of an
ampere can be fatal. However, if someone can shut off the power and
give immediate treatment, a person could perhaps survive currents in
excess of 0.2 ampere (200 milliamperes).
Current is forced through the resistance of a circuit by voltage, which is
electrical pressure or force. A lower resistance in the circuit allows more
current to pass through the circuit for a given amount of voltage.
If you think of the human body as a circuit then the amount of current
that can flow between the two points at that time and amount of
voltage or electrical pressure applied.

Basic Electronics

Your instructor will show you how to use the ohmmeter function of UT55. When you understand how to use it, measure the resistance
between the following points of your body :
Right hand to left hand
R____________________________________Ohms
Right hand to right ankle
R___________________________________Ohms
Left hand to Left ankle
R_____________________________________Ohms
Wet the contact areas and measure the resistance again.
Right hand to left hand
R_____________________________________Ohms
Right hand to left ankle
R_____________________________________Ohms
Left hand to left ankle
R______________________________________Ohms
Is the resistance is lower when areas are wet?
If the entire body surface was wet would the resistance be even lower?
___________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

Basic Electronics

___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
______________
From the chart of Fig 1-1 you know that 0.1 ampere of current can be
fatal. Lets use a form of Ohm Law to determine how much voltage is
necessary to force 0.1 of current through the resistance of your body.
Well use the equation.
Voltage =current x resistance
Since current is 0.1 ampere the formula becomes voltage=0.1 x resistance.
Substitute the resistances measured when contact areas were dry into the
formula to calculate the voltage necessary to force 0.1 ampere of current
between the selected points of your body.
Right hand to left hand voltage = 0.1x_________ volts
Right hand to right ankle voltage = 0.1x___________volts
Left hand to left ankle voltage = 0.1x______________volts
Now substitute the resistance measured with wet contact areas.
Right hand to left hand voltage = 0.1x______________ volts
Right hand to right ankle voltage = 0.1 x______________ volts
Left hand to left ankle voltage = 0.1 x_________________ volts
Obviously you should not test your results. But bear in mind that voltage much
lower than those calculated above can cause death under certain
circumstances.

Basic Electronics

LAB 2
OHMS LAW
Performance Objective:
Determine the ohmic value and tolerance of resistors, using the color
code.
Measure the value of resistors, using an ohmmeter.
Calculate current flow through resistors using Ohms Law.
Measure current flow through resistors and demonstrate the
relationship of current to voltage and resistance, using a milliammeter
and digital multi meter.

Basic Concepts:
The three fundamental properties of every electrical circuit are current
(I), voltage (V) and resistance (R).
The ohm is the unit of resistance.
The volt is the unit of voltage.
The ampere is the unit of electrical current flow.
Ohms law states that current (I) is directly proportional to the voltage
(V) and is inversely proportional to the resistance (R).
Ohms Law can also be shown as I=V/R which states that current (I)
equals voltage (V) divided by resistance (R).
The useful variations of Ohms Law are R=V/I which states that
Resistance (R) equals Voltage (V) divided by Current (I), and V=I x R
which states that Voltage (V) equals to Current (I) times Resistance (R).

Introductory Information:
George Simon Ohm (1787-1854) discovered, while experimenting with
electrical circuits that a precisely definable relationship exists between current,
voltage and resistance. All conductors offer some resistance to the flow of
current and if current are to flow through this resistance, electrical pressure
must be applied to the circuit. The amount of pressure or voltage applied
depends on the circuit resistance remains same and then increasing the

Basic Electronics

voltage increases the current. On the other hand, if voltage remains same,
increasing the resistance decreases the current. Stated more simply, current
varies directly with the voltage and inversely with resistance.
Once the relationship between current, voltage and resistance was established
by Ohms Law, standard values were given to the ampere, volt and ohm. These
standard values can be stated as follow:
The ampere describes the rate of flow of electrons. Electrons are extremely
small particles each having a minute electrical charge. The combined charges
of 6 280 000 000 000 000 000 (6.28 quintillion) electrons equal one coulomb.
The ampere named after Andre Marie Ampere (1775-1836), is a quantity of
electricity equivalent to one coulomb (6.28 x 1018 electrons) passing any given
point in a conductor in one second.
The volt is the practical unit of electrical pressure or force and was named in
honor of Allesandro Volta (1745-1827). The volt is the voltage between two
points of a conducting wire carrying a constant current of one ampere, when
the power dissipated between the points is one watt. Through common usage,
the word voltage is also referred to as potential, potential difference, emf and
voltage drop.
The ohm is the unit of electrical resistance, and is equal to the resistance of a
conductor such that a constant current of one ampere in it produces a voltage
of one volt between its ends. The ohm was named in honor of George Simon
Ohm.
Because resistance is a physical property, it can be predicted and measured
either in the manufacture of resistors or in the effect it has on a circuit. There
are three common types of resistors: Carbon composition, Wire wound and
film (metal or carbon). Resistors are either fixed or variable in value.
Experiment Requirements:
Applied Physics Trainer:
EES-200
Power Source:
0-30Vdc
Digital Multimeter
R1=1K, R2=1.5K, R3=3.3K, R4=10K

Basic Electronics

Exercise Procedure:
Connect the trainer EES-200 with 220V AC power supply. Turn on the trainer
and verify the voltage of power supply using Digital Multimeter UT-55.
OBJECTIVE A:
Determine the Ohmic value and tolerance of resistors, using the color code.
Color coding for measuring resistors value is written in Table 1.

Table 1:

Color

Black
Brown
Red
Orange
Yellow
Green
Blue
Violet
Gray
White
Gold
Silver
No Color

Significant Figure (First

and Second Band)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
-

Multiplier
Tolerance
(Third Band) (Fourth
Band)
1
10
100
1 000
10 000
100 000
1 000 000
0.1
0.01

5%
10%
20%

OBJECTIVE B: Measure the value of resistor using Ohmmeter.

Measure the actual resistance of each resistor. Use the Digital
Multimeter UT-55 present on Trainer EES-200. Enter the value under
Measured Value column in Table 2.
Are your measured resistance value the same as the indicated values?
Explain Your answer _________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

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___________________________________________________________
______
OBJECTIVE C: Calculate the current flow through resistors, using Ohms Law.
Use Ohms Law to calculate the current flow through resistor R1 using
the indicated value of the resistor and a source voltage of 24Vdc.
I=V/R_______________________________________________________
___________IR2=________________________mAdc

Resistor
R1
R2

Color Code
(Colors)

Indicated
Value
(Ohms)
1000

Tolerance
(Percent)

Measured
Value
(Ohms)

Calculated
Values
(Ohms)

5%

R3
R4

OBJECTIVE D: Measure current flow through resistors, and demonstrate the

relationship of current to voltage and resistance, using milliammeter and
Digital Multimeter.

