Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Editors:
Michael Casey and Torsten Wintergerste
Fluid Dynamics Laboratory
Sulzer Innotec
michael.casey@sulzer.com
torsten.wintergerste@sulzer.com
ERCOFTAC 2000
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ERCOFTAC 2000
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CONTENTS
1.
1.1.
1.2.
1.3.
1.4.
1.5.
2.
2.1.
2.2.
2.3.
2.4.
2.5.
3.
3.1.
3.2.
3.3.
3.4.
3.5.
3.6.
3.7.
3.8.
4.
4.1.
4.2.
4.3.
4.4.
4.5.
4.6.
4.7.
5.
5.1.
5.2.
5.3.
5.4.
5.5.
6.
6.1.
6.2.
INTRODUCTION
PURPOSES OF THIS DOCUMENT
SCOPE
BACKGROUND TO THE PROBLEMS OF CFD
BACKGROUND TO THIS DOCUMENT
STRUCTURE OF THIS DOCUMENT
SOURCE OF ERRORS AND UNCERTAINTIES IN CFD SIMULATIONS
OVERVIEW OF CFD SIMULATIONS
IMPORTANCE OF ERRORS AND UNCERTAINTIES IN ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS
ERRORS AND UNCERTAINTIES
CATEGORISATION OF ERRORS AND UNCERTAINTIES
DEFINITIONS OF VERIFICATION, VALIDATION AND CALIBRATION
NUMERICAL ERRORS, CONVERGENCE AND ROUND-OFF ERRORS
GLOBAL SOLUTION ALGORITHM
CONVERGENCE ERRORS
ROUND-OFF ERRORS
GRIDS AND GRID DESIGN
SPATIAL DISCRETISATION ERRORS
TEMPORAL DISCRETISATION ERRORS FOR TIME-DEPENDENT SIMULATIONS
TYPES OF IMPLEMENTATION OF BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
SPECIAL REMARKS ON THE FINITE-ELEMENT METHOD
TURBULENCE MODELLING
RANS EQUATIONS AND TURBULENCE MODELS
CLASSES OF TURBULENCE MODELS
NEAR-WALL MODELLING
WEAKNESSES OF THE STANDARD K- MODEL WITH WALL FUNCTIONS
INFLOW BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
UNSTEADY FLOWS
LAMINAR AND TRANSITIONAL FLOWS
APPLICATION UNCERTAINTIES
GEOMETRICAL UNCERTAINTIES
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
INITIAL CONDITION AND INITIAL GUESS
UNCERTAINTIES WITH REGARD TO STEADY FLOW, SYMMETRY, AND PERIODICITY
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
USER ERRORS
GENERAL COMMENTS
CONTROL OF THE WORKING PROCESS
ERCOFTAC 2000
5
5
5
5
6
6
8
8
8
9
9
10
11
11
12
13
14
16
17
18
19
20
20
21
24
27
28
28
28
29
29
29
31
32
32
33
33
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6.3.
7.
7.1.
7.2.
8.
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37
39
39
40
9.1.
9.2.
9.3.
9.4.
9.5.
9.6.
9.7.
9.8.
9.9.
10.
41
41
41
43
47
51
56
59
65
71
10.1.
10.2.
10.3.
11.
37
8.1.
8.2.
9.
35
77
77
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77
11.1.
11.2.
11.3.
11.4.
11.5.
11.6.
11.7.
11.8.
11.9.
11.10.
11.11.
11.12.
11.13.
11.14.
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79
79
80
82
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88
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12.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
91
13.
REFERENCES
92
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1. Introduction
1.1. Purposes of this document
This document is intended as a practical guide giving best practice advice for achieving high-quality
industrial Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations using the Reynolds-averaged NavierStokes (RANS) equations. The advice given is primarily aimed at less experienced CFD users and is
summarised as a checklist in chapter 11. The summary of best practice advice is also considered to
be relevant for managers of scientific and engineering projects involving CFD simulations and for inspectors in regulatory bodies who have to examine submissions involving CFD simulations. It will also
assist experienced CFD users, especially if they are moving to a new application area.
The document also provides a useful compendium of relevant information on the most important issues relevant to the credibility of CFD simulations, especially with regard to the most common sources
of errors and uncertainties in CFD. For each aspect considered, simple statements of advice are given
which provide clear and generally accepted guidance for the user of CFD in industrial applications.
The statements are understandable without elaborate mathematics, and are generally preceded by a
short section providing a discussion of the issues involved, with references to texts where more detailed discussion of the issues may be found. A basic level of scientific or engineering knowledge is
expected of the reader, and in particular some elementary knowledge of fluid dynamics and numerical
methods is assumed (such as may be attained by reading one of the general texts given in the list of
references in chapter 13).
1.2. Scope
These guidelines cannot hope to be exhaustive. They have been written and edited making use of extensive consultation with CFD code vendors, code developers, academic experts and code users and
this gives the guidelines wide support. It is intended that they offer roughly those 20% of the most important general rules of advice that cover roughly 80% of the problems likely to be encountered. The
document is not part of a formal quality assurance (QA) management system but it nevertheless addresses most of the issues that a formal QA system for CFD simulations would need to include. Users
who follow the advice given can be expected to avoid the most common pitfalls in CFD simulations.
The technical content of the guidelines is limited to single-phase, compressible and incompressible,
steady and unsteady, turbulent and laminar flow with and without heat transfer. The guidelines do not
cover combustion, two-phase flows, flows with radiation, non-Newtonian flows, supersonic and hypersonic flows with strong shocks and many other more complex flow situations. The guidance given is
relevant to many mechanical, aeronautical, automotive, power, environmental, medical and process
engineering applications. More detailed guidelines and application procedures are needed for the remaining specific problems and to extend these guidelines to more complex flows (see chapter 10).
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will remain a research tool for simple geometries at low Reynolds number for at least the next decade
and probably longer. Large Eddy Simulation (LES), in which the large turbulent vortices are captured
by the computational grid and the fine-scale turbulent motions are modelled by a so-called sub-grid
model, is less intensive in computational resources and closer to engineering application. This is still
unlikely to become a common engineering tool during the next ten years except, perhaps, for bluff
body flows with low-frequency and large-scale oscillations (for example, external flows around buildings).
In both academic and industrial circles there is little doubt that CFD on the basis of the RANS equations with a suitable turbulence model will form the basis of most engineering calculations for many
years to come. Even when LES or DNS become practical, RANS solutions will still be used for the initial design explorations, just as simpler tools are used in design today, so that a way to deal with uncertainty arising from the turbulence modelling will still be needed.
In addition to the physical difficulties of modelling the effects of turbulence, there are many other
sources of error in CFD simulations (see chapter 2). A major issue is the accuracy of the numerical
discretisation in CFD simulations on grids that are not good enough to produce grid independent solutions and this has led to extensive discussion of the credibility of many CFD simulations. The difficulties are amply demonstrated by the many CFD validation exercises involving blind test cases, where
only sufficient information is made available to the participants to allow a CFD model to be set up and
run, but the full test results are not available. The results of such exercises can be highly userdependent even when the same CFD software with the same models is being used. Recent examples
are the ASME blind test case of the transonic compressor rotor NASA Rotor 37 (Strazisar and Denton
[1995]), the EU-funded EMU Project on modelling of atmospheric dispersion near buildings (Hall and
Cowan [1998]) and the ERCOFTAC workshop on draft tube flows (ERCOFTAC/IAHR [1999]). The
greatest benefit arising from such validation exercises has often been to identify the many causes for
differences in simulation results for what is nominally the same calculation, and to give insight into the
range of results obtainable. One of the major causes of this problem is that for complex geometries in
many industrial applications, the practical constraints on memory capacity and computer power lead to
results that are not grid independent.
The question naturally arises as to what are the best procedures to ensure that the results of a CFD
simulation are accurate and credible. There are currently no standard best practice guidelines that can
be used to achieve and to confirm that the best possible numerical accuracy has been achieved.
There is an urgent need for such a code of best practice from the knowledge currently available to experienced industrial CFD users, code developers and academic experts to overcome this shortcoming.
ERCOFTAC 2000
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uncertainties that can arise. This includes some definitions of terms, such as validation, verification,
calibration, error and uncertainty.
In the chapters 3 to 7 that follow, each of the different sources of error and uncertainty are examined
and discussed and some guidelines on their effect and elimination are given. In view of the fact that
the validation of models and the use of sensitivity tests are commonly accepted ways of dealing with
some of the problems, an additional chapter on these issues has been added in chapter 8. The sections in the individual chapters overlap to a certain extent as similar issues often arise under different
headings.
Examples of the issues arising in the best practice guidelines as applied to some specific test cases
are given in chapter 9. Suggestions for the revision and extension of the guidelines are given in chapter 10. A summary of the most important guidelines in the form of a checklist is provided as chapter
11, whereby this is an edited version of the guidelines in the earlier chapters organised roughly in the
chronological order of the activities needed during a typical CFD simulation.
Acknowledgements are given in chapter 12 and references in chapter 13.
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Problem definition.
Validation of models.
Definition of geometry.
Errors and uncertainty can arise in almost all of these steps and these are discussed in the sections
below.
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Unfortunately, there are no standard ways of defining the error bounds on a CFD simulation. Nevertheless the CFD analyst should in the documentation of the results try to comment on the expected
accuracy of the simulations.
Uncertainty:
These rather philosophical definitions can be made clearer by examples. Typical known errors are the
round-off errors in a digital computer and the convergence error in an iterative numerical scheme. In
these cases, the CFD analyst has a reasonable chance of estimating the likely magnitude of the error.
Unacknowledged errors include mistakes and blunders, either in the input data or in the implementation of the code itself, and there are no methods to estimate their magnitude. Uncertainties arise because of incomplete knowledge of a physical characteristic, such as the turbulence structure at the
inlet to a flow domain or because there is uncertainty in the validity of a particular flow model being
used. An error is something that can be removed with appropriate care, effort and resources, whereas
an uncertainty cannot be removed as it is rooted in lack of knowledge.
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should ideally satisfy the imposed boundary conditions and the equations in each grid cell and globally
over the whole domain, but if the iterative process is incomplete then errors arise. In short, convergence errors arise because we are impatient or short of time or the numerical methods are inadequate
and do not allow the solution algorithm to complete its progress to the final converged solution.
Validation:
Procedure to test the extent to which the model accurately represents reality.
Calibration:
Procedure to assess the ability of a CFD code to predict global quantities of interest
for specific geometries of engineering design interest.
Calibration is sometimes also used to describe the process of adjusting the values of the coefficients
of a turbulence model to provide better agreement with experimental data, but this is not its meaning
in this document. In many industrial engineering cases, the distinction between validation and calibration becomes blurred.
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ERCOFTAC 2000
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3.2.1. Residuals
Residuals are 3D fields associated with a conservation law, such as conservation of mass or momentum. They indicate how far the present approximate solution is away from exact cancellation of flux
balances in each cell. Usually, the residuals are normalised by dividing by a reference value times a
reference flux. The reference value may be one of the following:
Convergence is usually monitored on the basis of one representative number, a so-called norm (usually a p-norm) characterising the residual level in the three-dimensional flow field. This single value
may be:
The large number of variants makes it difficult to give precise statements how to judge convergence
and at which residual level a solution may be considered converged. In principle, a solution is converged if the level of round-off error is reached. Special care is needed in defining equivalent levels of
convergence if different codes are used for comparison purpose.
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that is stopped and restarted at different residual levels). This test demonstrates at what level of
residual the parameter of interest can be considered to have converged and identifies the level of
residual that should be aimed at in similar simulations of this class of problem.
Be aware that different codes have different definitions of residuals.
Always check the convergence on global balances (conservation of mass, momentum and energy) where possible, such as the mass flow balance at inlets and outlets and at intermediate
planes within the flow domain.
Check the maxima and minima of all variables which may be limited by the code (for example k
and which should always be positive), and the number of cells where any limitation on values is
active.
Check not only the residual itself but also the rate of change of the residual with increasing iteration count.
Monitor the solution in at least one selected point in a sensitive area to see if the region has
reached convergence, but be aware that this alone is insufficient as a criterion for convergence as
the solution may be "stuck" far from convergence but appear converged if solution variables are
unchanging.
For calculations that are proving difficult to converge, the following advice may be helpful:
Use more robust numerical schemes during the first (transient) period of convergence and
switch to more accurate numerical schemes as the convergence improves.
Reduce parameters controlling convergence, such as the under-relaxation parameters or the
CFL1 number.
If the solution is heavily under-relaxed, increase the relaxation factors at the end to see if the
solution holds.
Check whether the grid quality in areas with large residual has any effect on the convergence
rate.
Look at the residual distribution and associated flow field for possible hints, e.g. regions with
large residuals or unrealistic velocity levels.
When the residuals stagnate at too high a value, try to further converge the problem with a
double precision version of the flow solver.
Check whether switching from a steady-state to a time-accurate calculation has any effect.
Consider using a different initial condition for the calculation.
Check the numerical and physical suitability of the boundary conditions.
Examine the choice of variable on which the residual is based, for example density may be a
perfectly reasonable choice for transonic flow calculations, but is certainly not for low speed
subsonic flows.
CFD codes should make available the maximum possible information to judge convergence.
This includes residuals for every conserved quantity.
The residuals should be dimensionless and the definitions of the residuals should be clearly
defined in the handbook.
The codes should supply information on the spatial distribution of residuals.
To avoid the confusion of CFD users, CFD code developers should try to adopt one commonly
accepted standard definition of the residual.
The CFL number is generally defined as CFL=t (v+a) / x, where t is the time step, x the local
cell size, v the local velocity and a the sonic velocity. For incompressible flows computed with an incompressible solver, the CFL number is defined by CFL=t v / x.
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Flows with density driven buoyant forces with small density and temperature differences.
High aspect ratio grids with large area ratios on different sides of the grid.
Conjugate heat transfer.
Calculations of scalar diffusion with low concentrations of one species.
Low Mach number flows with a density based solver.
Flows with large hydrostatic pressure gradients.
A regular (and structured) grid is created that is large enough to incorporate the complete geometry. Regions extending over the boundary are then cut away. This may result in two different ways
of representing curved domain surfaces:
By a sequence of steps, whereby the elements close to the surface keep their regular shape.
By a sequence of flat facets, of which at least the two ends lie on the geometrical surface. The
boundary elements then have an irregular shape.
Body-fitted grids where the cell surfaces follow a curved domain surface as a sequence of flat facets. The cells are designed to keep a regular shape. In structured meshes the grid lines follow the
surface. This type is most frequently used.
In the case of body-fitted grids the interior of the domain must be built up to satisfy the geometrical
constraints imposed by the domain boundary. Several kinds of mesh topology are available:
Structured grid: The points of a block are addressed by a triple of indices (ijk). The connectivity is
straight-forward because cells adjacent to a given face are identified by the indices. Cell edges
form continuous mesh lines which start and end on opposite block faces. Cells have a hexahedral
shape.
Unstructured grid: Meshes are allowed to be assembled cell by cell freely without considering continuity of mesh lines. Hence, the connectivity information for each cell face needs to be stored in a
table. The most typical cell shape is the tetrahedron, but any other form including hexahedral cells
is possible. These grids may or may not have matching cell-faces. Special cases of unstructured
grids are:
Block structured grid: For the sake of flexibility the mesh is assembled from a number of structured blocks attached to each other. Attachments may be regular, i.e. cell faces of adjacent
blocks match, or arbitrary (general attachment without matching cell faces).
Chimera grid: Structured mesh blocks are placed freely in the domain to fit the geometrical
boundaries and to satisfy resolution requirements. Blocks may overlap, and instead of attachments at block boundaries information between different blocks is transferred in the overlapping region.
Hybrid grid: These grids combine different element types, i.e tetrahedra, hexahedra, prisms
and pyramids.
The grids must be fine enough to provide an adequate resolution of the important flow features, as
well as geometrical features. This may be achieved by local grid refinement. Unstructured meshes are
especially well suited for this purpose. If block structured grids are used local refinement results in
block attachments with dissimilar number of grid lines. Some CFD codes provide algorithms to adapt
the grid resolution locally according to numerical criteria from the flow solution, such as gradient information or other error estimators.
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The accuracy of the simulation usually increases with increasing number of cells, i.e. with decreasing
cell size. However, due to limitations imposed by the increased computer storage and run-time some
compromise in mesh size is nearly always inevitable.
In addition to grid density, the quality of a mesh depends on various criteria such as the shape of the
cells (aspect ratio, skewness, warp angle or included angle of adjacent faces), distances of cell faces
from boundaries or spatial distribution of cell sizes. The introduction of special topological features
such as O-grids or C-grids and care taken to locate block-interfaces in a sensible manner can help to
improve the overall quality of a block-structured mesh. Unstructured meshing techniques may take
advantage of prism layers with structured sub-meshes close to domain boundaries.
