Running head: EFFECTS OF GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS ON READING

Effects of Graphic Organizers on Reading Achievement

Christina M. Keene
Valdosta State University

EFFECTS OF GRAPHIC

2
Abstract

This study examined the effects of graphic organizers on reading comprehension of third grade
Early Intervention Program (EIP) students. The study also examined the attitudes of students
toward graphic organizers. Fourteen students were taught using the regular reading program for 4
weeks. Graphic organizers were added to the reading curriculum during the next 4 weeks.
Student performance was assessed using the students average reading grades, the STAR reading
test, and an attitude questionnaire. Results of the STAR reading test showed that although there
was a difference in reading comprehension when graphic organizers were used, the difference
was not significant. However, the attitude survey indicated that students had positive attitudes
toward graphic organizers.

EFFECTS OF GRAPHIC

Effects of Graphic Organizers on Reading Achievement

Reading comprehension levels have been decreasing for many years (Egan, 1999). Critics
have frequently berated our school systems on their abilities to educate students in reading. Our
students poor performance in reading compared to those in other countries is a constant topic of
discussion. To counteract this debate, new policies in reading instruction have been created to
help all children succeed in reading. The No Child Left Behind legislation, which focuses
particularly on reading, calls for schools to seek out and use research-validated instructional
methods to ensure student learning. Reading comprehension has been identified as one of the
major goals for reading instruction (Norton, 1997). Even so, many critics agree (Hall &
Strangeman, 2001; Norton, 1997; Snyder, 2008;) that students are not taught successful
comprehension strategies. Snyder stated that comprehension methods that are research validated
must be employed. One research-validated instructional method that may increase reading
comprehension is graphic organizers. A graphic organizer is defined by Egan (1999) as a visual
representation of knowledge, a way of structuring information, and of arranging essential aspects
of an idea or topic into a pattern using labels (p. 641).
All too often, children who repeatedly fail at reading lose their motivation to read and
begin doubting their ability to learn. These students will avoid reading at all costs and may
become withdrawn during guided reading. Research has repeatedly verified that, if students are
to learn effectively, they need to feel successful. Students should be provided with challenges in
reading that are appropriate to their skills. Educators should also seek to provide an instructional
program that will give each student the maximum opportunity to improve their reading
comprehension. Key strategies that Fisher, Frey, and Williams (2002) recommend to improve

EFFECTS OF GRAPHIC

reading comprehension are shown in the following list: read alouds, KWL charts, reciprocal
teaching, vocabulary instruction, writing to learn, structured note-taking, and graphic organizers.
Optimum reading opportunities are essential to reading comprehension. Research
confirms that students who are immersed in reading often have higher reading achievement
(Norton, 1997). Amount of time spent reading each day has proven to be beneficial where
reading proficiency is concerned. Teachers who provide a rich array of reading material, plenty
of motivation to read, and a comfortable and inviting place to read are also aiding reading
proficiency. Educators everywhere are incorporating an uninterrupted reading time into their
daily routines. This sends the message to students that reading is important and that every effort
should be made to improve reading comprehension. Research says that graphic organizers are
helpful tools in improving reading comprehension (Chang, Sung, & Chen, 2002; Fisher et al.,
2002; Hall & Strangeman, 2001). Ellis (1998) stated that graphic organizers present an overview
of what is to be learned, providing clearer and more meaningful expectations to students.
Students are able to focus on what is important as essential knowledge is displayed on graphic
organizers. Important information is learned while extraneous information is tossed out. Graphic
organizers have many advantages including organizing information so that the content is easier
to understand, reducing amount of information to be learned, and allowing students to become
more strategic learners (Ellis, 1998).
The past two decades have produced a very substantial body of research on teaching
comprehension strategies. This research has demonstrated some very positive results. The
Institute for the Advancement of Research in Education (2003) pointed out significant evidence
has been found to show graphic organizers improve comprehension strategies. Ellis (1998) cited
comprehension of text as one of the major goals for reading instruction. Even so, some critics of