Connect resistor R2 through with power source as shown in fig above.

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Basic Electronics

Set the multimeter to +Vdc and connect it across resistor R2 as shown

above.
Set the power source to an output of 10Vdc.
Measure the current flow through resistor R2 as indicated by the
milliammeter.
IR2=____________________mAdc
_____________________________________________________________
Return the voltage to zero.
You have calculated the current through resistor R2 using the indicated
resistance and a theoretical source voltage 10Vdc, the measured
resistance and a theoretical source voltage of 10Vdc, and then then you
measured the current using the resistor and a source voltage which was
set to 10Vdc. Compare the three current values. Are they in agreement.
____________
if not, then state the difference?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
______
Remove resistor R2 and connect resistor R1 in its place.
Adjust the power source to 10Vdc and measure the current flow
indicated by Milliammeter.
IR1=____________________mAdc
________________________________________________________________
___
Resistor R1 has less resistance then R2. Is the current flow through
resistor R1 higher or lower than that measured through resistor R2?
___________
Return the voltage to zero.
Remove resistor R1 and connect resistor R3 in its place.
Adjust the power source to 10Vdc and measure the current flow
indicated the milliammeter.
IR3=_______________mAdc

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Basic Electronics

________________________________________________________________
___
Does resistor R3 have more or less resistance than resistor R1?
__________
Is more or less current flowing through resistor R3 than flowed through
resistor R1?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
____
Return the voltage to zero.
Substitute resistor R4 for resistor R3 in the circuit.
Adjust the power source to 10Vdc and measure the current flow
indicated by the milliammeter.
IR4=________________mAdc
__________________________________________________________________________________
___

Is more or less current flowing through resistor R4 than flowed through

resistor R3?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
____
Return the voltage to zero.
What conclusion regarding the relationship of current to resistance can
you draw from Exercise Procedure above?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
__________________

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Basic Electronics

Calculate the resistance of resistor R1 through R4. Use the current

values measured in Exercise Procedure above and a source voltage of
10Vdc.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
____________________________R1
=________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
___________________________R2
=_________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
___________________________R3
=_________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
__________________________R4
=__________________________________________
Enter calculated value in the Table 2in the column headed Calculated Value.
Compare the calculated resistances with the indicated and measured
values. Are they in agreement? ________________
How do you account for the variations among the three values?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
_________
Remove resistor R4 and connect resistor R2 back into the circuit.
Adjust the power source to 20Vdc and measure the circuit flow indicated
by milliammeter.

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Basic Electronics

IR2 = _____________mAdc
______________________________________________________________
__
Is the current flow more or less than that measured through resistor R2
with a source voltage of 10Vdc in above steps?
______________________
Reduce the voltage to 15Vdc and measure the current flow.
IR2= ________________mAdc
______________________________________________________________
__
In this case the resistance remained the same but the voltage was
reduced. Did the current flow increase or decrease when the source
voltage was reduced to 15Vdc? __________________
Return the voltage to zero?
What Conclusion regarding the relationship of current to voltage can
you draw from above Procedure?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
____________

Conclusion:
In this Laboratory Exercise you related Ohms Law to practical circuit
applications and verified current, voltage and resistance relationship in dc
circuits. Using color coded and measured values, you calculated the expected
current flow by Ohms Law. Next, you connected the actual circuit and
measured the current flow with a milliamameter.

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Basic Electronics

LAB 3
SERIES RESISTIVE CIRCUIT
PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVE:

Identify series circuits.

Calculate and measure the resistance of a series circuit.
Measure the current flow in a series circuit using an Ammeter.
Measure the voltage drops in a series circuit using Voltmeter.
Locate opens and shorts in a series circuit using an Electronic VOM.

BASIC CONCEPTS:
The total resistance of a series circuit is equal to the sum of the
individual resistance in the circuit.
The current is the same in all parts of a series circuit.
There is only one current path in a series circuit.
The voltage across an open is equal to the source voltage.
The voltage across a short is zero.

INTRODUCTION INFORMATION:
Resistance in a circuit may or may not be desirable. For example the wire used
to connect components in a circuit has a small amount of resistance. Power is
dissipated in the wire resistance and is thus lost because it performs no useful
work. Copper wire is a good conductor and is used in most circuits for lower
power losses. On the other hand, it may be necessary to put a certain amount
of resistance into a circuit to limit the current or to produce a certain drop in a
voltage. The power dissipated by the resistor would be lost, but would be a
necessary evil in this case because the circuit required it. A desirable power
loss occurs in a resistance when useful work done, such as heating the filament
of a lamp.
A series circuit is the simplest form of the circuit. All the components of a
circuit are connected end-to-end to form a single path. Examine the circuits
shown in Fig-1. Circle the identifying numbers of the series circuit.

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Circuit current is supplied by the voltage source but has only one path to take
flowing from the positive terminal to the negative terminal, and that is through
each successive component of the series circuit. Thus, in a series resistive
circuit, the sum of the resistances determines the total amount of circuit
current.

EXERCISE PROCEDURE:
OBJECTIVE A: Identify series circuit.

FIG-1

OBJECTIVE B: Calculate and measure the resistance of a series circuit.

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Basic Electronics

Resistor

Color Code
(Colors)

Indicated
Value

Tolerance

Measured
Value

R1
R2
R3
Record in Table-1, the color code, indicated value and tolerance of each
resistor R1 through R3.
Use multimeter to measure the value of each resistor and enter them in
Table-1.
Adding the indicated value together, calculated total resistance,
RT(INDICATED).
RT(INDICATED) =___________________
Adding the measured values together to calculate total resistance,
RT(MEASURED).
RT(MEASURED) =___________________
Is the indicated resistance value RT(INDICATED) the same as the total
measured value RT(MEASURED)? _________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
__________
Connect resistor R1 through R3 in series as shown in Fig-3. Measure the
total circuit resistance RT with the ohmmeter.
RT(CIRCUIT)= __________________

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Basic Electronics

FIG-2
Does the total resistance value, RT(CIRCUIT) agree with the results of Above
exercise? _______________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
____
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + .
OBJECTIVE C: Measure the current flow in a series circuit using an ammeter.
Connect the circuit shown in fig-3. Note that the ammeter, set to the 010mAdc range, is connected in series with the resistor R1 and the power
source.

FIG-3
Adjust the power source to 10vdc.

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Basic Electronics

How much circuit current is indicated by the milliammeter ?