Choose a suitable global topology of the mesh (for example, a scalable grid topology where the
grid can be refined by parametric changes without degrading the grid quality) to help satisfy the
specific code's requirements with regard to skewness, aspect ratio and expansion ratios, as outlined below.
Ensure that the extent of the computational domain has been chosen to capture relevant flow and
geometrical features, and if necessary examine the sensitivity of the calculation to the choice of
computational domain.
Assess which geometrical features can be omitted, for example, those that have dimensions below that of the local grid size. In areas where local detail is needed, then consider the use of local
grid refinement to capture fine geometrical details. If grid refinement is used the additional grid
points should lie on the original geometry and not simply be a linear interpolation of more grid
points on the original coarse grid.
The use of distributed losses or porosity might also be considered to take into account highly obstructed zones or fine detail of some obstructions (for example, porous filters and packings),
whereby the code manual should be consulted for the interpretation of the turbulent fields obtained.
Avoid highly skewed cells. For hexahedral cells or prisms the included angles between the grid
lines should be optimised in such a way that the angles are approximately 90 degrees. Angles
with less than 40 or more than 140 degrees often show a deterioration in the results or lead to
numerical instabilities. Tetrahedra should tend to have their four angles equal.
Avoid highly warped cells, that is cells with large deviations from co-planar faces. Warp angles
(measured between the surface normals of triangular parts of the faces) greater than 75 degrees
can lead to serious convergence problems and deterioration in the results.
Avoid non-orthogonal cells near boundaries. The angle between the grid lines and the boundary of
the computational domain (the wall or the inlet and outlet boundaries) should be close to 90 degrees. This requirement is stronger than the requirement given for the grid angles in the flow field
far away from the domain boundaries.
Avoid the use of tetrahedral elements in boundary layers. Prismatic or hexahedral cells are to be
preferred because of their regular shape and their ability to adjust in accordance with the near-wall
turbulence model requirements.
Avoid aspect ratios that are too high. Away from boundaries, ensure that the aspect ratio (the ratio
of the sides of the elements) is not too large. This aspect ratio should be typically not larger than
20 to 100 (depending on the flow solver) in important regions of the flow domain but may be larger
in non-critical regions, whereby precise values should be supplied in the code manual. The accuracy and possible convergence difficulties in such cases depends greatly on the flow direction.
Near walls this restriction may be relaxed and indeed it can be beneficial to have high aspect ratio
in the boundary layers.
Observe any specific requirements on mesh expansion ratios. The specific code's requirements
for cell mesh stretching or expansion ratios (rates of change of cell size for adjacent cells) should
be observed. The change in mesh spacing should be continuous and mesh size discontinuities be
avoided, particularly in regions of large changes.
Note that some codes offer automatic grid adaptation techniques, but that depending on the software being used these might not improve the grid quality (skewness, aspect ratio).
Use a finer and more regular mesh in critical regions with high flow gradients or with large
changes, such as shocks, regions with high shear, regions with significant changes in geometry or
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where suggested by error estimators. Make use of local refinement of the mesh in these regions,
in accordance with the selected turbulence wall modelling.
Ensure high geometric precision of the periodic grid interface when using periodic boundary conditions.
Avoid the presence of arbitrary mesh coupling, non-matching cell faces, grid refinement interfaces
or extended changes of element types in the critical regions of high flow gradients.
Check that the assumptions made when setting up the grid with regard to critical regions of high
flow gradients and large changes agree with the result of the computation, and rearrange grid
points if found to be necessary.
For each class of problem, make use of a grid dependency study to analyse the suitability of the
mesh and to give an estimate of the numerical error in the simulation. Ideally, at least three significantly different grid resolutions should be used. Strictly, one should double the grid twice in each
direction and then apply Richardson extrapolation (Roache [1997]) to be really sure. If this is not
feasible, apply selective local refinement of the grid in critical flow regions of the domain to allow
greater factors, or try to compare different order of spatial discretisations on the same mesh.
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Vortex stretching, a three-dimensional phenomenon due to the non-linear term of the governing
equations, which also gives rise to the fluctuating nature of turbulence.
Vortex shedding.
The computation of steady turbulent flow is the most common kind of simulation for the industrial use
of CFD. In these cases the Reynolds-averaged flow is steady while the average turbulent quantities
account for the time-dependence of the turbulent fluctuations. In this way, the RANS equations represent the temporal average of the flow. However, the RANS-equations also allow the time-dependent
Reynolds-averaged flow fields to be computed, based on the assumption that the temporal average of
the turbulent quantities is not affected by the global unsteadiness. This is physically realistic when the
time scale of the turbulence is much smaller than the time scale of the mean unsteadiness. A limitation
is, however, that the typical turbulence frequencies are much higher than typical externally imposed or
internally generated mean-flow frequencies. If the turbulence and mean flow frequencies are in the
same band, ensemble averaging loses its sense, and LES or DNS methods should be employed. A
time-dependent simulation is always needed if the scale of eddies or vortices is large and is comparable to the dimensions of the geometry (e.g. the computation of a vortex-street behind bluff bodies like
a car or a building).
In some turbomachinery design applications special models involving averaging-techniques with mixing planes between the blade rows are used to remove the time dependence of the flow due to the
relative motion of the blades. Such techniques allow the flow to be computed using common steady
state solution methods.
If an accurate spatial discretisation is applied, flows which are physically time-dependent will often fail
to converge using a steady-state method. However, if integrated with a large time step, even physically unsteady flows can be converged to a steady state (for example, a cylinder in a cross flow). Very
often convergence problems with a steady simulation can be interpreted as a hint that the flow is unsteady and a time-stepping scheme would be appropriate. On the other hand, symmetry boundary
conditions may impose a steady flow, although it would be transient in reality. If the complete geometry including both sides of the symmetry plane were used the velocity field would oscillate perpetually.
Averaging the solution over a long time interval would lead to a symmetrical field, which, however,
may differ from the steady state solution obtained with flow symmetry actually imposed.
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The temporal discretisation scheme provides an approximation of the time derivative. Most CFD codes
offer implicit first and second order schemes, which are most effective in terms of computer memory
and stability requirements. Low-storage higher-order Runge-Kutta methods are also available. The order of the scheme and the choice of the time-step influence the size of the amplitude and the phase
error, the two components of the temporal discretisation error. To improve time-accuracy self-adaptive
time-stepping procedures (such as predictor-corrector methods) can be used.
The choice of the time step depends on the time scales of the flow being analysed. If time steps are
too large the simulation might fail to capture important flow and mimic unphysical steady behaviour. It
is therefore advisable to start with relatively small time steps, and corresponding CFL number, even
though this is not required from the point of view of numerical stability. Some CFD codes use a timestepping scheme for steady state simulations.
Non-physical reflection of outgoing information back into the domain (Giles [1990]).
Difficulties in providing information about the properties of the fluid which may inadvertently enter
the domain from the outside, and some CFD codes prevent fluid from entering the domain through
outflow boundaries.
Difficulties may also arise if open boundary conditions are placed in regions of high swirl, large
curvatures or pressure gradients.
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The requirements for the quality of the mesh of a finite-element model are less stringent than
those for finite volume methods (e.g. expansion rate, aspect ratio) but there might be problems of
local conservation of conserved variables if the quality of the mesh is too low. The code manual
should define any special requirements of the mesh.
The distribution of elements needs to be able to resolve the flow variation. In particular, the grid
lines should be roughly aligned with the flow direction near to walls.
Be aware that the grid might affect the flow at the degrees of freedom located on sharp corners
(more so than in finite volume methods).
The shape of the elements should be acceptable.
Minimise the mesh bandwidth.
Finite-element computations need more computer memory than Finite-Volume methods on structured grids with same number of nodes. Accurate FEM solutions can be obtained with a minimal
mesh by using a quadratic basis function.
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4. Turbulence modelling
Most flows of practical engineering interest are turbulent, and turbulent mixing then usually dominates
the behaviour of the flow. Turbulence plays a crucial part in the determination of many relevant engineering parameters, such as frictional drag, heat transfer, flow separation, transition from laminar to
turbulent flow, thickness of boundary layers, extent of secondary flows, and spreading of jets and
wakes.
The turbulent states which can be encountered across the whole range of industrially relevant flows
are rich, complex and varied. After a century of intensive theoretical and experimental research, it is
now accepted that no single turbulence model can span these states and that there is no generally
valid universal model of turbulence. A bewildering number and variety of models have appeared over
the years, as different developers have tried to introduce improvements to the models that are available. The extremely difficult nature of this endeavour caused Bradshaw [1994] to refer to turbulence
as the invention of the Devil on the seventh day of creation, when the Good Lord wasn't looking.
The available turbulence models can be roughly divided into three main categories, with the following
subdivisions:
Within each of these categories there are a wide variety of different models and options available (see
below). The choice of which turbulence model to use and the interpretation of its performance (i.e. establishing bounds on key predicted parameters) is a far-from-trivial matter.
A set of application procedures is evidently required which documents the performance of various turbulence models across a broad class of flow regimes and for different applications. A full categorisation of this type is beyond the scope of the present guidelines. Instead the general features and broad
limitations of different classes of model will be discussed and guidance will be given on the practical
deployment of the turbulence model most commonly used in industrial practice, the standard k-
model. A fuller introduction to the subject of turbulence and turbulence modelling can be obtained by
consulting standard reference texts on the subject, such as Launder and Spalding [1972], Cebeci and
Smith [1974], Rodi [1993], Tennekes and Lumley [1972], Menter et al. [1997], Wilcox [1998], Hanjalic
[1994], Leschziner [1990] and Launder [1989].
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solved turbulent motions. The turbulence model must be extended to include a representation of these
energy fluxes in order to fully close the system of equations2. Because models are based on different
assumptions, all available turbulence models have limitations which depend on the modelling strategy.
If the transport of one or more scalar contaminants or species is important, the appropriate timedependant concentration equations are treated in a similar way to the energy equation. The turbulent
mass fluxes which then arise are usually modelled following the same approach adopted for the energy fluxes. Thus, for the sake of simplicity and clarity, the text will focus on the treatment of the energy equation.
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k1/2, where k is the kinetic energy per unit mass of fluid arising from the turbulent fluctuations in velocity around the averaged velocity. A transport equation for k can be derived from the Navier-Stokes
equations and this is the single transport equation in the one-equation model. This is closed (i.e. reduced to a form involving only calculated variables) by introducing simple modelling assumptions
thereby furnishing a prescription for the velocity scale V which accounts at least partially for non-local
effects.
In shear-layer type flows, and especially in regions close to a wall, it is often possible to algebraically
prescribe L with reasonable confidence. In geometrically complex configurations the prescription of L
is difficult because it depends on non-local quantities, such as the boundary layer thickness, displacement thickness, etc. and introduces similar uncertainties as in an algebraic turbulence model.
Spalart and Allmaras [1992] have devised an alternative formulation of a one-equation model specifically for aerodynamic flows, which determines the turbulent viscosity directly from a single transport
equation for T and this model is proving quite successful for practical turbulent flows in external airfoil
applications. The model is not well-suited for more general flows, as it leads to serious errors even for
simple shear flows (round jet).
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simple states of strain, especially when the model constants have been carefully calibrated from similar classes of flows, but may prove inadequate for modelling complex strain fields arising from the action of swirl, body forces such as buoyancy or extreme geometrical complexity. Under such circumstances a more subtle relationship between stress and strain must be invoked. The so-called Reynolds stress transport models (RSTM) dispense with notion of turbulent viscosity, and determine the
turbulent stresses directly by solving a transport equation for each stress component. This requires the
solution of six additional coupled equations, together with an equation for to provide a length scale
(Launder and Spalding [1972], Rodi [1993], Launder et al. [1975], Leschziner [1998], and Speziale
[1987a]). These methods are also sometimes referred to as second moment closure models (SMC) or
second order closure models as the equations can be considered as second moments of the momentum equations. In a similar way, the turbulent heat fluxes can be determined directly by solving three
extra equations, one for each flux component thereby removing the notion of a turbulent Prandtl number.
This type of model can handle complex strain and, in principle, can cope with non-equilibrium flows.
However, it is complex and expensive to compute. A much simplified form of second moment closure
can be derived from the RSTM which reduces the number of coupled differential equations to two (as
in two-equation turbulence models) whilst retaining the subtle interaction between stress and strain.
This form, known as an algebraic Reynolds stress model (ARSM), is generated by assuming the
transport (convection plus diffusion) of Reynolds stress (RS) in the RSTM equations is equal to the
transport of turbulence energy multiplied by the factor (RS/k). The result is an implicit algebraic relationship for the Reynolds stresses which is closed by solving transport equations for k and a lengthscale determining quantity such as (Rodi [1993], Launder [1984] and [1989]).
RSTM require boundary conditions for each of the stress components which can be difficult to specify.
Also, both RSTM and ARSM can give rise to problems of convergence. Such models are offered in
most commercial codes nowadays, but have not yet been widely adopted as an industrial tool, except
for very particular types of flow for which extensive calibration has been carried out and where the
standard k- model is known to do a poor job (see section 4.4).
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reader is referred to the very extensive literature on this subject (starting with the references given in
chapter 13).
Ensure that low numerical and convergence errors have been achieved in turbulent flow simulations. The relevance of turbulence modelling only becomes significant in CFD simulations when
other sources of error, in particular the numerical and convergence errors, have been removed or
properly controlled. Clearly no proper evaluation of the merits of different turbulence models can
be made unless the discretisation error of the numerical algorithm is known, and grid sensitivity
studies become crucial for all turbulent flow computations.
Be aware that there is no universally valid general model of turbulence that is accurate for all
classes of flows. Validation and calibration of the turbulence model with test data are necessary
for all applications3.
If possible, examine the effect and sensitivity of results to the turbulence model by changing the
turbulence model being used.
When using a particular turbulence model, check the published literature with regard to the known
weaknesses of the model. The weaknesses of the standard k- model (Launder and Spalding
[1974]), which is the most commonly used model in industrial applications, are listed below together with some indications of possible palliative actions which might be fruitfully considered.
Select an appropriate near-wall model. Decide whether to use a wall function method, in which the
near-wall region is bridged with wall functions (see the discussion below), or a low Reynolds number model, in which the flow structure in the viscous sub-layer is resolved. This decision will be
based on the available resources and the requirements for resolution of the boundary layer. The
validity of the wall function approach or the use of a low Reynolds number model should be examined for the flow configuration under study. Wall function methods are not valid in the presence of
separated regions and/or strong three dimensional flows.
Calibration in this sentence refers to testing the ability of a CFD code to predict global quantities of
interest for specific geometries of engineering design interest (see definition in chapter 2) and not to
tuning the coefficients of a turbulence model, which cannot be recommended for a novice user.
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such as pressure gradient and the penetration of far field influences. In some circumstances the range
of validity may also be affected by local influences such as buoyancy forces if there is strong heat
transfer at the wall. Turbulent quantities, such as the turbulence velocity (k1/2), dissipation and length
scales, when treated in the same way, also exhibit a universal behaviour. For example, in the loglayer, under equilibrium conditions k/u2 is a constant, C. It is of interest to note this allows an alternative definition of dimensionless wall distance, denoted y* where y* is given by y (C-1 k)1/2/ . The
two forms are equivalent (i.e. y+ = y*) when the turbulence structure is in equilibrium (see for details
Chieng and Launder [1980] and Grotjans and Menter [1998]). The role of y* in the application of wall
functions is discussed further below.
The standard wall functions are valid for smooth walls, but can be modified to allow for rough surfaces
by adjustment of the constants in the law of the wall (see Tennekes and Lumley [1972]). If a rough
wall is being modelled the wall distance in the law of the wall is non-dimensionalised with an equivalent roughness height, and appropriate values must be selected from the data or literature.
These universal functions can be used to relate flow variables at the first computational mesh point,
displaced some distance y from the wall, directly to the wall shear stress without resolving the structure in between. A similar universal, non-dimensional function can be constructed which relates the
temperature difference between the wall and the mesh point to heat flux at the wall (Launder and
Spalding [1974]). This can be used to bridge the near-wall region when solving the energy equation.
The constraints to be observed when using wall functions are:
a) The calculated flow must be consistent or nearly consistent with the assumptions made in arriving
at the wall function equations, i.e. an attached two-dimensional Couette flow with small pressure
gradients, local equilibrium of turbulence (production rate of k equals its dissipation rate), and a
constant near-wall stress layer. Applying wall functions outside this application range, e.g. for
general three-dimensional flows, separating flows, swirling flows and flows along spinning walls,
may lead to inaccuracies.
b) The value of y+ at the first mesh point remains within the limit of validity of the wall functions.