EFFECTS OF GRAPHIC

comprehension instruction frequently claim students are not taught the processes required for
comprehension and comprehension questions do not encourage students to develop higher
thought processes. The Institute for the Advancement of Research in Education (2003) disputed
this claim by stating the process of developing and using graphic organizers has been shown to
enhance students critical thinking or higher order thinking skills.
Reading strategies have always been important in teaching and learning strategy studies.
Chang et al. (2002) contended that among the numerous reading strategies, graphic strategies
are one of the few approaches that can be applied at the preview stage before reading, during the
reading process itself, and at the stage after reading (p. 5). Graphic organizers provide readers
with new approaches to reading that build on their schema and extend their knowledge. The
reader is given a clearer, more distinct, visual method of organizing information (Chang et al.,
2002). Ellis (1998) stated that graphic organizers reduce the cognitive demands on the learner by
organizing information in a meaningful way, thus making it easier to learn and retain. Graphic
organizers were first introduced as a reading aid before the process of reading occurred (Horton,
Lovitt & Bergerud, 1990). Graphic organizers today often elicit higher order thinking skills and
help students to identify essential information while reading. Hall and Strangeman (2001)
defined graphic organizers as a visual and graphic display that depicts the relationships between
facts, terms, and or ideas within a learning task (p. 1).
Graphic organizers are sometimes referred to as knowledge maps, concept maps, story
maps, cognitive organizers, advance organizers, or concept diagrams. Different graphic
organizers are used based on information to be depicted. Hall and Strangeman (2001) believed
that different varieties of graphic organizers improve their effectiveness for learning. The
following six graphic organizers have great utility in the classroom because they correspond to

EFFECTS OF GRAPHIC

six common patterns into which most information can be organized: descriptive patterns, timesequence patterns, process/cause-effect patterns, episode patterns, generalization/principle
patterns, and concept patterns. Chang et al. (2002) designed three concept-mapping approaches
and tested their effects on student comprehension and its lasting effects. Participants included
126 fifth-grade students from four classes in an elementary school in Taipei, Taiwan. The authors
tested graphic organizers, knowledge maps, and concept maps. They believe these types of
organizers make content easier to retain and retrieve. Results showed graphic strategies enhanced
text comprehension and summarization. Hall and Strangeman (2001) reviewed 12 studies on the
effects of graphic organizers and found 10 of them reported positive outcomes. Hall and
Strangeman also found a consistent elevated effect when graphic organizers were used to aid
reading comprehension.
Before using graphic organizers with students, teachers should experience the process
themselves. This preparation forces teachers to activate schema, make decisions about their
knowledge of the subject matter, verify choices after reading, reflect upon which questions
remain or arise after reading, and, finally, to suggest possible resources for obtaining additional
information (Egan, 1999, p. 642). Before placing expectations on students, graphic organizers
should be modeled effectively by the teacher.
Students should be provided with various graphic organizers and should also be
encouraged to create their own. The purpose of the graphic organizer should be clearly stated
before beginning the activity. Evidence from research has indicated that graphic organizers have
been proven beneficial as the following aids:
visual or spatial representations of super ordinate and subordinate ideas of a passage,
story, or exposition;

EFFECTS OF GRAPHIC

spatial or graphic metaphors that facilitate learning and memory of text and the
making
of well-organized summaries; and
tools that help students focus on text, textual relationships, and text structure while
reading (Designed Instruction, 2003).
Graphic organizers are suitable for different class learning arrangements individual,
paired, or grouped. However, Egan (1999) pointed out that their use in paired or grouped settings
should be particularly encouraged when appropriate to the lesson objective and the needs of the
learner. The majority of students enjoy working in collaborative pairs. Use of graphic organizers
encourages these cooperative arrangements. Graphic organizers can promote positive social
interaction among students, while allowing them to acquire knowledge. Egan stated, As they
work cooperatively using graphic organizers, students learn to create, to share, to disagree, and to
respect one another. Under a teachers guidance they can derive great benefit from helping one
another to activate prior knowledge selectively, to construct new meaning, and to appreciate one
anothers thinking and learning styles (p. 642). Ellis (1998) suggested hanging examples of
graphic organizers around the room to help children become familiar with them. He also suggests
challenging students to design their own organizer and having them present it in a lesson.
Both skilled and unskilled readers can benefit from using graphic organizers. Graphic
organizers can be particularly beneficial to many students with learning disabilities, as well other
students, because they allow for organization of concepts (Ellis, 1998). Improving reading
comprehension of students with learning disabilities is of particular importance. These students
already have difficulty reading, and graphic organizers can play an important role in facilitating
information from the text into an understandable format (Kim, Vaughn, Wanzek, & Wei, 2004).