I(CIRCUIT) = __________________mAdc.
Return the voltage to zero.
You can also find total circuit resistance by using ohms law. Substitute
the applied voltage and the circuit current measured above into Ohms
Law formula R=V/I to calculate the total circuit resistance,
RT(CALCULATED)_________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
_________
Does the total calculated circuit resistance value, RT(CALCULATED) agree with
the result of above calculated value? _____________
List the possible factors that could account for the results not being in
perfect agreement
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
________
Now measure the current at different locations, throughout the series
circuit. Connect the milliammeter between R1 and R2 as shown in FIG-4.
Adjust the power source to 10Vdc.
Measure and record the current flowing between R1 and R2
IR1-R2=__________________mAdc.
Return the voltage to zero.

FIG-4
Repeat last step with the milliammeter connected, in turn to the
following circuit positions:

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Basic Electronics

IR2-R3=____________________mAdc.
IR3-R4=____________________mAdc.
IR4-PS=____________________mAdc.
Compare the current values at different locations. Are they the same?
___
What important rule of the series circuit have you verified?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
______

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Basic Electronics

LAB 4
PARALLEL RESISTIVE CIRCUIT
Performance Objective:
Identify parallel circuits.
Calculate and measure the resistance of a parallel circuit.
Measure the current flow in a parallel circuit, and measure the voltage
across parallel resistors.
Determine that a parallel circuit has more than one path for current
flow, using an ammeter.
Basic Concepts:
The voltage is the same across all branches of a parallel circuit.
There is more than one current path in a parallel circuit.
The total resistance of the circuit containing two or more resistors
connected in parallel is less than the lowest value resistor in the circuit.
Introductory Information:
A parallel circuit may be thought of as being formed by connecting two or
more components side by side, or input-to-input and output-to-output. For
example when you measure voltage drop across a resistor the internal
resistance of the voltmeter is in parallel with the resistor. Resistors or other
components may be connected to form as many branches as desired. There
are two basic difference between parallel and series circuits. Refer to Fig-1
first, the same source of voltage is applied across all branches of the circuit
simultaneously. Second, each branch of a circuit acts as a separate circuit and
thus there is more than one path for the current to follow. Therefore the total
circuit current is equal to the sum of the branch currents.

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Basic Electronics

Fig1
The concept of resistances is easily understood if you think of the resistors as
conductors of current. If one resistance is connected to a power source, there
is one path for current flow. If another resistance is connected in parallel with
first, two paths are created and more current can flow. Each additional parallel
resistor creates another path, as more parallel resistors are added, more
current flows. If more current flows, it is evident that less total resistance is
offered to the power source to limit the flow of current. From this you can
conclude that the total resistance of resistors is less than any one of the
resistors considered separately. In fact, the total resistance is less than the
lowest value resistor in the circuit.
The ability of a resistor to conclude current is referred to as conductance (G)
and is measured in siemens (S). Conductance is inverse, or reciprocal, of
resistance. This is expressed mathematically as
Conductance G=1/R
The more resistors you add in parallel the more conduction paths you create.
The conductance effects can be added directly. This is expressed as follow:
Total Conductance GT=G1+G2+G3+..

Exercise Procedure:
Objective A: Identify parallel circuits.

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Basic Electronics

Fig-2
Examine the four circuits as shown in Fig-2. Circle the identifying numbers of
the parallel circuits.
Objective B: Calculate and measure the resistance of a parallel circuit.

Fig-3
RT(CALCULATED) =______________________
RT(OHMMETER)=_____________________
RT(OHMS LAW)=_____________________

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Basic Electronics

Are the three total resistance values approximately the same?_______

What factors, besides resistors tolerance, would contribute to variation
among the three values of RT?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
______
Connect resistor R3 into the circuit in parallel with resistors R1 and R2 as
shown in Fig-3.
Adjust the power source to 10Vdc.
Measure the total current flow IT in the circuit.
IT=____________________mAdc.
Measure the voltage drop across each individual resistor using the
Digital Multimeter.
VR1=______________Vdc.
VR2=______________Vdc.
VR3=______________Vdc.
The voltage drop across each resistor should be equal to the source
voltage within measurement error.
Return the voltage to zero.
Calculate the total resistance RT in circuit using Ohms Law for resistance.
RT=______________
List the total parallel resistance RT of resistors R1, R2 and R3 as
calculated above.
RT(CALCULATED)=__________________
RT(OHM METER)=___________________
RT(OHMS LAW)=____________________
Are the three total resistance values approximately the
same?__________

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Basic Electronics

LAB 5
SERIES-PARALLEL
PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVE:

Identify series-parallel circuits.

Calculate and measure the resistance of a series-parallel circuit.
Measure the current flow in a series-parallel circuit using an Ammeter.
Measure the voltage drops in a series-parallel circuit using Voltmeter.

BASIC CONCEPTS:
The total resistance of a series-parallel circuit can be calculated by
solving it in small parts.
Current and voltage varies at different points as there is a mixture of
series and parallel circuit.
There is more than one path for current to flow in a series-parallel
circuit.
INTRODUCTORY INFORMATION:
A series-parallel circuit, also called a combination circuit, is any circuit that
combines both series and parallel connections. Although many applications
exist for series or parallel circuits alone, most electronic circuits are actually a
combination of the two. In general, series-parallel or combination circuits are
used when it is necessary to obtain different voltage and current values from a
single supply voltage, VT. When analyzing combination circuits, the individual
laws of series and parallel circuits can be applied to produce a much simpler
overall circuit.
Resistance in a circuit may or may not be desirable. For example the wire used
to connect components in a circuit has a small amount of resistance. Power is
dissipated in the wire resistance and is thus lost because it performs no useful
work. Copper wire is a good conductor and is used in most circuits for lower
power losses. On the other hand, it may be necessary to put a certain amount
of resistance into a circuit to limit the current or to produce a certain drop in a
voltage. The power dissipated by the resistor would be lost, but would be a

26

Basic Electronics

necessary evil in this case because the circuit required it. A desirable power
loss occurs in a resistance when useful work done, such as heating the filament
of a lamp.

EXERCISE PROCEDURE:
OBJECTIVE A: Identify series circuit.

(a)

(c)

(b)

(d)

OBJECTIVE C: Measure the current flow in a series circuit using an ammeter.

Connect the circuit shown in fig-1. Note that the ammeter, set to the 0100mAdc range, must be connected in series to measure the total
circuit current.
IT=_________________mAdc.
Adjust the power source to 15Vdc.
You can also find total circuit resistance by Ohms Law. As you have
been already told in Theory class how to find the total resistance in

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Series-Parallel circuit. Find out the total resistance of Fig shown below.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
________________________________

Find out the current passing through the R6, R4 and R5.
IR6-PointB=____________________mAdc.
IR4-R5=_______________________mAdc.
IR5-PointB=_____________________mAdc.