Unfortunately, it is not always possible to satisfy these constraints everywhere within a flow and then
certain practical advantages (rarely improvements in accuracy) can be gained from basing wall distance appearing in the wall-functions on y* rather than y+ . For example, at flow re-attachment or at
point of impingement, w vanishes and so y+ is zero irrespective of the value of y (an example of far
field influences penetrating through to the wall reducing the y+ limit of validity to zero). However, y* remains large due to the high values of k convected towards the wall, facilitating the (apparent) satisfaction of constraint b). Also, in this particular case the use of y* rather than y+ results in a qualitative improvement in the prediction of wall heat transfer. Wherever the conditions of constraint a) are met, y+
and y* are equivalent. Many commercial codes employ y* in the application of wall functions as the default4.
Standard wall functions are one of the biggest sources of misconceptions in turbulent flow computations, even for experienced users. Their purpose is to bridge the extremely thin viscous layer near the
surface. They do not free the user from the need to adequately resolve the turbulent portion of the
boundary layer. Adequate resolution means at least eight to ten points in the turbulent regime, if the
accurate prediction of boundary layer effects, like wall friction, heat transfer and separation is intended. In addition to the lower limit on y+, which ensures that the first (integration) point does not fall
into the viscous sublayer, there are also upper limits due to the requirement of adequate boundary
layer resolution. These limits are the more restrictive the lower the running-length of the boundary
layer is. For boundary layers with a Reynolds number lower than Re=105 it is difficult to satisfy the requirement that the first (integration) point has to lay outside the viscous sublayer and at the same time
to achieve a sufficient boundary layer resolution. The most sensible approach to satisfy the logarithmic
profile assumption and to resolve the boundary layer is to place the first (integration) point slightly
above the lower limit recommended by the code developers (typically around y+ = 20).
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To generate a grid with a pre-specified y+ distribution is difficult, as y+ depends on the solution, which
is not known during the grid generation phase. As many engineers compute similar flow in similar geometries at similar Reynolds numbers, previous computations can serve as a guideline.
Standard wall functions are clearly a weakness of present day CFD methods, as they require a very
careful placement of the near wall grid points. In addition, they do not allow for a consistent grid refinement as the solutions deteriorate if the near wall grid is refined below the log-law limit. Also they
are rarely accurate in all regions of the flow.
Check the lower limit of y+. In the commonly used applications of wall functions, the meshing
should be arranged so that the values of y+ at all the wall-adjacent integration points is only slightly
above the recommended lower limit given by the code developers, typically between 20 and 30
(the form usually assumed for the wall functions is not valid much below these values). This procedure offers the best chances to resolve the turbulent portion of the boundary layer. It should be
noted that this criterion is impossible to satisfy close to separation or reattachment zones unless
y+ is based upon y*.
Check the upper limit on y+. In the case of moderate Reynolds number, where the boundary layer
only extends to y+ of 300 to 500, there is no chance of accurately resolving the boundary layer if
the first integration point is placed at a location with the value of y+ of 100.
Check the resolution of the boundary layer. If boundary layer effects are important, it is recommended that the resolution of the boundary layer is checked after the computation. This can be
achieved by a plot of the ratio between the turbulent to the molecular viscosity, which is high inside the boundary layer. Adequate boundary layer resolution requires at least 8-10 points in the
layer.
Exercise care when calculating the flow using different schemes or different codes with wall functions on the same mesh. Cell centred schemes have their integration points at different locations
in a mesh cell than cell vertex schemes. Thus the y+ value associated with a wall-adjacent cell differs according to which scheme is being used on the mesh.
Check that the correct form of the wall function is being used to take into account the wall roughness. An equivalent roughness height and a modified multiplier in the law of the wall must be
used.
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The turbulent kinetic energy is over-predicted in regions of flow impingement and re-attachment
leading to poor prediction of heat transfer and the development of boundary layer flow around
leading edges and bluff bodies. The high turbulence levels predicted upstream of a stagnation
point are transported around the body and the real boundary layer development is swamped by
this effect. Kato and Launder [1993] have proposed an ad-hoc modification (called the Yap correction) to the equation for the production term of k appearing in the k and equation, which is designed to tackle this problem. The RNG k- model (Yakhot et al. [1992]) includes a modification to
the transport equation for and may also improve predictions in this area. The problems depend
on the free-stream values of k and and may not always occur.
Highly swirling flows are often poorly predicted due to the complex strain fields and regions of recirculation in a swirling flow are often under-estimated. These deficiencies require turbulence
models with improved physics, such as non-linear k- models, algebraic Reynolds stress models,
or full Reynolds stress models with low Reynolds number capability limitation (for example, the reviews in Patel et al. [1985] and Wilcox [1998]).
Mixing is often poorly predicted in flows with strong buoyancy effects or high streamline curvature.
Again this deficiency requires improved physics, see comment above.
Flow separation from surfaces under the action of adverse pressure gradients is often poorly predicted. The real flow is likely to be much closer to separation (or more separated) than the calculations suggest. The SST version of Menter's k- based, near wall resolved model (Menter [1993,
1996]) can offer a considerable improvement.
Flow recovery following re-attachment is often poorly predicted. If possible, avoid the use of wall
functions in these regions, but low Reynolds number models may also have some problems. A
promising possibility is the use of a length-scale limiting device (Ince and Launder [1995]).
The far-field spreading rates of round jets are predicted incorrectly. The use of non-linear k-
models should be investigated for these problems (Apsley et al. [1995]).
Turbulence driven secondary flows in straight ducts of non-circular cross section are not predicted
at all. Linear eddy viscosity models cannot capture this feature. Use RSTM or non-linear eddy viscosity modelling.
Dilation effects on turbulence production, which may become important for compressible flows,
are not accounted for. These may be important in mixing layers at moderate Mach numbers.
Sarkar et al. [1989] and Zeman [1990] have proposed modifications to the k- model that correct
this deficiency but the database is small.
Laminar and transitional regions of flow cannot be calculated with the standard k- model but nonlinear modelling may help in this respect. Transition is an active area of research in turbulence
modelling. Some simple practical advice is given in section 4.7 below.
The vertical heat flux in a buoyancy affected horizontal boundary layer, or in a thermal plume, is
poorly represented by an eddy viscosity model which assumes a turbulent Prandtl number to calculate the turbulent transport of heat. RSTM models including the solution of equations for the
three heat fluxes is currently the only option if this is important.
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5. Application uncertainties
5.1. Geometrical uncertainties
In many industrial and engineering problems, the geometry of the object to be simulated is extremely
complex and requires much effort to specify it exactly for a computer simulation. There are many
sources of error which can arise in this process, such as:
Changes in geometry that have occurred during the design process have been neglected.
CAD geometry definition is insufficiently complete for flow simulation. Some surfaces and curves
may not meet at the intended end point locations due to different levels of accuracy in different
parts of the CAD model. Other curves may be duplicated.
The geometry of a tested component may get modified during the testing procedure, and these
modifications may not have been added to the original drawings.
The geometry may not be manufactured within the tolerances as shown on the drawing, particularly with regard to fine flow features, such as the rounded shape of turbomachinery leading
edges, or symmetrical features.
The change of shape due to flow loading or other mechanical loading may not have been taken
into account, for example, the untwist of turbomachinery blade rows due to centrifugal forces.
The effective geometry of the surface may have changed during use due to wear, erosion or dirt
fouling.
Small details of the geometry may have been omitted, such as tip clearance gaps in turbomachinery, roughness on the walls, welding fillet radii, details of furniture in building flow simulations, etc.
The co-ordinate system and units used in the CAD system may be different from that used in the
CFD code (rotational direction).
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which are imposed. This can best be achieved if the user knows and understands the application he is
calculating. Additional uncertainties can arise because boundary condition data that needs to be
specified is inconsistent with the model being used.
Carry out a sensitivity analysis in which the key inlet boundary conditions are systematically
changed within certain limits. Depending on the problem, the key parameters that might be examined are:
Particular care is needed with the specification of inlet mass flow as a boundary condition for
compressible flow-fields with supersonic regions, as the flow may be choked and unable to pass
the mass flow specified.
Specify values of the turbulent length scale, as an equivalent parameter for the dissipation , that
are appropriate to the application. For external flows remote from boundary layers a value determined from the assumption that the ratio of turbulent and molecular viscosity T/ is between 1
and 10 is a reasonable guess. For internal flows a constant value of length scale derived from a
characteristic geometrical feature can be used (e.g. 1 to 10% of the hydraulic diameter for internal
flows). For simulations in which the near-wall region is modelled with a low Reynolds number
model the length scale should be based on the distance to the wall and be consistent with the internal modelling in the code.
If more sophisticated distributions of k and are used, check that these are consistent with the velocity profile. An inconsistent formulation may lead to an immediate unrealistic reduction of the turbulence quantities after the inlet.
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For RSTM models the stresses themselves need to be specified. If these are not available, as is
often the case, make an assumption of isotropic flow conditions (that is with the normal stresses
given by 2/3 k and with zero shear stresses).
For inlets that are representative of fully developed pipe or channel flows, algebraic profiles might
be used.
Check the consistency of the definitions of k and by making a plot of the ratio of turbulent to molecular viscosity T /. Note that the ratio of turbulent to laminar viscosity depends on Tu, L, k and
as T/ ~ k2 or T/ ~ TuL.
In cases where problems arise, move the inflow boundary sufficiently far from the region of interest so that a natural inlet boundary layer can develop.
Place open boundary conditions (outflow, pressure) as far away from the region of interest as
possible and avoid open boundaries in regions of strong geometrical changes or in regions of recirculation. If the latter point cannot be achieved, consult the code manual to see what boundary
condition is considered best.
Take special care with the orientation of outlet planes with regard to the mean flow, especially
when the boundary condition consists of a constant static pressure profile.
Select the boundary conditions imposed at the outlet to have only a weak influence on the upstream flow. Extreme care is needed when specifying flow velocities and directions on the outlet
plane. The most suitable outflow conditions are weak formulations involving specification of static
pressure at the outlet plane.
Particular care should be taken in strongly swirling flows where the pressure distribution on the
outlet boundary is strongly influenced by the swirl. It is therefore not acceptable to specify constant
static pressure across the outlet.
Be aware of the possibility of inlet flow inadvertently occurring at the outflow boundary, which may
lead to difficulties in obtaining a stable solution or even to an incorrect solution. If it is not possible
to avoid this by relocating the position of the outlet boundary in the domain, then one possibility to
avoid this problem is to restrict the flow area at the outlet, provided that the outflow boundary is
not near the region of interest. If the outflow boundary condition allows flow to re-enter the domain,
appropriate Dirichlet conditions should be imposed for all transported variables.
If there are multiple outlets, impose either pressure boundary conditions or mass flow specifications depending on the known quantities.
If symmetry or periodicity planes cross the inlet or outlet boundaries then care should be taken to
specify inlet or outlet variables that are consistent with these. Symmetry and periodicity planes assume that the gradients perpendicular to the plane are either zero (for symmetry) or determined
from the flow field (periodicity).
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Special attention should be directed to the initial guess of k and , especially with low Reynolds
number models.
Check carefully whether the geometry is symmetric or whether a geometrical distortion or disturbance in the inlet conditions is present which can trigger asymmetric solutions.
Estimate the Reynolds-number of the inflow and check whether the flow could be asymmetric, turbulent and/or unsteady (e.g. by sources or literature). Coupling between competitive physical phenomena might also be considered as a potential source of unsteadiness.
After obtaining a steady solution, switch to the transient mode and check whether the solution remains stable.
Switch to the transient mode if it is difficult to get a converged steady solution, especially if there is
an oscillation of the residuals.
In case of doubt, the simulation should be unsteady and without symmetry assumptions as
boundary conditions.
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6. User errors
6.1. General comments
In CFD the human factor plays an important role, as the results depend to a large extent on the competence and expertise of the user. It is worthwhile spending a few words on this rather embarrassing
aspect of CFD, as it is one of the prime causes of uncertainty in the results of CFD simulations. This
may help to avoid some, if not all, of the most easily avoidable mistakes in the future. Several factors
may give rise to user errors:
Too optimistic and uncritical use of CFD, thanks to the high accessibility through simple interactive
graphical user interfaces in commercial software, and the convincing and seductive power of the
colourful visualisations.
Lack of experience so that the user is unaware of a technical difficulty or unaware that critical information is missing.
Unfamiliarity with a particular CFD code or code version, and the tacit assumption that certain parameter settings are equivalent to those in a code or code version with which the user is more familiar.
While the first two points are associated with the users attitude and personal disposition the remaining
points refer to the question of experience and training.
Give careful thought at the outset of a CFD project to the requirements and objectives of the simulation. The following points should be considered:
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Translate the problem definition into a solution strategy involving issues and questions that have
been addressed in this document, such as:
Try to minimise errors in the handling of the code by the use of a formal check list or by letting another CFD analyst check through the code input data. This will minimise the potential source of
user errors when implementing the solution strategy with a particular code. The types of questions
which should be considered are:
Make full use of the wide variety of visual tools available in modern CFD packages to interpret the
flow-field that has been calculated. A good physical understanding of the application and experience with similar simulations are the best guide as to which plots to make. Options include:
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Three-dimensional views of iso-surfaces, such as regions of low pressure or high mach number.
Surface streak lines.
Use of identification methods to visualise vortical structures, such as line integral convolution
(LIC)
Video sequences of unsteady simulations.
Produce plots of parameters that are relevant to the physical understanding of the flow (such as
pressure fields, velocities, entropy, losses, wall shear stresses, regions of reverse flow, etc.), and
also of parameters that might help in the interpretation of the quality of the simulation (such as the
ratio of turbulent to laminar viscosity, grid skewness, grid aspect ratio, residuals, etc.).
Dont be seduced into believing that the solution is correct just because it has converged and produced high-quality colour plots (or even seductive video presentations) of the CFD simulations.
Make sure that an elementary interpretation of the flow-field explains the fluid behaviour and that
the trends of the flow analysis can be reconciled with a simple view of the flow.
Be aware of the possible errors from bugs in the pre- and post-processors (interpolation, extrapolation, averaging, etc.). Make sure that the mean values of engineering parameters derived from
the simulation are computed consistently (e.g. mass-average values, area-average values, timeaverage values). Calculation of local and mean engineering parameters with external postprocessing software may be inconsistent with the solution method of the code used (e.g. calculating shear stresses from the velocities, calculating shear stresses using nodal values instead of
wall functions). Check that any test data used for comparison with the simulations is also computed in the same way as the data from the simulation.
Consider whether the interpretation of the results, and any decisions made on the basis of them,
are within the accuracy of the computation.
A CFD user for non-routine applications should have good training and knowledge in classical fluid
mechanics (including experimental, analytical and computational aspects), a broad understanding
of numerical methods as applied to fluid flows, and detailed knowledge of the application being
examined. This means that the user should be able to understand the limitations of the models
used (e.g. turbulence, radiation, buoyancy driven flows, numerical models, etc.) and be aware of
their relevance when being applied to a particular problem.
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The training and education requirement for more routine applications can be less stringent, provided that clear guidelines or procedures have been established for the use of the code being
used. An example of a routine application would be the simulation of a standard component in a
design environment where many previous designs have been calculated and only relatively small
changes in geometries and boundaries conditions occur.
In both routine and non-routine applications, training on the use of the specific CFD code with the
solution of realistic exercises is needed.
Training should be repeated regularly, and the user should frequently read the release notes and
manuals issued by the code supplier, as these are a good source of educational information.
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7. Code errors
The success of a code leads to it becoming used more widely. As the user-base expands, there are
increasing demands for more options and the code becomes more and more complex. As it can deal
with more difficult problems, there is again an expansion of its use. In the end it is inevitable that code
errors will be discovered by the many users who outnumber the developers by an order of magnitude
and have a much wider range of applications and test cases than the code developers themselves.
The size and complexity of large CFD software packages inevitably mean that code errors (bugs) may
still be present in the software even if it has been in use and development for many years. For an illuminating description of some errors that were unobserved for many years, see Roache [1998]. He
quotes an example where a Fortran code used the symbol MACH for Mach number, which is automatically interpreted as an integer. The mistake went undiscovered as all of the validation and verification cases were for integer values of the Mach number!
The painstaking but straightforward process of verification provides a means of checking that the code
faithfully reproduces the model approximations incorporated in the algorithms being programmed. The
main problem associated with code verification is that the accuracy of a code can never be formally
demonstrated for all possible conditions and applications, and for all possible combinations of valid
code input options. In fact it can never be proven that a code is correct in that sense, as at any time a
new bug may be found.
The code developer or code vendor needs to demonstrate that he has applied stringent methods
of quality control of the software development and maintenance.
Verification of the code is to be carried out by the code vendor or developer, and he should provide the necessary information on the verification process for the user.
The code developer or code vendor should maintain and publish a databank of verification test
cases that are used for testing. The cases should include simple code verifications tests (e.g. that
solutions are independent of co-ordinate systems).