EFFECTS OF GRAPHIC

These authors examined previous research studies on the effects of graphic organizers on reading
comprehension for students with learning disabilities. Twenty-one group design interventions
studies were reviewed. A total of 848 students with disabilities were used for the research
studies. The article stated increasing the comprehension of LD students is much more difficult
and can be made easier through the use of graphic organizers. The findings were evident that
graphic organizers can increase reading comprehension of LD students.
Horton et al. (1990) also investigated effectiveness of graphic organizers on students with
learning disabilities, remedial students, and regular education students. In this empirical study,
they conducted three experiments that included middle school and high school science and social
studies students of varying abilities from a school district near Seattle, Washington. Results of
their study showed graphic organizers produced significantly higher performance for students
with disabilities, remedial students, and regular education students.
Arthaud and Goracke (2006) agreed graphic organizers are especially beneficial to
struggling readers because they lack the strategic approach needed to learn copious amounts of
information. They contend that most students, especially LD students, need techniques to grasp
the overwhelming amount of material presented in textbooks. Thus, graphic organizers are a
better way to display information graphically while facilitating comprehension. Ellis (1998)
agreed graphic organizers could improve classroom and achievement test scores of LD students
if they are used effectively. The Institute for the Advancement of Research in Education (2003)
found that LD students who used graphic organizers on end of chapter tests obtained higher
scores than those students who used traditional study methods. Ellis stated that the use of graphic
organizers increases classroom test scores quickly while achievement gains on standardized tests
may be less noticeable until the graphic organizers are mastered.

EFFECTS OF GRAPHIC

The process of developing and using graphic organizers has been shown to enhance
students critical thinking or higher order thinking skills (The Institute for the Advancement of
Research in Education, 2003). Graphic organizers combine text material while showing
relationships between concepts with a visual method that helps readers to gain a better
understanding of the information being read (Chang et al., 2002; Snyder, 2001). Many agree
(Arthaud & Goracke, 2006; Fisher et al., 2002; Hall & Strangeman, 2001) there is significant
evidence to support effectiveness of graphic organizers as a reading comprehension strategy.
The school involved in the study is a Learning-Focused school. Learning-Focused is a
comprehensive continuous school improvement model that provides schools with consistent
learning, provides exemplary strategies instruction, and integrates research-based exemplary
practices. Reading comprehension is a key component in improving student test scores and
meeting the requirements for NCLB. Graphic organizers have been listed as a key instructional
strategy for reading comprehension. Based on experiences and observations of the researcher,
graphic organizers are not being used on a regular basis to aid reading comprehension.
Based on current literature and current school data, including CRCT results and Response
to Intervention (RTI) results, there was a need to research intervention strategies for reading
comprehension. The purpose of this study was to determine if graphic organizers increased
reading comprehension. Results from this study could assist educators by allowing them
opportunities to use graphic organizers to increase their students reading comprehension levels.
This information could also assist in development of effective intervention strategies to help
students who might be at risk where reading comprehension is concerned. The researchers class
was an Early Intervention Program (EIP) class comprised of students who scored below grade
level or minimally met requirements in reading on the Criterion Referenced Competency Test

EFFECTS OF GRAPHIC

10

(CRCT). These students struggled with reading comprehension and could benefit from an
effective reading intervention strategy such as graphic organizers.
Research Questions
Research question 1. Does the use of graphic organizers improve reading
comprehension?
Research question 2. Do students have a positive attitude towards graphic organizers?
Definition of Variables
Graphic organizer. A graphic organizer is a visual and graphic display that depicts
relationships between facts, terms, and/or ideas within a learning task.
Reading comprehension. Reading comprehension is the ability to understand what is
being read, as measured in this study by the STAR reading test and students average reading
grades. The STAR test is a computer-based test lasting approximately 10 minutes that determines
reading levels of each student and measures individual and class growth. Reading grades were
computed by averaging the students reading chapter test scores.
Attitudes. Attitudes are thoughts and feelings students have toward graphic organizers as
measured by a teacher-created questionnaire (see Appendix A).
Methods
Participants
Third grade students (N = 14) in an inclusive Early Intervention Program (EIP) classroom
participated. The school houses grades 3-6 and is located in rural southeast Georgia. The 14
participants were students who scored below grade level (N = 6) or minimally met requirements
(N = 8) in reading for the 2007-2008 school year. The researcher used convenience sampling to