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Basic Electronics

Measure the voltage drop across each individual resistor using the
Digital Multimeter.
VR1=______________Vdc.
VR2=______________Vdc.
VR3=______________Vdc.
VR4=______________Vdc.
VR5=______________Vdc.
VR6=______________Vdc.
Calculate Total circuit current of above figure.
IT=____________________mAdc.
Is it easy to work with series-parallel circuit together, instead of creating
separate series and parallel circuit (if No, Justify)? _____________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
__________

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LAB 6
POWER-HEAT-LIGHT
PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES:
Demonstrate that electrical power is a function of voltage and current by
calculating and measuring the power dissipated in a resistance as the
voltage is increased.
Determine that the resistance of lamp filament varies the temperature.
BASIC CONCPETS:
The watt is the unit of electric power.
Power in watts is the product of volts times amperes.
The power law states that P=VxI or P=V2/R or P=I2xR.
INTRODUCTORY INFORMATION:
Power is the work per unit of time. It is measurement of work done within a
specific length of time. In electricity, the unit of power measurement is watt
(W), named for James Watt who invented the steam engine. One watt of
Power is work done in one second by the one volt of electrical pressure in
moving one coulomb of charge. Since one coulomb per second is one ampere,
Power in watts is the product of Volts times Amperes.
Power (Watts) = Volts x Amperes
P=V/I
When current flows through a resistance, heat is produced. This release of
energy (work) in the form of heat indicates that power is being generated by
the power source and dissipated (given off) by the resistance of the circuit.
Because power is dissipated by the circuit resistance, power is often calculated
in terms of resistance. Two equations for calculating power when resistance is
known are derived from the basic equation (P = V x I) as follows:
Substitute the Ohms Law equivalent for current (V/R) for I in the basic
equation. This results in:
P=V x (V/R)

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Basic Electronics

Thus
P=V2/R
Substitute the Ohms Law equivalent for voltage (I x R) for V in the basic
equation. This results in:
P= (I x R) x I
Thus
P=I2 x R
The second equation reflects the power loss resulting from current flow
through the resistance of a circuit. Such power losses are frequently referred
to as I2R losses.

EXERCISE PROCEDURE:
OBJECTIVE A: Demonstrate that electrical power is a function of voltage and
current by calculating and measuring the power dissipated in a resistance as
the voltage increased.
Connect resistor R1 and R2 in parallel, then connect them through the
ampmeter source to the power source as shown in Fig-1.

Set the voltmeter dc source and connect it across the parallel circuit as
shown.
Note: Resistors R1 and R2 (rated at one watt each) are connected in
parallel so that they can dissipate two watts of power.
Find out the parallel resistance of above two
resistors________________

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Basic Electronics

Refer to table-1 and use Ohms Law to calculate the current through
each resistor for each of the voltages given. Use Resistance calculated in
previous step.
I=V/R
Voltage (v)
Current (I)
Power (W)
2
4
6
8
10

Table-1
Record your calculated current values in Table-1.
Calculate the power dissipated in the resistors for each voltage and
enter it in the Table.
P=V x I
Set the milliammeter to 100mAdc range.
Adjust the power source to 2Vdc as indicated by the voltmeter.
Record the current reading from the milliammeter in Table-2.
Adjust the power supply to each of the remaining voltages listed in
Table-2 and record the current for each voltage. After the 4-volt reading
is recorded, reset the Voltmeter to the 15Vdc range and the
milliammeter to 1Adc range of the other voltages.
Return the voltage to zero.
Now calculate and record the power for each of the voltages and
currents listed in Table-2.

Voltage (V)

Current (I)

Power (P)

2
4
6
8
10
Table-2

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Basic Electronics

Compare the calculated values of Table-1 with the measured values of

Table-2. What factors would account for any differences in the two sets
of values?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
______________
Consider the current and power levels for 2 and 4 volts in Table-2. As the
voltage doubles from 2 to 4 volts what does current do?
___________________________________________________________
__
What does Power do?
___________________________________________________________
__
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
____
Now consider the current and power values recorded for 4 and 8 volts.
Did current doubles? _______________________
Did power increases four times? ___________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
____________

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Basic Electronics

LAB 7
POWER HEAT APPLICATION
Objective A: Determine that a parallel circuit has more than one path for
current flow, using an ammeter and miniature lamps.

Connect the lamp DS1 in series with the ammeter across dc power
source as shown in Fig-1.
Adjust the power source to 12Vdc and note the brightness of lamp DS1.
Measure the total circuit current.
IT=_______________________ mAdc.
Return the voltage to zero and connect lamp DS2 in parallel with DS1 as
shown in Fig.
Adjust the voltage again to 12Vdc and note the brightness of both lamp
DS1 and DS2.
Is there any change in brightness? ________________
Measure the total circuit current.
IT=________________________ mAdc.
Return voltage to zero and connect DS3 in parallel as shown in Fig.
Adjust power source back to 12Vdc.
Is there any change in Brightness? _________________

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Basic Electronics

Measure the total circuit current.

IT= __________________________ mAdc.
Return voltage to zero and connect DS4 in parallel as shown in Fig.
Adjust power source back to 12Vdc.
Is there any change in brightness? ______________________
Measure the total circuit current.
IT=______________________mAdc.
Remove Lamp DS2 from its socket. Do the other lamps remain lighted?
___
Is there any change in their brightness? _________
Is the total current remains same? _____________
Replace lamp DS2 in its socket.
Return the voltage to zero.
The total current (increased, decreased) each time a lamp is added to
the circuit. Therefore, the total circuit resistance (increased, decreased).
Objective C: Measure the voltage drops in a series circuit using a voltmeter.
Connect the lamp DS1, in series with the ammeter across the power
source as shown in Fig-2.
Set the ammeter to 1Adc range.
Adjust the power source to 5Vdc and observe the brightness of Lamp
DS1.

Fig-2.
Measure the current through lamp DS1.
IDS1=____________________mAdc.
Use voltmeter to measure the voltage drop across lamp DS1 as shown in
fig above. The voltage measured across lamp DS1 is also called the
voltage drop across lamp DS1.

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Basic Electronics

VDS1=___________________Vdc.
Enter the circuit current, I and the voltage across lamp DS1 in Table-3.
Return the voltage to zero.
Connect the lamp DS2 into the circuit in series with the lamp DS1 as
shown in Fig-3.
Lamps in
I Adc
Lamp Volts
Series
DS1

DS2

DS3

DS4

1
2
3
4
Table-3

Fig-3.
Adjust the power source to 5Vdc and note the brightness of lamps DS1
and DS2.
Measure the current flowing through the circuit.
IDS1=____________________mAdc.
Now measure the voltages across each of the lamps.
VDS1=___________________Vdc.
VDS2=___________________Vdc.

LAB 8
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES:
A. To study the V-I characteristics of a Semi-Conductor Diode.