The code developer or code vendor should provide documentary evidence of the verification tests
that the software has undergone, which should include clearly details of the code options which
are used during testing.
For all new versions of the code, new compilers and all new machines a standard set of verification test cases should be repeated.
Code vendors and code developers should supply a list of known bugs and errors in each version
of the code (hot-line, password secured web-page). This list should demonstrate that the number
of bugs reduces as the code matures.
The code developers should try to include warning notices and guidance for the user in the output.
For example, when basic rules on grid generation (expansion ratios, skew, etc.) are being broken,
when important specific default options are being overruled by the code input data or when the
near wall grid is inconsistent with the turbulence modelling.
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When a code error is suspected, communicate this to the code vendor or developer as soon as
possible, especially if no list of known bugs has been published. Other users may then profit from
this experience. If the bug is well-known a solution or work-around may already be available.
In any communications with the code developer or code vendor about a suspected program error,
provide a short concise description of the problem and all the necessary input data files so that the
error can be reproduced. In cases where commercial sensitivity precludes this, special arrangements will need to be made.
Contact the code developer if the meaning and definition of variables in the manuals are unclear
and if support is needed in the implementation of special features.
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Before using a CFD code incorporating a specific model for a particular application, validate it
against test data for a similar application with similar flow structures and flow physics. A design
application, where accurate performance and flow-field data is needed, will require more detailed
validation than an application involving a preliminary investigation of a flow. Validation of engineering cases should be aimed to check the most prominent and relevant flow features, rather than to
capture every detail in the calculation.
For the improved validation of complex flows, consider the taxonomy of the flow and validate the
models being used on relevant simpler flows. For example, the validation of a code and turbulence
model for a radial pump application should include not only a similar radial pump test case, but
also test cases demonstrating the typical flow structures found in the pump, such as decelerating
flow in a cascade of blades, flow in a rotating channel, secondary flow in bends, and leading and
trailing edge flows. Simple test cases used in validation will allow finer grids than those used in
real applications so that results of calculations at the typical grid resolution expected in the application should also be investigated.
Carefully check the quality and accuracy of any measurements used as a validation test case, to
provide confidence in the experiment and the quality of the experimental data. The experiments
should attempt to capture the relevant boundary conditions and initial conditions where appropriate. If the experimental results are found to be sensitive to the boundary conditions and experimental set-up then this should be reported. The experimental data should include measurements
of the quantity which is of interest and needed for CFD validation. This is best done by close collaboration between experimentalists and CFD analysts. If collaboration between experimentalists
and CFD analysis is not possible care should be taken that the physically relevant quantities have
been measured and that the quality and accuracy of the data is known.
The validation data set should be independent of any data set used to construct the CFD model.
Carry out the validation simulations in accordance with the guidelines outlined in this document. In
particular, one of the validation calculations should use about the same mesh size as will be used
in the real application.
A simple test of validity should be carried out by examining elementary flow features of physical
relevance. The global mass balance should be checked, the total temperature should not vary if
no heat or work is being added to the flow, and in areas away from solid boundaries the total
pressure may often be assumed to be constant. Predictions of the entropy in a flow field can also
be a helpful validation check.
When using CFD for a design application, examine the flow of a well understood and well tested
baseline design comprising the same important flow features as a means of calibrating the expected accuracy of the code to this application. The reliability of predictions of a new design can
then be assessed by taking into account the calibration of the code with the baseline design. Such
a calibration allows a more accurate estimate of the predicted performance of the new design to
be made by consideration only of the predicted differences and trends between the new design
and the baseline design. In this way CFD can be used to rank different designs with similar flow
structures.
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Document the validation efforts. In any CFD calculations which are carried out without undergoing
a thorough validation process (which is sometimes necessary as there may be no suitable measurements, or the time available allows no alternative), then attention should be drawn in the
documentation of the results to the speculative nature of the simulation, with comments on why
the user believes that the results are correct.
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The cases should be selected to show each of following important physical effects: strong swirl,
heat transfer, flow in rotating components (turbomachinery), compressible flow, and unsteady
flow.
The cases should individually show two or three of the following effects of relevance to the best
practice guidelines: numerical errors, grid dependency, spatial discretisation, temporal discretisation convergence, turbulence model, wall function, application uncertainty (boundary conditions
and geometry).
The test cases should include some comparison with experimental data or to an analytic solution.
Various code vendors and code developers offered a selection of test cases for inclusion in these
guidelines. From discussions at the workshop, and in accordance with the conditions outlined above, a
selection from the various test cases was made. It is important to note that the presence of an example from a particular code vendor in a particular application area is not intended to provide any endorsement of the acceptability of the code for this particular purpose. Likewise, the absence of an example from a particular code vendor in a certain application area provides no statement on the unsuitability of the code for this particular application.
The literature references which are of direct relevance to the specific test case are given at the end of
the test case, but references of a more general nature are given in chapter 13.
9.2.1. Introduction
The purpose of this example is to demonstrate the effects of the order of temporal discretisation. A
first-order scheme (Euler Implicit) is compared with a second-order scheme (Crank-Nicholson). This
example substantiates the best practices described in section 3.6.
Additionally, the effects of the order of spatial discretisation are illustrated on the same case. A firstorder scheme is compared with the second-order scheme above using Crank-Nicholson temporal discretisation. This example illustrates the points in section 3.5.
A perfectly circular scalar "bubble" is initially positioned at the bottom left of a square domain, in a
fixed constant velocity field directed at 45 degrees towards the top right of the domain. The bubble circular shape should be preserved as it convects across the mesh. The ability of the numerical scheme
to preserve this perfectly circular shape is a function on the temporal and spatial order of discretisation. High temporal accuracy is important for any applications which rely on time-dependent propagation phenomena, such as pressure pulses, and especially when the propagation occurs across mesh
lines, as with vortical flow structures. Therefore, applications such as acoustic analyses or large-eddy
simulation (LES) rely on higher-order capabilities or else the discretisation practice will introduce unphysical effects (phase change, or distorted eddies) which may be indistinguishable from the true
physics. High spatial accuracy is necessary to preserve the sharpness of bubble interface.
To summarise, three cases are presented;
Case 1 - First order temporal, second order spatial discretisation
Case 2 - Second order temporal, first order spatial discretisation
Case 3 - Second order temporal, second order spatial discretisation
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9.2.5. Results
The results of the simulations with different temporal and spatial resolutions are shown in Figure 1. In
Case 1, (row 1) it is noticeable that the shape of the bubble distorts; it becomes elongated on the
propagation direction, and the interface becomes smeared in this direction. This is a feature of lowerorder temporal discretisation.
In contrast, Case 2 (row 2) preserves the shape of the bubble (higher-order temporal discretisation) by
smearing the bubble interface. This is a feature of lower-order spatial discretisation.
Finally, Case 3 (row 3) retains the shape and the sharpness of the bubble.
9.2.6. Conclusions
The importance of higher order temporal and spatial discretisation for preservation of the phase and
sharpness of a propagating flow features has been demonstrated. The first-order method distorts and
smears, whereas the second-order method preserves phase and sharpness. This example also illustrates the strong coupling between spatial and temporal discretisation. For accurate solutions in time
dependent calculations it is necessary to use higher-order discretisation in both time and space.
Figure 1: Evolution of the scalar bubble for different temporal and spatial discretisations.
Upper row:
1st order temporal, 2nd order spatial discretisation.
Middle row:
2nd order temporal, 1st order spatial discretisation.
Lower row:
2nd order temporal, 2nd order spatial discretisation.
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9.3.1. Introduction
This case is related to the isothermal swirling flow developing in a T-junction between a high Reynolds
number main pipe and an auxiliary pipe at very small and zero mass flow rates. The motivation is to
understand and model the hydraulic behaviour of various auxiliary lines connected to the primary circuit of Pressurised Water Reactors. Experimental data have been obtained on a hydraulic mock-up
using flow visualisation and particle image velocimetry (PIV). They show an helicoidal (corkscrew) flow
extending along the auxiliary pipe.
This case illustrates the importance of the choice of the turbulence model k- eddy viscosity model
and a Reynolds stress turbulence model) for computing this type of swirling flow and a grid dependency study shows the determining influence of the mesh refinement on the quality of the results.
VA
2000 mm
VM
outlet
500 mm
1500 mm
100 mm
R = 130 mm
100 mm
0.120
VM
9.2
VA
0.092
0.046
0.023
0.
1%
0.5 %
0.25 %
0.%
page 43 of 94
rately the incoming flow. The mean velocity was taken constant and turbulent quantities were estimated from usual experimental laws for the friction velocity. In fully developed pipe flows with zeroroughness, and for Reynolds numbers Re (based on the bulk velocity VA and the hydraulic diameter
D) ranging between 5,000 and 30,000, the friction velocity u can be determined from
u = VA ((0.3164/Re0.25)/8)0.5. The turbulent kinetic energy k can then be estimated from u as
k = u2/0.3 and the dissipation as = u3/(0.42 D 0.1). As for Reynolds stresses, the diagonal components are taken equal to 2/3 k whereas the extra-diagonal components are set to zero (assuming isotropic turbulence).
Flow rates and corresponding bulk velocities are given in Table 1. Note that the bulk flow rate remains
constant and the auxiliary flow rate varies from zero to 1% of the bulk flow rate. At the outlet (main
pipe), zero gradient conditions were applied for all transported variables. Wall functions were used at
solid walls.
9.3.3. Grid
The equations are discretized on a 3D semi-staggered grid. Velocity is located at the vertices and
pressure is cell-centred. When the k- model is used, the turbulent variables are located at the vertices, whereas they are cell-centred with the Reynolds stress model. The mesh is single block structured in Cartesian orthogonal coordinates. Curved boundaries are represented by special features of
the code which enables the treatment of slanted boundary cells (prisms, tetrahedrons, etc.).
A grid dependence study has been carried out with meshes of 100 000, 400 000, and 1 500 000
nodes for each turbulence model and each auxiliary mass flow rate considered (except for zero mass
flow rate, for which only the finest grid has been used). Aspect ratios (ratio of the longest to the smallest edge in each cell) have been kept approximately between 1 and 2.
9.3.5. Results
Figure 2 compares the length of vortex penetration obtained by numerical simulation with experimental
measurements. The length of the vortex penetration has been determined numerically by visualising
the time-averaged velocity field obtained in different planes of the dead leg. This method is consistent
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with the way the experiments were carried out (visualisation of averaged results from one thousand
instantaneous velocity fields obtained using PIV system). It is also important to note that experiments
and calculations were conducted by the same team, thus making comparisons easier and less subject
to interpretation errors. The results for three different flow rates are presented. Significant improvement is obtained when refining the mesh.
The prediction of the vortex penetration in the dead leg using Reynolds stress model on the finest
mesh is in very good agreement with the experiments. The differences between medium and fine
meshes illustrate the necessity to use very fine grids with the Reynolds stress model. It might be necessary to perform yet another simulation on an even finer mesh to achieve full grid independence.
With the k- model, on the contrary, the computed vortex penetration is not satisfactory, even on the
finest mesh. Moreover, the very small difference between the results obtained on medium and fine
meshes indicates that the use of even more refined meshes would be unlikely to bring significant improvement.
H/D 10
Experimental
SMC fine mesh
SMC medium mesh
SMC coarse mesh
8
6
k- fine mesh
k- medium mesh
k- coarse mesh
4
2
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
VA/VM (%)
Figure 2: Length of vortex penetration for different flow rates in the auxiliary pipe.
Comparison between Reynolds stress model (SMC) and k- model.
Coarse, medium and fine meshes have been used.
Figure 3 presents the rotation velocity at different sections in the auxiliary pipe obtained by both numerical and experimental simulations. According to tests by Robert [1992], the strength of the rotation
velocity in the auxiliary line is very sensitive to geometric details of the T-junction. Small differences
between the mock-up geometry and the numerical mesh could generate differences on the rotation
velocity. To validate independently the vortex decay in the auxiliary line, numerical and experimental
results are compared using dimensionless quantities. The rotation velocities obtained from numerical
and experimental simulations are scaled by the corresponding rotation velocities near to the T-junction
taken at H/D = 3. Using Reynolds stress model, the vortex decay is very close to the experimental result, whereas it is overestimated with the k- model.
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SMC
k-
0.75
Experimental
0.50
0.25
0.00
2
H/D
10
Figure 3: Maximum of rotation velocity scaled by the corresponding value at the section H/D=3.
Comparison between Reynolds stress model (SMC), k- results and experimental data.
Figures 4 and 5 help to visualise the flow features. They represent the vortex penetration in the dead
leg for VA/VM = 0.25 % (k- model and RSTM respectively). The positive vertical velocity component is
displayed in black and the negative in grey: black trajectories represent fluid particles coming from the
main pipe and grey trajectories represent the fluid particles coming from the top of the auxiliary pipe.
Velocity vectors are plotted at three different sections of the auxiliary pipe H/D=2, 5 and 7 from the results of fine, medium and coarse meshes.
fine mesh
Va
medium mesh
Coarse mesh
H/D= 9
H/D= 7
H/D= 5
H/D=3
Vm
Figure 4: k- model prediction of vortex penetration in the dead leg: VA/VM = 0.25 %.
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fine mesh
Va
medium mesh
Coarse mesh
H/D= 9
H/D= 7
H/D= 5
H/D=3
Vm
Figure 5 : Reynolds stress model prediction of vortex penetration in the dead leg: VA/VM = 0.25 %.
9.3.6. Conclusions
Numerical calculations performed on the T-junction with coarse (100 000), medium (400 000) and fine
(1 500 000) meshes were used to test the influence of the grid. The results illustrate that a thorough
mesh refinement is necessary before trying to draw conclusions from any numerical simulation. Indeed, on too coarse a mesh, results from the Reynolds stress model might turn out to be significantly
worse than those obtained with a k- model.
The numerical results obtained with the Reynolds stress turbulence model on the finest mesh confirm
the presence of the swirling flow structure observed experimentally in the dead leg. On the other hand,
with the k- eddy viscosity model, the vortical penetration in the dead leg is not satisfactorily reproduced. This demonstrates that Reynolds stress modelling might be a very interesting alternative to
less sophisticated turbulence models, such as the k- model, especially to capture swirling flows.
9.3.7. References
Matti J.D., Simonin O., "Logiciel (1993), Reference manual : ESTET - Manuel thorique de la
version 3.1 - Tome 1 - Modlisation physiques" , EDF report HE-44/92/038/A.
Deutsch E., Montanari P., Mallez C. (1997), "Isothermal study of the flow at the junction between
an auxiliary line and primary circuit of pressurised water reactors", Journal of hydraulic Research Vol.
35, No. 6, 799-811.
Robert M. (1992), "Corkscrew flow pattern in piping system dead legs", NURETH-5, September,
Salt Lake City, USA.
9.4.1. Introduction
The test case chosen is the computation of the steady-state, natural convection flow of a compressible
fluid (air) in a square cavity, with differentially heated vertical walls. It is customary to assume incompressible flow (the local Mach numbers are extremely low), constant flow properties and to model
buoyancy forces with the so-called Boussinesq approximation (Gray and Giorgini, [1976]). Under this
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hypothesis, density is assumed constant in the flow equations except in the gravity force term, where
small variations due to temperature differences are modelled in the form g(-0 )/0 gT/T0 . Most
natural convection solvers used in the industry are indeed based on this model, but these assumptions
are only valid for small temperature differences, and may be the source of substantial errors in heat
transfer coefficients. For large temperature differences, compressibility effects come into play even if
the local Mach numbers remain extremely small so that it becomes necessary to use a compressible
model to compute the flow.
This test case will illustrate the following guidelines:
the effect of the flow model on the heat transfer results (modelling errors);
the grid-sensitivity of results (numerical errors).
9.4.3. Grids
The grids used consist of a series of structured quadrilateral meshes, slightly clustered near the solid
boundaries where stronger gradients occur. In order to conduct a grid-convergence study, the following meshes were used: 20x20, 40x40, 80x80, and 160x160.
(T ) T
=
3/ 2
T + S
T +S
with T* =273 K, S=110.5 K and * =1.68 10-5 kg/m/s. We shall consider here a Rayleigh number
Ra=106, for which the flow is known to be laminar. We recall that the Rayleigh number is defined as:
2
g0 (Th Tc )L3
Ra = Pr
T0 2
Uniform initial conditions are assumed, with air at atmospheric pressure Po=101325 Pa, and a temperature To= (Th + Tc)/2 = 600 K. Two temperature ratios = (Th - Tc) / (Th + Tc) will be considered, =
0.01 for which the Boussinesq flow model is valid, and = 0.2 for which a compressible flow model is
required. With these definitions, expressions for the hot and cold temperatures Th and Tc are respectively Th = To (1 + ) and Tc = To (1 - ).
The numerical scheme used for the computations is an elliptic finite element solver based on an asymptotic approximation of the Navier-Stokes equations at low Mach numbers in which the pressure is
split into an average time-dependent thermo-dynamic pressure which obeys the perfect gas law, and a
hydrodynamic fluctuation pressure which obeys a Poisson pressure equation just as for incompressible flow. The discretisation is based on bilinear quadrilateral elements (Galerkin method), and the solutions are obtained by time-marching to steady state using a time-accurate scheme.
Nu ( y ) =
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T
O (Th Tc ) x
wall
page 48 of 94
In this first computation, we perform a grid convergence study for the Ra = 106 and = 0.01 case.
Table 1 shows the evolution of the average, maximum and minimum Nusselt number computed on the
right wall as the mesh is progressively refined. In all cases, steady-state was obtained with a drop of
the momentum residual of more than 10 orders of magnitude. A reference solution correspond to gridconverged Boussinesq solutions, which assume incompressible flow and constant flow properties. In
that case, a symmetric solution is obtained so that identical heat transfer distributions are obtained on
the walls.
=0.01
20x20
40x40
80x80
160x160
<Nu>
8.379
(5%)
1.018
(4%)
15.046
(14%)
8.760
(0.7%)
0.982
(0.3%)
16.999
(3%)
8.822
(<0.1%)
0.981
(0.2%)
17.433
(0.6%)
8.832
(<0.1%)
0.981
(<0.2%)
17.510
(<0.2%)
Nu_min
Nu_max
Ref. Incomp.
Sol.
8.826
0.979
17.536
Table 1: Heat transfer results for = 0.01 case; grid convergence study and comparison with reference solutions; the figures in brackets represent the relative error with respect to Le Qur et al.
[1985].
The grid convergence study shows that the solution varies sensibly up to the 80x80 mesh, and very little when the mesh is refined further (see Fig. 1). Thus, one can assume that the solution on the
160x160 mesh is nearly grid converged. For that solution, the results are in close agreement (relative
error in heat transfer of the order of 0.2%) with reference solutions found in the literature, which correspond to incompressible flow models with the Boussinesq approximation. Thus, discrepancies between the solutions computed on the coarse meshes and the reference solutions can be attributed to
numerical errors, stemming from the use of too coarse meshes or excessively dissipative schemes.
On the other hand, on fine enough meshes, the incompressible flow models and the more general low
Mach number compressible flow models yield extremely close results (and within the band of reference solutions). Thus, for small temperature differences, the modelling errors (errors due to the choice
of flow model) are negligible compared to numerical errors.
In this case, we consider a larger temperature difference, corresponding to = 0.2. Note that this parameter is still quite small compared to 1, and that it would be tempting to use an incompressible flow
model with the Boussinesq approximation. However, we shall see that even for this moderately large
temperature difference, and in spite of the extremely low Mach numbers, a compressible flow formulation is required to solve the problem.
Table 2 shows the grid converged heat transfer results obtained on the fine mesh (160x160) (validated
against other compressible solvers by Paillre et al., [1999]), alongside the reference incompressible
flow results. Note that the average Nusselt number has remained almost constant (as was observed in
Chenoweth et al., [1986], Le Qur et al., [1992] and Paillre et al., [1999]). However, the minimum
and maximum Nusselt numbers are substantially different, as may be observed from the distribution
plots in Fig. 2, which display a noticeable non-symmetric character attributed to compressibility effects.
The maximum local Mach number in the flow was found to be of the order of 3.4 x10-4 . Relative errors
in heat transfer prediction between the compressible and the incompressible flow models are of the
order of 5%.
Thus, for large temperature differences, the incompressible flow model with Boussinesq approximation
and the low Mach number compressible flow model yield substantially different results. The difference
can be attributed to modelling errors, as it is known (but unfortunately often forgotten) that the former
model is only valid for small temperature differences in Gray et al. [1976].
ERCOFTAC 2000
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=0.2
<Nu>
160x160
Ref. Incomp.
Sol.
8.817
8.826
(0.1%)
Nu_min
0.930
0.979
(5%)
Nu_max
16.869
17.536
(4%)
Table 2: Heat transfer results for = 0.2 case ; the figures in brackets represent the relative error between the reference incompressible solution (Le Qur et al., [1985]) and the grid converged compressible solution
9.4.6. Conclusions
This example illustrates two sources of error that can affect a CFD simulation, numerical error due to
insufficient grid refinement and modelling error due to inappropriate choice of flow model. When analysing flow with heat transfer and very low Mach numbers, care must be used in the choice of flow
model (i.e extremely low Mach does not imply incompressible flow), and grid-sensitivity assessed by
comparing results on grids of different size.
9.4.7. References
Chenoweth, D. and Paolucci, S. (1986), Natural Convection in an Enclosed Vertical Layer with
Large Temperature Differences, J. Fluid Mech., Vol. 169, pp. 173-210.
Gray, D.D. and Giorgini, A., (1976) The Validity of the Boussinesq Approximation for Liquids and
Gases, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, Vol. 15, pp. 545-551, 1976
Le Qur, P., Masson, R. and Perrot, P. (1992), A Chebyshev Collocation Algorithm for 2D NonBoussinesq Convection, J. Comput. Phys., 57, pp. 320-335.
Le Qur, P. and Alziary de Roquefort, T. (1985), Computation of Natural Convection in Twodimensional Cavities with Chebyshev Polynomials, J. Comput. Phys., Vol. 57, pp.210-228.
Paillre, H. and Magnaud, J.P. (1998), A Finite Element Elliptic Flow Solver for Low Mach Number
Compressible Flows, pp. 419-424, Proc. 10th Int. Conf. on Finite Elements in Fluids, Tucson, Arizona,
January 5-8, 1998.
Paillre, H., Viozat, C., Kumbaro, A. and Toumi, I. (1999), Comparison of Low Mach Number
Models for Natural Convection Problems, EUROTHERM Seminar No. 63 Single and Two-Phase
Natural Circulation`, Genoa, Italy, 6-8 September 1999
20
15
Nu(y)
10
0.25
0.5
0.75
y/L
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page 50 of 94
20
15
Nu(y)
10
epsi=0.2, right wall
epsi=0.2, left wall
epsi=0.01, right wall
epsi=0.01, left wall
0.25
0.5
0.75
y/L
9.5.1. Introduction
The test case has been included to provide information about heat transfer at flow re-attachment, and
to compare predictions with mean flow and turbulence experimental data in a spreading shear layer.
The focus of the presented work is the sensitivity of the results to mesh errors and the accuracy of the
turbulence model applied for global predictions of the flow-field and heat transfer. Results are presented for the k- turbulence model with wall functions. In addition, a modification to the turbulence
model is suggested to improve prediction of heat transfer in a region of flow re-attachment.
The geometry of the test problem is a sudden pipe expansion, as illustrated in Figure 1. Turbulent flow
approaching the expansion from the inlet pipe separates at the step corner forming a shear layer
which finally attaches to the larger pipe wall at a distance downstream of the expansion. A recirculating region of flow is contained between the shear layer, step and larger pipe wall and a secondary recirculation is set up in the corner. In the heat transfer experiments, a constant heat flux was applied to
the larger pipe side wall, the other walls being insulated, and the inlet flow was at uniform temperature.
The experimental data of Szczepura [1985], and Baughn et. al [1984] were used as control data for
the velocity and thermal fields respectively.
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Once a k- solution is obtained, the thermal energy equation is solved, applying a constant heat flux
on the downstream pipe wall to provide a bulk temperature at the outlet of 1.0. The local bulk temperature therefore increases linearly along the pipe.
9.5.3. Grid
The mesh design as a layout of blocks or patches is shown in Figure 2. The grid design is parametric,
in that the parameter N controls the number of elements in both directions for each patch, as described in Table 1, which also indicates the squeeze factors chosen. The squeeze factor shown provides the ratio of the dimension of an element in one direction in relation to its neighbour. Additionally,
to preserve the thickness of the wall element, a constant thickness layer of 0.005m is positioned next
to the walls. Table 2 gives the number of elements in each mesh. Each element consists of eight
nodes, with four corner and four mid-side nodes.
9.5.5. Results
Results showing the sensitivity of the simulation to mesh errors are analysed first, followed by results
addressing turbulence modelling issues.
Two reference points are chosen to demonstrate sensitivity of axial velocity and effective viscosity to
mesh errors, point R1 located at x=0.05, r=0.25, and point R2, at x=1.0, R=0.1. The maximum Nusselt
number was also found on each mesh. Table 3 shows values of the axial velocity at point R2, effective
viscosity at point R1 and maximum Nusselt number on each of the meshes. It can be shown from
these values that the error relative to the solution on the N=16 grid decays with the fourth order of the
grid size (N4), which is consistent with the fourth order accuracy of the solution method being used.
The wiggles produced from the high order numerical scheme were analysed to indicate mesh errors;
the wiggle size is proportional to mesh Reynolds number. The maximum local error indicated on the
N=4 mesh is 38%, it is 12% on the N=8 mesh and 3% on the N=16 mesh. Average errors are much
smaller than this. The location of maximum error is near the corner.
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The experimental value for maximum Nusselt number on the wall is 932. Consequently, the standard
modelling over-predicts the heat transfer by more than a factor of 2. Restricting the rate at which the
length scale can grow away from a wall to 0.25y provides a maximum Nusselt number of 1200. This
is a significant improvement. The inclusion of such a length scale limiting device is advisable for all reattaching flows, and other simulations have shown that it can also be recommended for all buoyancy
driven flows (e.g. Ince and Launder [1995]).
Figures 4 and 5 show centre-line profiles of the turbulence energy and mean axial velocity in comparison with experimental values (calculated without the length scale limiter). The predictions give reasonable agreement with experiment for the gross features in the flow, apart from in the re-circulation
region, where turbulence levels are significantly under-predicted, and near the centre-line edge of the
shear layer, due to the poor prediction of the spreading rate of the shear layer. The global features of
the flow prediction are not very sensitive to the use of the length scale limiter.
9.5.6. Conclusions
The finite element scheme used in this example makes use of quadratic basis functions and this provides a fourth order accurate numerical scheme. The results demonstrate that the mesh errors decrease with the fourth order of the mesh spacing or grid size (N4).
The standard k- turbulence model used seriously overestimates the heat transfer in a reattachment
region by a factor of 2. A length scale limiting device is essential to provide a reasonable prediction of
heat transfer in flow re-attachment regions. The predictions give reasonable agreement with experiment for the gross features in the flow, apart from in the re-circulation region, where turbulence levels
are significantly under-predicted, and near the centre-line edge of the shear layer, due to the poor
prediction of the spreading rate of the shear layer.
9.5.7. References
FEAT User Guide Version 3.1.0 (1997), Nuclear Technology Branch, British Energy, Barnett Way,
Barnwood, Gloucester, GL4 3RS
Szczepura, R.T. (1985), Flow characteristics of an axisymmetric sudden pipe expansion: results
obtained from the turbulence studies rig. Part 1, Mean and turbulence velocity results, CEGB Report
TPRD/B/0702/N85.
Baughn, J.W., Hoffman, M.A., Takahashi, R.K., and Launder, B.E. (1984), Local heat transfer
downstream of an abrupt expansion in a circular channel with constant heat flux, J. Heat Transfer
106.
Smith, R.M. (1984), A practical method of two-equation turbulence modelling using finiteelements, Int.J.Num.Meth.Fluids, 4, 1984, pp. 321-336.
Jayatilleke, C.L.V. (1969), The influence of Prandtl number and surface roughness on the resistance of the laminar sublayer to momentum and heat transfer, Prog in Heat and Mass Transfer, 1,
Pergamon Press.
Ince, N.Z and Launder, B.E. (1995), Three-dimensional and heat-loss effects on turbulent flow in a
nominally two-dimensional cavity, Int. J. Heat and Fluid Flow, 16, pp. 171-177.
Axial elements
N
3N/2
4N
1,8,9,
10
2,3,4
5,6,7
Radial elements
3N/2
all
5,6,7
8,9,1
0
Radial squeeze
factor
10
1/20 1/40
3,6,9
1,2,5,
8
4,7,10
N=4
534
N=6
1170
N=8
2052
N=10
3180
N=12
4554
N=14
6174
N=16
8040
ERCOFTAC 2000
page 53 of 94
Variable
U1(R2)
VEFF(R1)
Nu(max)
N=4
0.921
0.138
2328.2
N=6
0.934
0.135
2341.0
N=8
0.939
0.124
2342.0
N=10
0.941
0.111
2341.3
N=12
0.941
0.108
2342.8
N=14
0.942
0.104
2343.8
N=16
0.942
0.104
2343.2
Table 3: Values of axial velocity, effective viscosity and maximum Nusselt number on the various
meshes
X=6.0
Centre
line
X=3.0
X=0.05
X=-0.25
Step
corner,
x=0.0, r=0.257
Figure 1: Pipe Expansion Test Problem Geometry
X=0.4
X=2.8
X=6
10
R=0.4
R=.257
R=0
Figure 2: Mesh Design, Layout of Patches
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axial velocity
1.20E+00
1.00E+00
radius
8.00E-01
6.00E-01
4.00E-01
2.00E-01
0.00E+00
0.00E+00
6.00E-02
1.20E-01
1.80E-01
2.40E-01
50
100
150
200
250
300
radius
turbulent viscosity
7.00E-04
6.00E-04
5.00E-04
4.00E-04
3.00E-04
2.00E-04
1.00E-04
0.00E+00
0.00E+0
0
5.00E-02
1.00E-01
1.50E-01
2.00E-01
2.50E-01
3.00E-01
radius
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Centre-Line k
0.04
0.035
0.03
0.025
Exp k
0.02
Pred k
0.015
0.01
0.005
0
0
Axial Location
Axial Velocity
1
0.8
Exp U
0.6
Pred U
0.4
0.2
0
0
Axial Location
9.6.1. Introduction
The purpose of this example is further to illustrate the effects of spacial discretisation. Two formally
second-order accurate schemes are demonstrated. The first uses a gradient-based advection scheme
which can be termed 2nd-order Upwind Differencing, and the second is a similar scheme based on a
more compressive monotone advection algorithm. The first scheme essentially uses a compact stencil
as a result of the upwinding practice that it employs while the more compressive scheme uses a wider
stencil and therefore it resembles a gradient-based central differencing scheme. This example is used
further to illustrate spatial discretisation practices described in section 3.5
The RAE2822 airfoil, Mach 0.731 at 2.51 degrees incidence and a Reynolds Number of 6.5 x106, is a
well known benchmark exhibiting supersonic expansion and shock compression. Predictions of the
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pressure coefficient at the surface of the airfoil, lift and drag are compared with experimental data(
Cooke et al. [1979]).
In such cases which contain rapid expansions (leading edge suction) and compression (suction surface shock), non-compressive schemes have the effect of smearing the high-gradient features. Therefore, the prediction of critical parameters, such as lift, are adversely affected. Compressive discretisation practices are necessary.
9.6.3. Grid
In Figure 1 the computational mesh is shown. It contains 12288 cells, using a C-grid construction with
192 cells wrapped around the airfoil (128 of which are on the surface) and 64 in normal to surface direction spaced appropriately to enable a low Reynolds number turbulence model to be used (see section 4.3.3). For this grid, y+ for the near-wall cells range between 1.5 and 5.0, the higher part of the
range occurring around the suction peak.
9.6.5. Results
The figures 2 and 3 below show the Cp (Pressure coefficient) distribution on the airfoil surface, Mach
number and near-surface mesh distributions. The compressive scheme captures well the high leading
edge suction gradient and upper surface shock. In contrast the low-compression scheme positions the
shock correctly, but fails to capture the sharpness of both the leading edge suction and the shock. The
effect is to underpredict the upper surface suction, and reduce the predicted level of lift. In both cases,
drag is overpredicted. The two-equation eddy-viscosity k- model is known to overpredict turbulence
viscosity (section 4.4.1).
Non-compressive
Compressive
Experiment
CL(lift) CD(drag)
0.693 0.0279
0.733 0.0184
0.743 0.0127
9.6.6. Conclusions
In this example, non-compressive and compressive disretisation practices have been employed to
predict the flow around an RAE2822 airfoil, and results compared with experimental data. The compressive scheme has been shown to be necessary for capturing sharp flow gradients such as leading
edge suction and shock compression.
9.6.7. References
Cooke P., McDonald, M. & Firmin, M. (1979), "Airfoil RAE2822 - Pressure Distribution and Boundary Layer Wake Measurements", AGARD AR-138.
ERCOFTAC 2000
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1.26
1.17
1.08
0.99
0.90
0.81
0.72
0.63
0.54
0.45
0.36
0.27
0.18
0.09
0.00
Mach No.