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Basic Electronics

BASIC CONCEPTS:
1. Diode has unique ability to pass current in one direction only.
2. Diode cane behaves as an open circuit and short circuit.
INTRODUCTION INFORMATION:
When an N-type semiconductor is bounded to a P-type semiconductor, a
junction is formed as shown in figures given below (a).This is known as a
junction diode. The diode has unique characteristics of the ability to pass
current in one direction only. The diode symbol and physical shape are
shown in fig (b &c)

Fig-1
THE IDEAL DIODE:
We begin out study of circuits by considering models of linear elements, the
simple of these being the resistor. The volt-ampere (v-I) characteristics of the
ideal resistor is described by such a simple relation, (Ohm Law) that we
sometimes lose sight of its graphical interpretation. The linear character of
Physical Diode has inherent characteristics and limitation that cause them to
differ from the ideal. These are to be studies in the following experiment
FORWARD BIASED:

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Basic Electronics

Fig-2
When Diode is Forward Biased its P terminal is connected to a higher potential
and N type is connected to a lower potential. Diode behaves as short circuit
and infinite Resistance can pass through it without any voltage drop Cross it.
That is it has zero forward resistance and no forward drop. The characteristics
curve is a straight line that start from the origin and ride vertically along the
+ve y axis
Diode
voltage
(Vd)

Diode
current
(Id)

Dc
Supply
Voltage
(Vs)

Diode
Power
Power
Power
Forward
Dissipation Dissipated supply
Resistance in Diode
in resistor

REVERSE BIASED:

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Basic Electronics

Fig3
When Diode is Reverse Biased its cathode is at higher potential than
anode. Then the diode behaves as an open circuit and no current pass through
it and all the applied voltage appear across it. That is diode Reverse Resistance
is infinite and reverse current is zero. The characteristics curve is a straight line
on y-axis extending to left.

Diode
Reverse
voltage
(Vd)

Diode
Reverse
current
(Id)

Dc
Supply
Voltage
(Vs)

Diode
Power
Power
Power
Resistance Dissipation Dissipated supply
Resistance in Diode
in resistor

39

Basic Electronics

LAB 9
HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER
PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVE: To demonstrate the use of a semiconductor diode
as half wave rectifier.
BASIC CONCEPTS:
Diode can produce dc voltage from an ac supply called rectification.
Rectifying circuit converts ac voltage into pulsating dc voltage.
INTRODUCTORY INFORMATION:
One of the principal applications of the diode is in the production of a dc
voltage from an ac supply, a process called Rectification. A rectifying circuit
converts ac voltage into pulsating dc voltage. Fig-1 shows Half-Wave Rectifier
circuits using an ideal diode and the resulting half-wave rectified output
voltages developed. When the input ac voltage is positive (+ve to +ve is
measured from top to bottom of the voltage source) for circuit connection of
Fig-1 (a), the polarity of voltage across the diode will cause the diode to
conduct, that is the voltage across the diode is +ve to ve from anode to
cathode, and in the case of ideal diode, the forward resistance is zero. The
positive half cycle of the input signal then appears across the resistor as shown
in Fig-1 (a). When the input voltage is negative (measured from top to bottom
of the voltage source) in Fig-1 (a), the diode is reverse biased, having infinite
resistance and appearing as an open circuit. Since there can be no current flow
during the complete time that the voltage at the input causes the diode to be
reverse biased, the voltage across the resistor is zero.
The resulting output signal across the resistor due to the half cycle of diode
conduction and the lack of signal during the half-cycle of diode non-conduction
is shown in Fig-1(a).

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Basic Electronics

Fig-1
HALF-WAVE AVERAGE (DC) VOLTAGE:
To determine the average value of the rectified signal we can calculate the
area under the curve of Fig-2 and divide this value by the period of the
rectified waveform. To calculate the area under the half-cycle curve of the
rectified signal we must integrate the rectified signal.

Fig-2
During this process and dividing by the period results in Vdc=0.318 Vm (half
wave)
Where

Vav=Average value of the rectified voltage, and

Vm=Maximum (peak) value of ac voltage.

HALF-WAVE PEAK INVERSE VOLTAGE (PIV):

An important diode rating is the peak inverse voltage, PIV of the diode (the
maximum voltage across the diode in the direction to block current flow). For
the half wave rectifier circuit the peak voltage across the diode when the diode
is reverse biased is equal to Vm in the value.
EXERCISE PROCEDURE:

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Basic Electronics

Fig-3

Connect the circuit as shown in fig-3.

Generate a peak-to-peak voltage from function generator of Vin=10Vp-p.
Calculate Peak value of Vin? _______________
Calculate Iin(peak)= Vin(peak)/R
Iin(peak)__________________________________________________mA.
Calculate Vrms=Vpeak X 0.707
Vrms=____________________________________________________V
Calculate Vavg=Vrms X 0.636
Vavg=____________________________________________________V
Calculate Vp, Vrms and Vavg of Vout when diode is forward biased.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
______________
Calculate Vp, Vrms and Vavg of Vout when diode is reverse biased.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

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Basic Electronics

___________________________________________________________
______________
Create Wave Form for both conditions of diode Forward bias and Reverse Bias.

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Basic Electronics

LAB 10
BRIDGE AS A FULL WAVE RECTIFICATION
PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVE:
a. TO STUDY THE USE OF FOUR DIODES IN A ABRIDGE AS A FULL WAVE
Rectification
Introduction information:
Another circuit variation of a full-wave rectifier is a bridge circuit of
fig1.This circuit requires 4 diodes for full wave rectification but the
transformer used is nit center-taped and develops a maximum voltage of
only Vm. In addition, the diode PIV rating is also one half of the two diode
full wave rectifier circuit.

In considering how the circuit operates, one must understand how the
conduction and conduction paths are formed during each half of ac cycle.
During the positive half cycle the voltage across the transformer secondary
(measured from top to bottom) is +ve and the conduction path is through
D1-R-D3. Since these diodes are forward biased the voltage across each is 0
volts and the peak voltage from the transformer appears across load
resistor, R, at this time.
At the same tome the voltage polarity is such as to reverse biased diodes
D2 and D4 therefore, the non-conduction path during the +ve half cycle, will
be through D2-RD4. Load resistor has a voltage developed across it by the
current flowing through the conducting path of diode D1 and D3.

44

Basic Electronics

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig2 and see that current indicated on
Amperemetere source is within the range of the meter. The voltmeter
should also read properly.
2. Connect one of the probes of Oscilloscope across the output terminals
(ac input to the circuit) of the voltage transformer, Connect the second
probe across the load resistor R7.Leave the ground lead of one of the
probes open.