-1.5
-1.0
Cp
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
chord
Figure 2: Pressure distribution on the surface of the airfoil for the compressive scheme.
ERCOFTAC 2000
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-1.5
-1.0
Cp
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
chord
Figure 3: Pressure distribution on the surface of the airfoil for the non-compressive scheme.
9.7.1. Introduction
The fluid flow inside an automobile engine cylinder is important for combustion efficiency and engine
performance. Understanding this flow is crucial in the design of the cylinder, the valve, and the inlet
port. This example has been included to show the effects of boundary condition uncertainty, discretisation and convergence level in a realistic three-dimensional industrial geometry where important recirculation phenomena occur. The geometry and problem set-up for this case refers to the experimental study of a generic model engine valve (Chen et al, [1995]) in which a mixture of liquid phase turpentine and tetraline was used to represent the working fluid.
9.7.3. Grid
A tetrahedral grid with 176461 cells, was used. The concentration of cells is higher in the vicinity of the
valve, due to the complexity of the flow in this region. The maximum skewness of the cells is 0.875.
Skewness is defined as (Optimal-Cell-Size Cell Size)/(Optimal-Cell-Size) where optimal-cell-size is
the size of an equilateral cell with the same circumradius. According to this definition of skewness, a
ERCOFTAC 2000
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value of 0 indicates an equilateral cell (best) and a value of 1 indicates a completely degenerate cell
(worst).
= 894 kg/m3
= 0.00152875 kg/(ms)
Density
Viscosity
The Reynolds number based on the diameter of the inlet port is Re = 24 970. The RNG k turbulence
model with standard wall functions was employed in the calculation. The first order discretisation
scheme was used for momentum and turbulence equations. The calculation was then repeated with
second order discretisation to illustrate sensitivity to the discretisation method. All the variables were
initialised with a zero value prior to calculation. Results have been produced at two levels of convergence to illustrate its impact on accuracy.
9.7.5. Results
For each of the best practice issues, figures have been produced in which FLUENT predictions can be
compared with experimental data. The plots show the velocity component in z direction at two different
values of the z co-ordinate. Plots are also shown for turbulent viscosity (although no experimental
data is available for this quantity). Where best practice is applied the predicted velocities are seen to
be in good agreement with the measurements from Chen et al. [1995].
Z
X
Y
Flow Through an Engine Inlet Valve
Grid
Discretisation Method
Calculations were performed using both first and second order discretisation. The predicted velocity
profiles obtained in both cases are compared with experimental measurement in figures 2 and 3. It
can be seen that the second order scheme yields results that are in slightly closer agreement with the
experimental data points. However, for this application it would appear that the accuracy of the first
order results might be sufficient for most engineering purposes.
ERCOFTAC 2000
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1st order
2nd order
measurements
0.00e+00
-2.00e-01
-4.00e-01
-6.00e-01
Z
Velocity
[m/s]
-8.00e-01
-1.00e+00
-1.20e+00
-1.40e+00
-1.60e+00
-0.025
-0.02
-0.015
-0.01
-0.005
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
Y Position [m]
Z-Velocity at z=+10 mm
1.50e+00
1.00e+00
5.00e-01
Z
Velocity
[m/s]
0.00e+00
-5.00e-01
-1.00e+00
-1.50e+00
-0.03 -0.02 -0.01
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.08
Y Position [m]
Z-Velocity at z=-5 mm
ERCOFTAC 2000
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Convergence
The iterative calculation was monitored and stopped when the maximum residual value had fallen to
1.0E-2 and overall mass imbalance was 1.4%. [residual is defined in this case as the error associated
with the discretised equation, summed over all computational cells and normalised by the sum of the
centre coefficients of the equation. The term maximum refers to the residual for the transport equation showing the largest residual value.] The situation described above represents the not converged
result shown in figures 4 and 5.
Further iterations were then performed to obtain the fully converged result shown in figures 4 and 5.
Full convergence was deemed to have occurred when there was no further noticeable change in the
monitored variables, maximum residual value was at 1.0E-5 and overall mass imbalance had fallen to
0.002%.
Figures 4 and 5 clearly show the error that can result if the user relies on an insufficiently converged
solution.
not converged
fully converged
measurements
1.50
1.00
0.50
Z
Velocity
(m/s)
0.00
-0.50
-1.00
Y
Z
-1.50
-0.040
-0.020
0.000
0.020
0.040
0.060
0.080
Position (m)
As already noted, no experimental data on inlet turbulence intensity was available. To examine the effect of this uncertainty two cases with different values of turbulence intensity were compared. The
comparison has been carried out by using the codes default value of 10% in the first case and 1% in
the second case. The velocity plots in Figures 6 and 7 show the results.
For this application the assumption about inlet turbulence intensity is seen to have negligible effect on
the predicted velocity field down stream of the narrow valve opening. However, other transported
quantities are affected. This can be seen in figure 8 where predicted turbulent viscosity is compared
for the two cases.
ERCOFTAC 2000
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not converged
fully converged
measurements
0.00
-0.20
-0.40
-0.60
Z
Velocity
(m/s)
-0.80
-1.00
-1.20
-1.40
Y
Z
-1.60
-0.025
-0.020
-0.015
-0.010
-0.005
0.000
0.005
0.010
0.015
0.020
Position (m)
9.7.6. Conclusions
This example has illustrated the effects of discretisation, level of convergence and boundary condition
uncertainty on the quality of CFD prediction.
It has been shown that the use of a second order scheme can yield more accurate results than those
obtained using first order methods. However, in this particular application, the difference is very small
and might not warrant the additional computational expense.
The study of convergence error has clearly illustrated the need to ensure a properly converged solution and shows that unconverged solutions can be very misleading.
The effect of boundary condition uncertainty has also been demonstrated. For this application it has
been shown that uncertainty about inlet turbulence levels does not have any significant impact on the
quality of velocity predictions within the system. However, other transported quantities have been
shown to be more sensitive.
9.7.7. References
Chen, A., Lee, K.C., Yianneskis, M., and Ganti, G. (1995), Velocity Characteristics of Steady Flow
Through a Straight Generic Inlet Port, International Journal for Numerical Methods in Fluids, 21:571590.
ERCOFTAC 2000
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10% Intensity
1% Intensity
measurements
1.50
1.00
0.50
Z
Velocity
(m/s)
0.00
-0.50
-1.00
Y
Z
-1.50
-0.030 -0.020 -0.010 0.000 0.010 0.020 0.030 0.040 0.050 0.060 0.070 0.080
Position (m)
0.00
-0.20
-0.40
-0.60
Z
Velocity
(m/s)
-0.80
-1.00
-1.20
-1.40
Y
Z
-1.60
-0.025
-0.020
-0.015
-0.010
-0.005
0.000
0.005
0.010
0.015
0.020
Position (m)
ERCOFTAC 2000
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Intensity = 1%
Intensity = 10%
7.00e-02
6.00e-02
5.00e-02
4.00e-02
Turbulent
Viscosity
[kg/m-s]
3.00e-02
2.00e-02
1.00e-02
0.00e+00
-0.03 -0.02 -0.01
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.08
Y Position [m]
9.8.1. Introduction
The prediction of the flow and performance in turbomachinery blading is one of the major uses of CFD
in industrial applications. The simulation given below demonstrates the use of CFD for a radial compressor calculation, and highlights the important effects of mesh size, turbulence modelling, and the
geometric modelling of the clearance gap above the impeller vanes on both the flow and the performance predictions. The test case is the NASA Low Speed Centrifugal Compressor (LSCC), which is an
experimental facility designed to duplicate the essential flow physics of high speed subsonic centrifugal compressor flow fields in a large size, low-speed machine. A complete description of the facility
can be found in Hathaway et al. [1993].
ERCOFTAC 2000
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k inlet = 15
. (TuV z ) 2 , and
2
2
/ t = C k inlet
/ 10 l
inlet = C k inlet
where C=0.09. The ratio of the turbulent viscosity to the laminar viscosity is set to 10 whereas the
turbulent intensity Tu is set to 2%, these values being standard for turbulent internal flow computations. As in the experiments, the hub wall of the impeller is moving with the rotor blade, while the diffuser hub is stationary. The whole shroud is stationary and all solid wall boundaries are set adiabatic.
Periodic conditions are enforced along the boundaries upstream and downstream of the impeller as
well as in the gap.
9.8.3. Grid
Three different H-grids, obtained with the auto-grid generation software IGG/AutoGrid of NUMECA,
are used. The first mesh, Mesh-1 consists of 49x61x129, 13x61x33 and 13x13x65 points, in the tangential, radial and streamwise directions, for blocks 1, 2 and 3 respectively, resulting in 422,735 points
in total. Hence there are 13 lines over the gap height and 13 lines across the blade profile. The second
mesh, named Mesh-2 hereafter, has 61 points, instead of 49 in Mesh-1, over a pitch in Block 1 and 73
points, instead of 61 in Mesh-1, from hub to shroud in Blocks 1 and 2. The total grid number of Mesh-2
is 616,739.
Particular care has been taken in order to ensure sufficient resolution in the end walls and blade
boundary layers by controlling the position of the mesh points close to the solid surfaces. The grid location near the blade surfaces for Mesh-1 and for Mesh-2 produces a y+ value for the first cell center
less than 1. A third mesh named Mesh-3, coarser than the two first counts 31x37x129, 13x37x33 and
13x17x65 points with in total 178201 mesh points. The y+ value at the first inner cell is about y+ =2.
9.8.5. Results
Table 1 lists the cases of CFD results presented in this report. There are three different meshes,
Mesh-1, Mesh-2 and Mesh-3, two different tip gap sizes, Design Gap and 50% Design Gap, and two
turbulence models, Baldwin-Lomax (B-L) and linear k- models.
Design flow rate
Design Gap
50% Design Gap
Off-design flow rate
Design Gap
Mesh-1
B-L
*
k-
*
*
*
Mesh-2
k-
*
Mesh-3
k-
*
ERCOFTAC 2000
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At design flow rate of 30 kg/s, there are four calculated operating points for the design gap case, one
computed with Mesh-2, two points computed with Mesh-1 and one point computed with Mesh-3, while
for the 50% gap case, there is only one point computed with Mesh-1 and the Baldwin-Lomax turbulence model. At off-design flow rate, there are two calculated operating points for the design gap case
with the k- turbulence model respectively on Mesh-1 and Mesh-2. On the coarser mesh Mesh-3, a
single k- computation is carried on at design flow rate and tip gap.
In many radial compressor simulations there is some considerable uncertainty in the running tip clearance of the blades, due to the effects of centrifugal and bending stresses in the blades, temperature
distortions of the casing and manufacturing tolerances. The sensitivity to these effects have been examined by running a single simulation with a smaller tip gap. For the design gap case, the gap height
is constant from the leading edge to the trailing edge while for the 50% design gap case the gap
height is linearly reduced from the design height at the leading edge to half of it at the trailing edge.
Figure 2 shows the effect of grid density, geometry and turbulence models on overall absolute total
pressure ratio. We notice that the CFD data obtained with the k- model on Mesh-2 is in excellent
agreement with the experimental data. For the coarser mesh, Mesh-1, the k- solution underpredicts
slightly the pressure ratio. Reducing the tip gap size by 50% at the trailing edge, the pressure ratio increases about 0.4%. The computation on the coarse mesh Mesh-3 gives the lowest pressure ratio
prediction with an underestimation of about 1%.
The effect of turbulence model is shown at the design flow rate of 30 kg/s where the Baldwin-Lomax
model gives a lower pressure ratio than the k- model on Mesh-1 and Mesh-2, putting the calculated
operating point further away from the experiments.
Figure 3 presents grid density (Mesh-1 and Mesh-2) and geometry influence for the k- model at the
design flow rate. A comparison of reduced static pressure measured at six sections from 5% to 98%
span is shown. As seen, in all the computations, with different meshes and different gaps, apparent
difference in the predicted pressure at the spanwise sections can only be found downstream of the
mid-chord. The best agreement with the experimental data is obtained on the fine mesh, Mesh-2. The
98% spanwise distribution clearly shows an effect of gap size.
Figure 4 shows the effect of grid density, and turbulence model on the throughflow velocity at design
conditions. A comparisons of computed throughflow isolines and the experimental results at the experimental station 165 are presented. This station is located at 6% of meridional shroud length upstream of the impeller exit. The throughflow velocity is normalized with the exit tip speed. We observe
on Mesh-1 that the k- model reproduces better the isolines trend and in particular the location of the
maximum throughflow velocity near the suction side. As expected, the Mesh-2 computation gives better results than those obtained on the coarser mesh, Mesh-1, showing the necessity to have sufficient
grid density in the spanwise and circumferential directions. This grid density effect is also seen from
the computation on Mesh-3 where the maximum velocity location is shifted towards the hub, showing
a flow pattern similar to the prediction of the Baldwin-Lomax model on Mesh-1.
9.8.6. Conclusions
The 3D viscous flow in the NASA LSCC impeller has been computed with different meshes, different
tip gap sizes, and different turbulence models to demonstrate the sensitivity of the simulations to these
effects. It is shown that compared to a low Reynolds k- turbulence model, the algebraic BaldwinLomax turbulence model underpredicts the global pressure ratio and is not able to predict the flow pattern with the same accuracy, showing the necessity to use precise turbulence models for quantitative
simulations in turbomachines. It is also shown that grid density in the spanwise and circumferential directions play an important role in the accuracy of the global performance data such as the pressure ratio as well as on local flow features. The sensitivity to the uncertainties in the geometry is demonstrated by a 50% tip gap reduction where the gap height is linearly reduced from the design height at
the leading edge to half of it at the trailing edge. The tip gap reduction slightly increases the global
pressure ratio and affects the pressure distribution mainly on the pressure side near the shroud (in the
region where a tip leakage vortex could be expected to lie).
ERCOFTAC 2000
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9.8.7. References
Chriss, R. M., Hathaway, M. D., and Wood, J. R., (1996), "Experimental and Computational Results
from the NASA Lewis Low-Speed Centrifugal Impeller at Design and Part-Flow Conditions", J. of Turbomachinery, Vol. 118, pp.55-65.
Hathaway, M. D., Chriss R. M., Wood, J. R., and Strazisar, A. J., (1993), "Experimental and Computational Investigation of NASA Low-Speed Centrifugal Compressor Flow Field", J. of Turbomachinery, Vol. 115, pp.527.
Khodak, A., and Hirsch, Ch., (1996), "Second Order Non-Linear k-e Models with Explicit Effect of
Curvature and Rotation", Computational Fluid Dynamics'96, Proceeding of the Third ECCOMAS Computational Fluid Dynamics Conference, 690-696.
Yang, Z., and Shih, T. H., (1993), "New Time Scale Based on k-e Model for Near-Wall Turbulence",
AIAA J., Vol. 31, No.7, pp.1191-1198.
S. Kang and Hirsch Ch., (1999) Effect of flow rate on the development of three-dimensional flow in
NASA LSCC impeller, based on numerical solutions, ISABE Paper No. 99-7225.
ERCOFTAC 2000
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Figure 2: Effect of grid density, geometry and turbulence model on total pressure ratio
Figure 3: Effect of grid density and geometry on static pressure distribution at six sections from 5% to
98% span
(circle: experiments; Full line: Mesh2, Design Gap; Dashed line: Mesh1, Design gap; Dashed dotted
line: Mesh1, 50% gap)
ERCOFTAC 2000
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Baldwin-Lomax Mesh-1
K-E Mesh-2
K-E Mesh-1
K-E Mesh-3
Experiments
Figure 4: Comparisons of computed throughflow isolines with the experimental results at the station
located at 6% of meridional shroud length upstream of the impeller exit
ERCOFTAC 2000
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9.9.1. Introduction
The selected test case involves the modelling of two-dimensional, turbulent flow in a model nuclear
reactor outlet plenum. Experimental results for this case were reported by Boyle and Golay (1983). It
features the following phenomena which are challenging for turbulence models:
The assumption of two-dimensionality allows the concepts of iteration, truncation, and solution (discretization) error estimation, the assessment of boundary condition uncertainty and, ultimately, turbulence
model performance to be demonstrated within reasonable computing time and memory requirements.
The methods and algorithms used in this report can be directly transferred to three-dimensional applications.
ERCOFTAC 2000
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Description
x-Velocity
y-Velocity
z-Velocity
Turbulence intensity
Length scale
Symbol
U
V
W
Tu
L
Value
0.0
0.823
0.0
0.0252
0.00295
Unit
m/s
m/s
m/s
m
9.9.3. Grid
A sequence of hexahedral numerical grids was used for the calculations. The finer grids were derived
from the coarse grids by successive division of the flux element sizes in the x - and y -direction.
Figure 2 shows the basic grid structure using the coarsest grid. Details on the grid size and quality of
all the grids are summarised in Table 2.
Flux elements
Min. grid angle
Max. grid angle
Max. aspect ratio
Max./min. volume ratio
Grid 0
25 x 35
77.8
102.0
12.6
142
Grid 1
50 x 70
77.8
102.0
13.6
184
Grid 2
100 x 140
77.8
102.0
6.6
216
Grid 3
150 x 210
77.8
102.0
5.4
228
Grid 4
200 x 280
77.8
102.0
5.4
234
ERCOFTAC 2000
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The experimental fluid was water. Constant properties are assumed in the calculations, with the density, , set to 1000 kg/m3, and the molecular viscosity, , set to 6.725x10-4 Pa-s. Initial values used to
start the coarse grid calculation were U = 0.0 m/s, V = 0.1 m/s, W = 0.0 m/s, P = 0.0 Pa,
Tu = 0.025 , and L = 2.5 mm. Calculations on finer grids were started from interpolated coarse grid
solutions.
The standard k turbulence model is used in this initial study. Future work will build on this first
component to investigate the performance of different turbulence models. However, as turbulence
model uncertainties stand at the end of the uncertainty chain, it is necessary to assess other sources
of uncertainties before being able to make any scientific statement on the turbulence model performance.
The first step in uncertainty or error quantification is to establish target quantities. The target quantities
are problem and case dependent. They can be whole fields, norms, or integrated quantities like
forces, or efficiencies. In this test case the target quantities are:
The efficiency, . Efficiencies are often very sensitive to changes in computational parameters,
making them good candidates for error and uncertainty analysis.
Profiles of the normal velocity, V , at a line corresponding to y = 113.4 mm.
In this test case, attention is focussed on the target quantity efficiency, . The efficiency is defined as
the ratio of mass-averaged total pressure at the inlet to that at the outlet:
Pt , 2
Pt ,1
9.9.5. Results
Iteration Error
Iteration errors arise from insufficient convergence criteria. The convergence criterion used is that the
maximum normalized residual for the discrete momentum and mass conservation equations fall below
a specified value. It is up to the code user to ensure that this convergence criterion is sufficient. A procedure for determining if a convergence criteria is sufficient is demonstrated below. This procedure is
independent of the software used and also independent of the particular definition of the residuals
used for measuring convergence.
The procedure consists of monitoring target quantities as a function of the value of the given convergence criteria. For this case, the efficiency, , as the most sensitive target quantity, is used to determine the necessary convergence level. When ceases to change with the value of the convergence
criterion, one can deem the solution to be converged.
Conv. Criteria
-2
1x10
5x10-3
1x10-3
5x10-4
1x10-4
5x10-5
1x10-5
5x10-6
1x10-6
, %
0.682
0.636
0.615
0.610
0.513
0.514
0.515
0.515
0.515
32.4
23.5
19.4
18.4
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
ERCOFTAC 2000
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that the results first level off at values of approximately 0.610, and then decrease by almost 20 % to
the final value of 0.515.
Table 4 shows the change in efficiencies for the other grids when going from a convergence criterion
of 1x10-3 to a convergence criterion of 1x10-6.
Conv. Criteria
1x10-3
5x10-4
1x10-4
5x10-5
1x10-5
5x10-6
1x10-6
Grid 0
0.711
0.701
0.575
0.574
0.574
0.575
0.575
Grid 1
0.615
0.610
0.513
0.514
0.515
0.515
0.515
Grid 2
0.459
0.460
0.489
0.493
0.498
0.498
0.499
Grid 3
0.443
0.475
0.492
0.494
0.496
Grid 4
0.399
0.435
0.474
0.487
0.493
0.495
0.495
Single Prec.
0.443
0.475
0.492
0.494
0.494
Double Prec.
0.514
0.485
0.485
0.495
0.495
E =
where
e
r 1
e = ( fine coarse ) / fine , r is the grid refinement ratio, and p=2 is the order of the discretiza-
tion.
ERCOFTAC 2000
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Grid 0
Grid 1
Grid 2
Grid 3
Grid 4
Ny
35
70
140
210
280
0.575
0.515
0.493
0.494
0.495
E , %
3.88
1.49
-0.16
-0.26
ERCOFTAC 2000
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9.9.7. References
Boyle, D.R., and Golay, M.W. (1983), Measurement of a Recirculating, Two-dimensional, Turbulent Flow and Comparison to Turbulence Model Predictions. I: Steady-State Case, J. Fluids Eng.,
Vol. 105, pp. 439-445.
Grotjans, H., Menter F. R. (1998), `Wall Functions for General Application CFD Codes, Proc., ECCOMAS 98, 4th European Computational Fluid Dynamics Conference, Athens, eds. Papailiou, K. D. et
al., J. Wiley & Sons, pp. 1112 1117.
Scheuerer, G., Stokes, J. A. (1999), `Application of the ERCOFTAC Best Practice Guidelines to
Turbulence Model Performance Assessment, AEA Technology GmbH, Internal Report AEAT/TR-9926.
ERCOFTAC 2000
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Combustion
Multi-phase flows (particles, drops, sprays, films, free surfaces, bubbles, cavitation)
Non-Newtonian flows
Fluid-structure interaction
Multi-physics problems
ERCOFTAC 2000
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Give careful thought at the outset of a CFD project to the requirements and objectives of the simulation. The following points should be considered:
Translate the problem definition into a solution strategy involving issues and questions that have
been addressed in this document, such as:
ERCOFTAC 2000
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Available code/solver.
Grid design and computational mesh.
Boundary conditions.
Convergence criterion.
Validation and sensitivity test requirements
Before using a CFD code incorporating a specific model for a particular application, validate it
against test data for a similar application with similar flow structures and flow physics. A design
application, where accurate performance and flow-field data is needed, will require more detailed
validation than an application involving a preliminary investigation of a flow. Validation of engineering cases should be aimed to check the most prominent and relevant flow features, rather than to
capture every detail in the calculation.
For the improved validation of complex flows, consider the taxonomy of the flow and validate the
models being used on relevant simpler flows. For example, the validation of a code and turbulence
model for a radial pump application should include not only a similar radial pump test case, but
also test cases demonstrating the typical flow structures found in the pump, such as decelerating
flow in a cascade of blades, flow in a rotating channel, secondary flow in bends, and leading and
trailing edge flows. Simple test cases used in validation will allow finer grids than those used in
real applications so that results of calculations at the typical grid resolution expected in the application should also be investigated.
Carefully check the quality and accuracy of any experimental data used as a validation test case,
to provide confidence in the experiment and the quality experimental data. The experiments
should attempt to capture the relevant boundary conditions and initial conditions where appropriate. If the experimental results are found to be sensitive to the boundary conditions and experimental set-up then this should be reported. The experimental data should include measurements
of the quantity which is of interest and needed for CFD validation. This is best done by close collaboration between experimentalists and CFD analysts. If collaboration between experimentalists
and CFD analysis is not possible care should be taken that the physically relevant quantities have
been measured and that the quality and accuracy of the data is known.
The validation data set should be independent of any data set used to construct the CFD model.
Carry out the validation simulations in accordance with the guidelines outlined in this document. In
particular, one of the validation calculations should use about the same mesh size as will be used
in the real application.
A simple test of validity should be carried out by examining particular flow features. The global
mass balance should be checked, the total temperature should not vary if no heat or work is being
added to the flow, and in areas away from solid boundaries the total pressure may often be assumed to be constant. Predictions of the entropy in a flow field can also be a helpful validation
check.
When using CFD for a design application, examine the flow of a well understood and well tested
baseline design comprising the same important flow features as a means of calibrating the ex-
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pected accuracy of the code to this application. The reliability of predictions of a new design can
then be assessed by taking into account the calibration of the code with the baseline design. Such
a calibration allows a more accurate estimate of the predicted performance of the new design to
be made by consideration only of the differences and trends between the new design and the
baseline design.
Document the validation efforts. In any CFD calculations which are carried out without undergoing
a thorough validation process (which is sometimes necessary as there may be no suitable measurements, or the time available allows no alternative), then attention should be drawn in the
documentation of the results to the speculative nature of the simulation, with comments on why
the user believes that the results are correct.
Ensure that low numerical and convergence errors have been achieved in turbulent flow simulations. The relevance of turbulence modelling only becomes significant in CFD simulations when
other sources of error, in particular the numerical and convergence errors, have been removed or
properly controlled. Clearly no proper evaluation of the merits of different turbulence models can
be made unless the discretisation error of the numerical algorithm is known, and grid sensitivity
studies become crucial for all turbulent flow computations.
Be aware that there is no universally valid general model of turbulence that is accurate for all
classes of flows. Validation and calibration of the turbulence model with test data are necessary
for all applications5.
If possible, examine the effect and sensitivity of results to the turbulence model by changing the
turbulence model being used.
When using a particular turbulence model, check the published literature with regard to the known
weaknesses of the model. The weaknesses of the standard k- model (Launder and Spalding
[1974]) ,which is the most commonly used model in industrial applications, are listed below together with some indications of possible palliative actions which might be fruitfully considered.
Decide whether a wall function method, in which the near-wall region is bridged with wall functions, or a low Reynolds number model, in which the flow structure in the viscous sub-layer is resolved, is to be used. This decision will be based on the available resources and the requirements
for resolution of the boundary layer. Wall function methods are not valid in the presence of separated regions and/or strong three dimensional flows. The validity of the wall function approach or
the use of a low Reynolds number model should be examined for the flow configuration under
study.
Calibration in this sentence refers to testing the ability of a CFD code to predict global quantities of
interest for specific geometries of engineering design interest (see definition in chapter 2) and not to
tuning the coefficients of a turbulence model, which cannot be recommended for a novice user.
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Exercise care when calculating the flow using different schemes or different codes with wall functions on the same mesh. Cell centred schemes have their integration points at different locations
in a mesh cell than cell vertex schemes. Thus the y+ value associated with a wall-adjacent cell differs according to which scheme is being used on the mesh.
Check that the correct form of the wall function is being used to take into account the wall roughness. An equivalent roughness height and a modified multiplier in the law of the wall must be
used.
The turbulent kinetic energy is over-predicted in regions of flow impingement and re-attachment
leading to poor prediction of heat transfer and the development of boundary layer flow around
leading edges and bluff bodies. The high turbulence levels predicted upstream of a stagnation
point are transported around the body and the real boundary layer development is swamped by
this effect. Kato and Launder [1993] have proposed an ad-hoc modification (called the Yap correction) to the equation for the production term of k appearing in the k and equation, which is designed to tackle this problem. The RNG k- model (Yakhot et al. [1992]) includes a modification to
the transport equation for and may also improve predictions in this area. The problems depend
on the free-stream values of k and and may not always occur.
Highly swirling flows are often poorly predicted due to the complex strain fields and regions of recirculation in a swirling flow are often under-estimated. These deficiencies require turbulence
models with improved physics, such as non-linear k- models, algebraic Reynolds stress models,
or full Reynolds stress models with low Reynolds number capability limitation (for example, the reviews in Patel et al. [1985] and Wilcox [1998]).
Mixing is often poorly predicted in flows with strong buoyancy effects or high streamline curvature.
Again this deficiency requires improved physics, see comment above.
Flow separation from surfaces under the action of adverse pressure gradients is often poorly predicted. The real flow is likely to be much closer to separation (or more separated) than the calculations suggest. The SST version of Menter's k- based, near wall resolved model (Menter [1993,
1996]) can offer a considerable improvement.
Flow recovery following re-attachment is often poorly predicted. If possible, avoid the use of wall
functions in these regions, but low Reynolds number models may also have some problems. A
promising possibility is the use of a length-scale limiting device (Ince and Launder [1995]).
The far-field spreading rates of round jets are predicted incorrectly. The use of non-linear k-
models should be investigated for these problems (Apsley et al. [1995]).
Turbulence driven secondary flows in straight ducts of non-circular cross section are not predicted
at all. Linear eddy viscosity models cannot capture this feature. Use RSTM or non-linear eddy viscosity modelling.
Dilation effects on turbulence production, which may become important for compressible flows,
are not accounted for. These may be important in mixing layers at moderate Mach numbers.
Sarkar et al. [1989] and Zeman [1990] have proposed modifications to the k- model that correct
this deficiency but the database is small.
Laminar and transitional regions of flow cannot be calculated with the standard k- model but nonlinear modelling may help in this respect. Transition is an active area of research in turbulence
modelling. Some simple practical advice is given in section 4.7 below.
The vertical heat flux in a buoyancy affected horizontal boundary layer, or in a thermal plume, is
poorly represented by an eddy viscosity model which assumes a turbulent Prandtl number to calculate the turbulent transport of heat. RSTM models including the solution of equations for the
three heat fluxes is currently the only option if this is important.
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Choose a suitable global topology of the mesh (for example, a scalable grid topology where the
grid can be refined by parametric changes without degrading the grid quality) to help satisfy the
specific code's requirements with regard to skewness, aspect ratio and expansion ratios, as outlined below.
Ensure that the extent of the computational domain has been chosen to capture relevant flow and
geometrical features, and if necessary examine the sensitivity of the calculation to the choice of
computational domain.
Assess which geometrical features can be omitted, for example, those that have dimensions below that of the local grid size. In areas where local detail is needed, then consider the use of local
grid refinement to capture fine geometrical details. If grid refinement is used the additional grid
points should lie on the original geometry and not simply be a linear interpolation of more grid
points on the original coarse grid.
The use of distributed losses or porosity might also be considered to take into account highly obstructed zones or fine detail of some obstructions (for example, porous filters and packings),
whereby the code manual should be consulted for the interpretation of the turbulent fields obtained.
Avoid highly skewed cells. For hexahedral cells or prisms the included angles between the grid
lines should be optimised in such a way that the angles are approximately 90 degrees. Angles
with less than 40 or more than 140 degrees often show a deterioration in the results or lead to
numerical instabilities. Tetrahedra should tend to have their four angles equal.
Avoid highly warped cells, that is cells with large deviations from co-planar faces. Warp angles
(measured between the surface normals of triangular parts of the faces) greater than 75 degrees
can lead to serious convergence problems and deterioration in the results.
Avoid non-orthogonal cells near boundaries. The angle between the grid lines and the boundary of
the computational domain (the wall or the inlet- and outlet-boundaries) should be close to 90 de-
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grees. This requirement is stronger than the requirement given for the grid angles in the flow field
far away from the domain boundaries.
Avoid the use of tetrahedral elements in boundary layers.
Avoid aspect ratios that are too high. Away from boundaries, ensure that the aspect ratio (the ratio
of the sides of the elements) is not too large. This aspect ratio should be typically not larger than
20 to 100 (depending on the flow solver) in important regions of the flow domain but may be larger
in non-critical regions, whereby precise values should be supplied in the code manual. The accuracy and possible convergence difficulties in such cases depends greatly on the flow direction.
Near walls this restriction may be relaxed and indeed it can be beneficial to have high aspect ratio
in the boundary layers.
Observe any specific requirements on mesh expansion ratios. The specific code's requirements
for cell mesh stretching or expansion ratios (rates of change of cell size for adjacent cells) should
be observed. The change in mesh spacing should be continuous and mesh size discontinuities be
avoided, particularly in regions of large changes.
Note that some codes offer automatic grid adaptation techniques, but that depending on the software being used these might not improve the grid quality (skewness, aspect ratio).
Use a finer and more regular mesh in critical regions with high flow gradients or with large
changes, such as shocks, regions with high shear, regions with significant changes in geometry or
where suggested by error estimators. Make use of local refinement of the mesh in these regions,
in accordance with the selected turbulence wall modelling.
Ensure high geometric precision of the periodic grid interface when using periodic boundary conditions.
Avoid the presence of arbitrary mesh coupling, non-matching cell faces, grid refinement interfaces
or extended changes of element types in the critical regions of high flow gradients.
Check that the assumptions made with regard to critical regions of high flow gradients and large
changes when setting up the grid agree with the result of the computation, and rearrange grid
points if found to be necessary.
For each class of problem, make use of a grid dependency study to analyse the suitability of the
mesh and to give an estimate of the numerical error in the simulation. Ideally, at least three significantly different grid resolutions should be used. Strictly, one should double the grid twice in each
direction and then apply Richardson extrapolation (Roache [1997]) to be really sure. If this is not
feasible, apply selective local refinement of the grid in critical flow regions of the domain to allow
greater factors, or try to compare different order of spatial discretisations on the same mesh.
Ensure that appropriate boundary conditions are available for the case being considered. For
swirling flows at an outlet consult the manual to check that appropriate boundary conditions have
been implemented (for example, radial equilibrium of pressure field instead of constant static
pressure). Special non-reflecting boundary conditions are sometimes required for outflow and inflow boundaries where there are strong pressure gradients (Giles [1990]).
Check whether the CFD code allows inflow at open boundary conditions. If inflow cannot be
avoided at an open boundary then ensure that the transported properties of the incoming fluid including turbulence properties are properly modelled.