3. Turn on the Oscilloscope and set the channel selector to CH2 and type
of coupling to DC and view the beam across R1, with voltage sensitivity
set to v5 volts/cm.
4. If the beam is displayed full wave rectified output, your circuit is
functioning properly, then go ahead with the rest of the procedure.
Otherwise go to step one and recheck your connections.
5. Use the function of Voltmeter at 10 volts ac.
6. Use UT55 to measure the ac voltage. Vac across the output terminals of
the voltage transformer. Voltmeter will read the rms value of the ac
voltage.
Vac=__________volts

45

Basic Electronics

7. Measure the dc current, indicated on Ampere meter dc. This will be equal
to the average value of full wave rectified current, Iav, through the load
resistor, R1
Idc=______________mAmp

8. Measure the dc voltage Vdc, across the load resistor, R1, indicated by the
dc voltmeter, o the trainer.
Vdc=_____________volts
9. Calculate the peak value, Vp of the ac input voltages measured In step 6
Vp=________ volts.

10. Calculate the peak current Ip, through the load resistor R1, from the
current measured in step 7.
Ip=_____________mAmp
11.
Calculate the average value of the full wave rectified output voltage
across the load resistor R1, also check that this value is corresponds with
the value of V dc obtained in step 8,This is given by Vav=Idc*R1.
Vav(out)=______________volts

12. Calculate the dv value (half cycle average) of the input voltage from the
maximum value Vp by using
Vdc=0.636*Vp

Vdc (in) =_______________volts

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Basic Electronics

13. Refer to step 8 for the average value of the output dc voltage developed
across R1, Subtract this value from the dc value of the input voltage Vdc
obtained in step 12.
V (diff) =______________________volts

14. Refer to the V-I characteristics obtained in diode experiment. Determine

the voltage drop across the diode which corresponds to the dc current
through the diode, obtained in step 7.
VDiode=____________________________volts

15. While the coupling switch is in DC position .Draw the waveforms

displayed on the oscilloscope in Scope Chart shown below.
Indicate the peak, rms, and the average of the full-wave rectified output
voltage waveform as well as the input voltage waveform.

47

Basic Electronics

Voltage sensitivity=______________ volts /div.Time per Division

=_______msec/dDiv
Input Voltage Waveform:
Vp=_____ volts
Peak to Peak Voltages Vp-p=__________volts
Vrms=_________________ volts
Vav=____________________volts

Output Voltage waveform:

Vp=______ volts
Vav=________________ volts
Vrms=__________________________ volts

48

Basic Electronics

16. Connect the probes of the oscilloscope at the nodes between D1 & D2
and b/w D3 and D4.Connect the ground lead of one probes the nodes b/w
D3and D2. Draw the wave form and measure the peak values. These are the
PIV values across the diodes.
PIV (D2) =__________________volts
PIV (D3) =__________________volts

Conclusion:
1. Compare all rectifier circuits. Discuss Merits and demerits of each
Assume ideal diodes.
2. Draw the conduction and non-conduction path during +ve as well as ve
half cycles of the input ac signals.
3. Why is the value of PIV ion a bridge rectifier circuit, half than that for the
center-taped full wave circuit?
4. Compare the values obtained in step 8, 11, 12? Explain your answer

49

Basic Electronics

SUMMARY:
To summarize the operation of the bridge rectifier circuit, the addition of
two extra diodes above the number in a center-tapped full wave circuit
provides improvements in two main factors. First, the transformer used
need not to center-tapped, requiring a maximum voltage across the
transformer of Vm. Second, the peak inverse voltage (PIV) required of each
diode is half that of the center tapped full wave circuit, only Vm. For low
values of the secondary maximum voltage the center-tapped full wave
circuit will be acceptable whereas for high values of maximum secondary
voltage, the use of bridge to reduce the maximum transformer rating and
diode PIV rating is usually necessary

50

Basic Electronics

LAB 11
Introduction to the Transistor
Performance Objectives:
Identify base, emitter and collector terminals and connections of NPN
and PNP transistor
Demonstrate and measure the effects on base current of forward and
reverse bias in the emitter-base circuit.
Demonstrate and measure the effects on collector current of forward
and reverse bias in the emitter-base circuit.
Demonstrate the effects on collector of change in collector voltage.

Basic Concepts:

The three regions of a bipolar transistor are; base, emitter, and collector.
Bipolar transistor are either NPN or PNP type semiconductor.
A transistor is a current controlling device.
The base-emitter diode junction must be forward biased to allow base
and collector current to flow.
Emitter current is equal to the sum of the base and collector currents
(IE= IB + Ic).
A small change in base current can cause a large change in collector
current.

Introductory Information:
The transistor, which is a three-element semiconductor device, is used for a
wide variety of control functions in electric circuits. Such Functions include
amplification, oscillation, switching, and frequency conversion.
You learned in a previous laboratory exercise, that a semiconductor diode is
basically a two element device containing a single PN junction as shown in
Fig.1. The N-type material, the cathode, serves as the negative terminal, while
the P-type material, the anode serves as the positive terminal. The Arrow

51

Basic Electronics

symbol represents the anode and points in the direction of conventional

current flow, while electrons move in a direction opposite to the arrow. When
Voltage is applied, with polarities as shown, the PN junction becomes forward
biased and current flows through the diode.

When another section or region of P or N type material is added to PN diode

junction to form three sections, a three elements device, containing two
junctions, is produced. This three-element device is a bipolar transistor. The
three sections or elements of a bipolar transistor are the emitter (E), the base
(B) and the collector (C). Transistor are classified by the arrangement of the P
and N materials and are either PNP or NPN types. The connections for PNP and
NPN transistors are shown in Fig.2 (a) and (b). In normal operation the emitterbase junction is biased in the forward direction, and the collector-base junction
in the reverse direction.

52

Basic Electronics

Different symbols are used for NPN and PNP transistor to show the difference
in the direction of current flow in the two types of devices. For example, the
PNP transistor shown in Fig.3 (a) has both its base and collector terminals
negative with respect to its emitter. Since its emitter-base PN junction is now
forward biased, emitter to base current flow, thus causing emitter to collector
current to flow also, since its emitter is more positive than negative collector.
The NPN transistor shown in Fig.3 (b) behaves in a like manner. When both its
base and collector terminals are made positive with respect to its emitter, the
base-emitter PN junction becomes forward biased. Base to emitter current
flows, thus causing collector to emitter current to flow also, since its collector
is more positive than the negative emitter. In other words, the direction of
conventional current flow through a transistor is always in the direction of the
arrow on the emitter terminal.