Examine the possibilities of moving the domain boundaries to a position where the boundary conditions are more readily identified, are well-posed and can be precisely specified.
Check whether upstream or downstream obstacles (such as bends, contractions, diffusers, blade
rows etc.) outside of the flow domain may be present which might have significant effects on the
flow distribution. Often information on the components upstream of the inlet boundary or downstream of the outlet boundary of the domain are lacking or not available at the beginning of a project.
For each class of problem that is of interest, carry out a sensitivity analysis in which the boundary
conditions are systematically changed within certain limits to see the variation in results. Should
any of these variations prove to have a sensitive effect on the simulated results and lead to large
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changes in the simulation, then it is clearly necessary to obtain more accurate data on the boundary conditions that are specified.
Be aware that the code may have default boundary conditions for regions of the domain boundaries where the user has specified nothing.
Carry out a sensitivity analysis in which the key inlet boundary conditions are systematically
changed within certain limits. Depending on the problem, the key parameters that might be examined are:
Particular care is needed with the specification of inlet mass flow as a boundary condition for
compressible flow-fields with supersonic regions, as the flow may be choked and unable to pass
the mass flow specified.
Specify values of the turbulent length scale, as an equivalent parameter for the dissipation , that
are appropriate to the application. For external flows remote from boundary layers a value determined from the assumption that the ratio of turbulent and molecular viscosity T/ is between 1
and 10 is a reasonable guess. For internal flows a constant value of length scale derived from a
characteristic geometrical feature can be used (e.g. 1 to 10% of the hydraulic diameter for internal
flows). For simulations in which the near-wall region is modelled with a low Reynolds number
model the length scale should be based on the distance to the wall and be consistent with the internal modelling in the code.
If more sophisticated distributions of k and are used, check that these are consistent with the velocity profile. An inconsistent formulation may lead to an immediate unrealistic reduction of the turbulence quantities after the inlet.
For RSTM models the stresses themselves need to be specified. If these are not available, as is
often the case, make an assumption of isotropic flow conditions (that is with the normal stresses
given by 2/3 k and with zero shear stresses).
For inlets that are representative of fully developed pipe or channel flows, algebraic profiles might
be used.
Check the consistency of the definitions of k and by making a plot of the ratio of turbulent to molecular viscosity T /. Note that the ratio of turbulent to laminar viscosity depends on Tu, L, k and
as T/ ~ k2 or T/ ~ TuL.
In cases where problems arise, move the inflow boundary sufficiently far from the region of interest so that a natural inlet boundary layer can develop.
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Place open boundary conditions (outflow, pressure) as far away from the region of interest as
possible and avoid open boundaries in regions of strong geometrical changes or in regions of recirculation. If the latter point cannot be achieved, consult the code manual to see what boundary
condition is considered best.
Take special care with the orientation of outlet planes with regard to the mean flow, especially
when the boundary condition consists of a constant static pressure profile
Select the boundary conditions imposed at the outlet to have only a weak influence on the upstream flow. Extreme care is needed when specifying flow velocities and directions on the outlet
plane. The most suitable outflow conditions are weak formulations involving specification of static
pressure at the outlet plane.
Particular care should be taken in strongly swirling flows where the pressure distribution on the
outlet boundary is strongly influenced by the swirl. It is therefore not acceptable to specify constant
static pressure across the outlet.
Be aware of the possibility of inlet flow inadvertently occurring at the outflow boundary, which may
lead to difficulties in obtaining a stable solution or even to an incorrect solution. If it is not possible
to avoid this by relocating the position of the outlet boundary in the domain, then one possibility to
avoid this problem is to restrict the flow area at the outlet, provided that the outflow boundary is
not near the region of interest. If the outflow boundary condition allows flow to re-enter the domain,
appropriate Dirichlet conditions should be imposed for all transported variables.
If there are multiple outlets, impose either pressure boundary conditions or mass flow specifications depending on the known quantities.
If symmetry or periodicity planes cross the inlet or outlet boundaries then care should be taken to
specify inlet or outlet variables that are consistent with these. Symmetry and periodicity planes assume that the gradients perpendicular to the plane are either zero (for symmetry) or determined
from the flow field (periodicity).
Special attention should be directed to the initial guess of k and , especially with low Reynolds
number models.
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Switch to the transient mode if it is difficult to get a converged steady solution, especially if there is
an oscillation of the residuals.
In case of doubt, the simulation should be unsteady and without symmetry assumptions as
boundary conditions.
Carefully define solution-sensitive target quantities for the integrated global parameters of interest
and select an acceptable level of convergence based on the rate of change of these target parameters (such as heat load, mass flow, lift, drag, and moment forces on a body). Convergence of
a simulation should not be assessed purely in terms of the achievement of a particular level of residual error.
For each class of problem you are interested in, carry out a test of the effect of converging to different levels of residual on the integrated parameter of interest (this can be a single calculation
that is stopped and restarted at different residual levels). This test demonstrates at what level of
residual the parameter of interest can be considered to have converged and identifies the level of
residual that should be aimed at in similar simulations of this class of problem.
Be aware that different codes have different definitions of residuals.
Always check the convergence on global balances (conservation of mass, momentum and energy) where possible, such as the mass flow balance at inlets and outlets and at intermediate
planes within the flow domain.
Check the maxima and minima of all variables which may be limited by the code (for example k
and which should always be positive), and the number of cells where any limitation on values is
active.
Check not only the residual itself but also the rate of change of the residual with increasing iteration count
Monitor the solution in at least one selected point in a sensitive area to see if the region has
reached convergence, but be aware that this alone is insufficient as a criterion for convergence as
the solution may be "stuck" far from convergence but appear converged if solution variables are
unchanging.
For calculations that are proving difficult to converge, the following advice may be helpful:
Use more robust numerical schemes during the first (transient) period of convergence and
switch to more accurate numerical schemes as the convergence improves.
Reduce parameters controlling convergence, such as the under-relaxation parameters or the
CFL6 number.
If the solution is heavily under-relaxed, increase the relaxation factors at the end to see if the
solution holds.
Check whether the grid quality in areas with large residual has any effect on the convergence
rate.
Look at the residual distribution and associated flow field for possible hints, e.g. regions with
large residuals or unrealistic velocity levels.
The CFL number is generally defined as CFL=t (v+a) / x, where t is the time step, x the local
cell size, v the local velocity and a the sonic velocity. For incompressible flows computed with an incompressible solver, the CFL number is defined by CFL=t v / x.
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When the residuals stagnate at too high a value, try to further converge the problem with a
double precision version of the flow solver.
Check whether switching from a steady-state to a time-accurate calculation has any effect.
Consider using a different initial condition for the calculation.
Check the numerical and physical suitability of the boundary conditions
Examine the choice of variable on which the residual is based, for example density may be a
perfectly reasonable choice for transonic flow calculations, but is certainly not for low speed
subsonic flows.
Guidelines and recommendations to the code developers:
CFD codes should make available the maximum possible information to judge convergence.
This includes residuals for every conserved quantity.
The residuals should be dimensionless and the definitions of the residuals should be clearly
defined in the handbook.
The codes should supply information on the spatial distribution of residuals.
To avoid the confusion of CFD users, CFD code developers should try to adopt one commonly
accepted standard definition of the residual.
Round-off errors
In situations where the small arithmetical differences between two large numbers become
relevant, cancellation due to round-off may lead to severe errors. To avoid a negative influence of round-off errors, it is common practice to calculate pressure relative to a reference
value. Some codes also use a residual form of the governing equations to combat round-off
errors. Examples where round-off errors are known to be of significance are:
Low Reynolds number turbulence models with large exponential terms.
Flows with density driven buoyant forces with small density and temperature differences.
High aspect ratio grids with large area ratios on different sides of the grid.
Conjugate heat transfer.
Calculations of scalar diffusion with low concentrations of one species.
Low Mach number flows with a density based solver.
Flows with large hydrostatic pressure gradients.
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Try to minimise errors in the handling of the code by the use of a formal check list or by letting another CFD analyst check through the code input data. This will minimise the potential source of
user errors when implementing the solution strategy with a particular code. The types of questions
which should be considered are:
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sensitivity of the results to certain factors should not be made, but the argument should be demonstrated by reference to quantitative examples.
Make full use of the wide variety of visual tools available in modern CFD packages to interpret the
flow-field that has been calculated. A good physical understanding of the application and experience with similar simulations are the best guide as to which plots to make. Options include:
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The code developer or code vendor should maintain and publish a databank of verification test
cases that are used for testing. The cases should include simple code verifications tests (e.g. that
solutions are independent of co-ordinate systems).
The code developer or code vendor should provide documentary evidence of the verification tests
that the software has undergone, which should include clearly details of the code options which
are used during testing.
For all new versions of the code and all new machines a standard set of verification test cases
should be repeated.
Code vendors and code developers should supply a list of known bugs and errors in each version
of the code (hot-line, password secured web-page). This list should demonstrate that the number
of bugs reduces as the code matures.
The code developers should try to include warning notices and guidance for the user in the output.
For example, when basic rules on grid generation (expansion ratios, skew, etc.) are being broken,
when important specific default options are being overruled by the code input data or when the
near wall grid is inconsistent with the turbulence modelling.
Read the release notes issued by the code supplier, as these are a good source of information on
changes to the code to remove existing bugs.
Recognise that codes can only be validated and verified for a class of problems involving specific
variables. If the application involves an area where the code is not fully verified there is more risk
of code errors.
Set up a suite of test cases that can be run on new code releases to provide an independent
check on the code and to highlight any changes between releases (for example in default parameters).
Check that the release version of the code is compatibility with any user defined routines, if applicable.
When a code error is suspected, communicate this to the code vendor or developer as soon as
possible, especially if no list of known bugs has been published. Other users may then profit from
this experience. If the bug is well-known a solution or work-around may already be available.
In any communications with the code developer or code vendor about a suspected program error,
provide a short concise description of the problem and all the necessary input data files so that the
error can be reproduced. In cases where commercial sensitivity precludes this, special arrangements will need to be made.
Contact the code developer if the meaning and definition of variables in the manuals are unclear
and if support is needed in the implementation of special features.
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12. Acknowledgements
The material presented in this document is a real team effort and thanks are due to the many people
and organisations that have co-operated in its preparation, but in particular to the management and
staff of the code developers and code vendors who have encouraged and supported the work, to the
academic experts who have corrected some elementary mistakes of the editors, and the many CFD
users from industry who have freely shared their experience in the use of CFD.
The production of the guidelines was organised by the Fluid Dynamics Laboratory of Sulzer Innotec,
Ltd. in a contract issued by the ERCOFTAC SIG (Special Interest Group) on Quality and Trust in Industrial CFD. The major organisational and editorial work in association with the document and its
preparation was carried out by the project leader at Sulzer Innotec, Dr. Michael Casey, assisted by
Torsten Wintergerste.
The first version of the best practice guidelines was produced in May 1999 with major input from the
following persons: Dr. G. Scheuerer, Dr. F. Menter, Dr. J. Ferreira and Dr. S. Phillipson of AEA Technology, Dr. F. Mendonca of Computational Dynamics, Dr. M. Rabbitt of British Energy, Prof. M. A.
Leschziner of University of London, Prof. I. Castro of the University of Surrey, Dr. C. Lea of HSE, Dr.
S. Gilham of WSA, Dr. N. Hakimi of Numeca, Dr. P. Wild of Fluent and Dr. M. Casey, Dr. E Lang, Dr.
P. Holbein, Dr. M. Wehrli and T. Wintergerste of Sulzer Innotec.
The first version was reviewed and improved at a technical Workshop held in Zurich on June 21 and
22, 1999. The following invited persons were present, giving coverage of both academic and industrial
points of view from a range of applications, levels of experience, and European countries: Dr. M. Casey, Dr. E. Lang, Dr. P. Holbein, Dr. M. Wehrli, T. Wintergerste, Miss E. Wiederkehr of Sulzer Innotec,
Dr. E. Benz (ABB), Dr. J. Vos (EPFL), Prof. A. Hutton (DERA), Dr. C. Carey (Alstom), Dr. A. Kelsey
(HSE), Dr. N. Rhodes (Mott Macdonald), Dr. S. Gilham (WSA), Dr. P. Tucker (NAFEMS), Dr. P. Andreasson (Vattenfall Utveckling), Prof. Ch. Hirsch (VUB), Prof. W. Rodi (Karlsruhe), Dr. F. Klimetzek
(Daimler Chrysler Cars), Dr. W. Haase (Daimler Chrysler Aerospace), Dr. F. Archambeau (EDF), Dr.
H. Paillere (CEA), Dr. F. Mendonca (CD), Dr. S. Phillipson (AEA), Dr N. Hakimi (Numeca) and Dr. P.
Wild (Fluent). Many other persons offered their services for the workshop but could not take part either
because numbers were limited or because the date was unsuitable.
An interim version based on the input from the workshop was produced by Sulzer Innotec for final editing, with particularly high quality and helpful input to chapter 3 from Dr. Marc Wehrli (Sulzer Innotec)
and to chapter 4 from Prof. Tony Hutton (DERA). Helpful revisions to the interim version were received
from Dr. P. Andreasson (Vattenfall Utveckling), Dr. C. Lea and Dr. A. Kelsey (HSE), H.-D. Grein
(NEC), Dr. P. Holbein (Sulzer Innotec), Dr. H. Pailliere (CEA), Dr. M. Rabbitt (British Energy) Dr P.
Drtina and Dr. H. Keck (Sulzer Hydro), Prof. Ch. Hirsch (VUB), Prof. I. Castro (Surrey University), Prof.
W. Rodi (Karlsruhe University), Dr. W. Haase (Daimler Chrysler Aerospace), Dr. F. Archambeau and
Dr. N. Gay (EDF), Dr. S. Phillipson, Dr. G. Scheuerer and Dr. F. Menter (AEA).
A draft of the final version was prepared for the ERCOFTAC SIG meeting in Florence at the end of
October 1999. After this meeting, some additional revisions of the chapter on turbulence modelling
were received from Prof. Ian Castro, Dr. Georg Scheurer, Prof. Mike Leschziner and Prof. Tony
Hutton, and these were incorporated into the final version.
The test cases were calculated by the code vendors and code developers whose names appear in the
sections of chapter 9. Sulzer Innotec and the ERCOFTAC SIG extend many thanks to the management and staff of the code developers and code vendors who have encouraged and supported the
work in this way. Individual thanks go to Dr. F. Mendonca, Dr. F. Archambeau, Dr. H. Pailliere, Dr. M.
Rabbitt, Dr. N. Hakimi, Dr. P. Wild, Dr. G. Scheuerer and Dr. J. Stokes
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13. References
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Bradshaw, P. (1994), Turbulence: the chief outstanding difficulty of our subject, Experiments in
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two-equation turbulence models, AIAA Journal, Vol. 32, No.12, pp. 2359-2365.
ERCOFTAC/IAHR, (1999), Workshop on draft tube flows, June 20 - 23 Porjus Hydro Power Center, Sweden.
Ferreira, J.C. & Scheuerer, G. (1997), Quality assurance in industrial CFD calculations, Presentation at the First European Meeting of the ERCOFTAC Special Interest Group on Quality and Trust in
Industrial CFD, La Defense, Paris.
Ferziger, J.H. & Peric, M. (1997), Computational methods for fluid dynamics, Springer, Berlin.
Fisher, E.M. & Rhodes, N. (1996), Uncertainty in computational fluid dynamics, Proc. Mech. Eng.,
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Gatski, T.B. & Speziale, C.G. (1993), On explicit algebraic stress models for complex turbulent
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Giles, M. B., (1990), Non-reflecting boundary conditions for euler equation calculations, AIAA
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Girault, V. & Raviart, P. A., (1986), Finite element methods for Navier-Stokes equations. Theory
and algortihms, Springer Series in Computational Mathematics, Vol. 5.
Grotjans, H. & Menter, F.R., (1998), Wall Functions for General Application CFD Codes, ECCOMAS 98, Fourth European Computational Fluid Dynamics Conference, Athens.
Hall, R.C. & Cowan, I.R. (1998), Modelling of atmospheric dispersion near buildings, NAFEMS
Int. Journal of CFD Case Studies, vol. 1, April 1998, pp. 7 18.
Hanjalic, K. (1994), Advanced turbulence closure models: A view of current status and future prospects, Int. J. Heat and Fluid Flow, pp. 178-203.
Hirsch, C. (1991), Numerical computation of internal and external flows, vol. I & II, Wiley, New
York.
Ince, N.Z and Launder, B.E. (1995), Three-dimensional and heat-loss effects on turbulent flow in a
nominally two-dimensional cavity, Int. J. Heat and Fluid Flow, 16, pp. 171-177.
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