53

Basic Electronics

EQUIPEMENT AND MATERIAL:

Q1=NPN Transistor 2SC828 (silicon)
Q2=NPN Transistor 2SC945
Q3=PNP Transistor 2SA684 (silicon)
R1=10, R2=3.3K, R3=5K potentiometer, R4=100
Exercise Procedure:
Objective A: Identify base, emitter and collector terminals and connections
of NPN and PNP transistors.
The emitter, base and collector leads must be identified before a
transistor can be connected into a circuit. Transistor outlines and pin
connections for some of the more common types are shown in Fig. 4.
Note that the leads or pins are generally shown on a bottom view of the
transistor. Because there is a variety of outlines and PN connections, you
should always refer to the proper instructions manual, or transistor data

54

Basic Electronics

sheet before making and connections to a transistor. Transistors can be

destroyed instantly.

A momentary short caused by a meter probe or a tool such as a

screwdriver between base and collector, in an operating circuit, will
almost always destroy a transistor.

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Basic Electronics

Look at Q1, Q2 and Q3. They are smaller plastics epoxy transistors
mounted on some of the printed circuit boards and are called TO-106
cases. The TO-18 metal case is similar but smaller than TO-5 metal case
and the TO-105 is smaller but larger than the TO-106. Another popular
small plastic epoxy case is the TO-92. Examine the lead or in connections
shown for the TO-5, TO-18, TO-92, TO-106 transistors. Identify the
terminals as they appear in clockwise direction (bottom view).
Left lead = __________________________.
Middle = ___________________________.
Right Lead = _________________________.

Lead identification for the majority of transistors is (clockwise-form the

bottom view) emitter-base collector. There are only two leads or pins on
the TO-3 transistors. The collector connection must be made to the
metal case. You should be aware that other metal can transistors,
although having three pins or leads, may also have their cases
electrically connected to the collector.
Look at the pin connections for TO-5 and TO-18 cases.
Which Lead is next to the metal tab on the bottom of the can?
________________________

Objective B. Demonstrate and measure the effects on base current of

forward and reverse bias in the emitter-base circuit.
Connect the circuit shown in Fig. 5. Note this circuit is identical to the
one you used for measuring forward current flow through a
semiconductor diode. Q1 is an NPN silicon transistor. R1 is included as a
protective device only and will limit the current to a safe value.

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Basic Electronics

Gradually increase the source voltage Vs until the Ammeter indicates

0.02mAdc of forward base current Is. Record the forward base-toemitter voltage drop VBE in Table-1. Your measured forward voltage
drop at 0.02mAdc of forward current should be between 0.5 and 0.55
volts.
Report and record VBE for each of the Is steps listed in the Table.
Change the Range of the Ammeter to 1mAdc when required.

IB
mA
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.2

VBE
Q1

Q2

IB
mA
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
2.0
3.0

VBE
Q1

Q2

Return the voltage to zero and reverse the connections to the base and
emitter terminals of Q1. NPN transistor Q1 is now the reverse bias
condition.

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Basic Electronics

Change the Ammeter range to 0.1 mAdc, and the Voltmeter range to 5
Vdc.
Adjust Vs until the reverse emitter to base voltage VEB is equal to 3Vdc.
Observe the reverse emitter-to-base leakage current IEBO on the
Ammeter. The symbol EB indicate that base to emitter is reverse
biased, and the o indicates that the collector is open circuited (not
connected). You should be able to observe a very small deflection of the
needle. Does the Ammeter source needle move upscale slightly?
Return the voltage to zero.
Replace Q1 with germanium NPN transistor Q2 and repeat Q2 and
repeat Procedure 2 (a to c). Record your measurements in Table 1 in the
column for Q2.
Repeat procedure2 (d to g).
IEBO = _________________________ Adc.
Examine you recorded data in Table 1, Is there any similarity between
the forward voltage drop for silicon transistor Q1 and a silicon diode?
______________________
At approximately what voltage is the base to emitter of Q1 completely
forward biased?
VBE (silicon) = _____________________________Vdc.
At approximately what voltage is the base to emitter of Q2 complete
forward Biased?
VBE (germanium) = _____________________________Vdc.

Objective C: Demonstrate and Measure the effects on collector current of

forward and reverse bias in the emitter bias in the emitter-base circuit.
Connect the circuit shown in Fig.6. Note that the positive side of +5V is
connected to the base of Q1 through resistor R2 and the arm of
potentiometer R3. Series resistor R2 and R4 are included a protective
devices only and will limit the base and collector Vc is supplied by the 012 Vdc power source.

58

Basic Electronics

Rotate the arm of R3 fully ccw. The base of Q1 is now essentially

connected to the emitter and cannot be forward biased when voltage is
applied.
Adjust the collector power source Vc to 6Vdc.
Adjust R3 until 2mAdc of collector current is flowing as indicated by the
10mAdc Ammeter in the collector circuit.
Measure and record in Table 2, the base current, in A, for a collector
current of 2mAdc.
Repeat for each of the collector currents listed in Table.
Return Vc to zero.
Examine the results shown in Table 2. Does a small change in base
current cause a large change in collector current?
________________________

Collector Current (Ic)

0 mAdc
2 mAdc
4 mAdc
6 mAdc
8 mAdc
10 mAdc

Base Current (IB)

What change in base current was required to change the collector current
from 2mAdc to 10mAdc? The Greek letter (Delta) means Change in.

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Basic Electronics

IB = _______________________________ Adc.
This value can vary widely depending on the forward dc current gain (hFE) of
the particular transistor being used. The dc current gain is defined as Ic / IB.
Objective D: Demonstrate and measure the effects on collector current of a
change in collector voltage.
Now you will observe the change in collector current caused by changing
the collector voltage. Adjust Vc to 6Vdc.
Adjust R3 for a collector current of 2mAdc as in procedure 4(d).
Increase Vc to 9Vdc and measure the resultant collector current.
Ic = _______________________mAdc.
Increase Vc to 12Vdc and measure the resultant collector current.
Ic = _______________________mAdc.
Return Vc to zero and disconnect +5V dc power source.
What was the change in collector current (from 2mA) when the collector
voltage was doubled to 12Vdc?
Ic = _______________________mAdc.
Thus you can see that a small change in base current has a much greater effect
on collector current than a large change in collector voltage. This is a very
important concept because it means that small signal applied to the base can
control a much larger collector current thus providing amplification.

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Basic Electronics

LAB 12
TRANSISTOR TESTING
PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES:
Determine the type of transistor, NPN or PNP using an ohmmeter to
measure the forward and reverse resistance of the emitter-base
junction.
Measure the forward and reverse resistance of the collector-base
junction in PNP and NPN transistors.
Determine the operating condition of a transistor, using an ohmmeter.
BASIC CONCEPTS:
For collector current to flow in an NPN transistor, both the base and
collector must be more positive than emitter.
For collector current to flow in a PNP transistor, both the base and
collector must be more negative than the emitter.
The forward resistance of transistor junction is very low compared to
their reverse resistance.
INTRODUCTORY INFORMATION:
The best test of a transistor is in the circuit with which the transistor is to be
used. A transistor will operate properly if it has proper gain characteristics (the
ability to amplify) does not break down under the operating voltages,
maintains leakage within tolerance and, in the case of pulse circuits, has the
right characteristics (such as delay and storage time). Tests can be made with
commercial laboratory transistor testers, pulse generators and oscilloscope.
However, it is possible to test a transistor is open or shorted, if it is a PNP or
NPN type, if it has significant leakage, and if it has gain (can simplify current or
voltage).
A transistor can be considered ass two diodes, the PN junction base-emitter
being one diode and the base-collector PN junction being the other see Fig-1.
For a transistor to operate normally the base-emitter junction must be forward

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biased and the base-collector junction must be reversed biased. The exact
biasing polarities depend on whether the transistor is PNP or NPN type. You
know, from previous laboratory exercises on diodes, that a PN junction has low
resistance when forward biased and high resistance when reverse biased. By
making base-to-emitter and base-to- collector resistance measurements, you
can determine the type of transistor (NPN or PNP) as well as whether an open
or short exists. Transistor leakage current is referred to as I(C-B) and is measured
from collector to base. The symbol CB indicates the base collector junction is
revers biased.

The same Ohmmeter range (R x 10 is preferred) should be used for each pair of
measurements. If both forward and reverse readings are high, the transistor is
open. Likewise if any of the readings show a short or very low resistance (less
than 20 ohms), the transistor is shorted. Also, if the forward and reverse
readings are nearly the same, the transistor has high leakage current and is
defective.
Typical forward resistance is from 20 to 500 ohms. Typical reverse resistances
are from 10 Kilo ohms to mega ohms. Actual resistance values will depend
upon Ohmmeter range and battery voltage. Therefore, the ratio of reverse-toforward resistance is the best indicator. Almost all transistors should show a
ratio of 100 to 1 or greater.
EQUIPEMENT AND MATERIAL:
Q1=NPN Transistor 2SC828 (silicon)

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Q2=PNP Transistor 2SA684 (silicon)

R1=10K, R2= 180K, R3=47
EXERCISE PROCEDURE:
OBJECTIVE A: Determine the type of transistor, NPN or PNP, using an
ohmmeter to measure the forward and reverse resistance of the base-emitter
junction.
Set the Ohm meter to function on the Rx10 range. Zero your Meter.
Connect the common lead (negative) to the emitter of Q1, and the
ohms lead (positive) to the base as shown in fig-2.with the polarities
shown, the base-emitter junction of NPN transistor Q1 is in the forward
bias condition for a normal operation (the base being more positive than
the emitter).

Measure the forward base-to-emitter resistance of NPN transistor Q1.

RBE1 (Forward)=_____________________
Reverse the ohmmeter lead connections to Q1 as shown in Fig-2. The
base-emitter junction of NPN transistor Q1 is now reverse biased. Do not
change the range setting of your meter.
Measure the reverse base-to-emitter resistance of NPN transistor Q1.
RBE1 (Reverse)=_____________________

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Is the reverse base-emitter resistance of Q1 much higher than the

forward resistance?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
________
Repeat above procedure using germanium NPN transistor if possible.
RBE3 (Forward)=_______________________
RBE3 (Reverse)=_____________________
Is the reverse base-emitter resistance of germanium much higher than
the forward resistance?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
______
Repeat above procedure using silicon PNP transistor Q2. Remember,
that to properly forward bias the base-emitter junction of a PNP
transistor, the positive (P) ohms lead must be connected to the emitter
and the negative (N) lead connected to the base.
RBE2 (Forward)=_______________________
RBE2 (Reverse)=_____________________
Is the reverse-emitter resistance of Q2 much higher than the forward
resistance?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
______
OBJECTIVE B: Measure the forward and reverse resistance of the collectorbase junction in PNP and NPN transistor.
Connect the common lead (negative) to the base of Q1, and the ohms
lead (positive) to the collector as shown in Fig-3. With the polarities

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shown, the collector-base junction of PNP transistor Q1 is the reverse

bias condition for normal operation (the base being less positive than
the collector).
Measure the reverse collector-base resistance of NPN transistor Q1.
RCB1 (reverse)=__________________________

You should measure infinite resistance indicating low collector-to-base

leakage current.
Reverse the ohmmeter lead connections to Q1 as shown in Fig-3. The
collector-base junction of NPN transistor Q1 is now forward biased. Do
not change the range setting of your meter.
Measure the forward collector-to-base resistance of NPN transistor Q1.

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RCB1 (Forward)=__________________________
The forward collector-to-base resistance should be approximately the same
value as the forward base-to-emitter resistance.
Is the reverse collector-base resistance of Q1 much greater than the
forward resistance?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
____
Repeat above procedure using Germanium NPN transistor.
RCB3 (Reverse)=__________________________
RCB3 (Forward)=__________________________
Your measured values should be approximately the same as the base to
emitter resistance you measured for germanium, thus, indicating that this is an
NPN transistor with two good junctions.
Repeat above procedure with silicon PNP transistor Q2. Remember, that
to reverse bias the collector-base junction of a PNP transistor, the
positive (p) Ohms lead must be connected to the base and the negative
lead connector to the collector.
RCB2 (Reverse)=__________________________
RCB2 (Forward)=__________________________
Your measured values should be approximately the same as the base to
emitter resistances you measured for Q2, thus, indicating that Q2 is a PNP
transistor with two good junctions.
OBJECTIVE C: Determine the operating condition of a transistor using an
ohmmeter.
Examine the test circuit shown in Fig-4. Normally, there will be no
current flow between collector and emitter until the base-emitter
junction is forward biased. Base is connected to negative lead of the

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ohmmeter through the 150K resistor R2 and thus Q1 is not forward

biased.
Calculate the maximum base current that can flow through R1. Assume a
1.5Vdc source from the ohmmeter and subtract the base-emitter
voltage drop of approximately 0.5Vdc. Neglect any current through R2.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
____________

Connect the circuit as shown and measure collect current, if any and
collector to emitter resistance. Set the ammeter on the lowest range. Do
not apply voltage.
IC1=_____________________A
RCE1 =_____________________

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Set the ammeter on the 1mAdc range.

Measure collector current and collector-to-emitter resistance.
IC1=_____________________A
RCE1 =_____________________
Remove the ammeter from the circuit and connect the collector directly
to the positive ohmmeter lead. Do not disturb the rest of the circuit.
Repeat above procedure with Q2 and germanium. Remember to reverse
the ohmmeter connection when testing the PNP transistor.
When voltage is applied RCE2 =_____________________
RCE2 =_____________________
When voltage is applied RCE3 =_____________________
RCE3 =_____________________
Is there a high resistance ratio for Q2 and germanium?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
____

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