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11

select the participants. The researcher holds a Masters degree in Early Childhood Education and
has 7 years teaching experience. Demographic data for this classroom is shown in Table 1.
Table 1
Demographic Data of Participants
Student Age Gender Race Free Lunch
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N

8
8
10
8
8
8
8
8
9
10
9
9
8
8

F
F
F
M
F
F
M
F
M
M
F
M
F
M

B
B
B
B
B
W
W
W
W
W
B
B
B
B

Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
Y
Y

Have Been
Retained Before
N
N
Y
Y
N
N
N
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
N

CRCT
Reading
801
796
784
800
814
801
790
800
801
804
781
796
800
787

Of the 14 students in this class, 9 students (64%) were age 8, 3 students (21%) were age
9, and 2 students (14%) were age 10. Out of those 14 students, 6 students (43%) have been
retained. Twelve students (86%) are currently on free and reduced price lunch, while only two
students (14%) pay full price. Reading CRCT scores for this class show 6 students (43%) did not
meet the minimum score in reading and 8 students (57%) minimally met that minimum score in
reading for the 2007-2008 school year.
Intervention
All students completed a STAR reading test before the control phase to establish a
baseline reading score. During the first 4 weeks of the study, the control phase, the researcher
taught the reading program Kaleidoscope for 1 hour each morning with no graphic organizers.

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12

Kaleidoscope is a McGraw-Hill SRA reading intervention program developed in 2003 that was
designed to bring students up to grade level in as little as a year. Students reading grades were
analyzed after the 4-week control phase. Students also took a STAR reading test after the 4-week
control phase.
During the intervention phase, weeks 5-8, the researcher continued to teach the reading
program Kaleidoscope for 1 hour each morning. In addition, the researcher added the use of
graphic organizers to each lesson. The intervention included graphic organizers such as Venn
diagrams, story webs, timelines, character maps, sequencing charts, literary element maps, and
cause and effect charts. Graphic organizers were used at least 15 minutes each day in addition to
the students regular reading program. Graphic organizers were completed with teacher modeling
on Mondays, with a partner on Tuesdays and Wednesdays, and individually on Thursdays during
the lessons. On Fridays, the students completed a graphic organizer as part of their reading test.
Students reading grades were analyzed after the 8-week period for improvement. Students were
also given another STAR test after the 8-week period to determine improvement in reading
comprehension. A teacher-created questionnaire on graphic organizers was administered after the
8-week period to determine student feelings toward graphic organizers.
Data Collection Techniques
In order to determine if graphic organizers had an effect on reading comprehension, three
data collection techniques were used. Data was obtained by STAR reading tests, student reading
averages, and a teacher-created questionnaire on graphic organizers.
STAR Reading Test (Renaissance Learning, 2001). STAR reading test is a computer-based
test lasting approximately 10 minutes that determines reading comprehension levels of each
student and measures individual and class growth. It is composed of 25 questions and was given

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13

before the control period, after the 4-week control period, and again after the 8-week intervention
period. Students took the test in their classroom under the supervision of the researcher. T-test
analyses were conducted using the STAR individual measures to determine if significant student
achievement occurred after implementing the intervention of graphic organizers. Construct
validity and external validity have been established for the STAR reading test (Renaissance
Learning, 2001).
Student reading averages. The researcher gathered reading averages for all students after
the 4-week control period and also after the 8-week intervention period. T-test analyses were
conducted using the students reading averages before and after the intervention to determine if
significant student achievement occurred after using graphic organizers.
Graphic Organizer Questionnaire. A questionnaire (Appendix A) was administered to
students after the 4-week intervention period. The questionnaire was composed of questions to
evaluate the students attitudes towards graphic organizers after the 4-week intervention period.
They asked how the students felt about using graphic organizers and how the use of them
affected their attitudes and grades. The 6-item questionnaire was administered to all 14 students
by the researcher in their classroom. Results were analyzed for positive answers towards graphic
organizers. Validity and reliability were established through peer review and pilot testing.
Results
This research was conducted to determine the effects of graphic organizers on reading
comprehension of third grade EIP students. Student attitudes toward graphic organizers were also
evaluated. The study included 14 EIP students who participated in 4 weeks of reading instruction
using the regular reading program and 4 weeks of reading instruction with the addition of
graphic organizers to each lesson. Results of this study are based on three data collection

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14

instruments: the STAR reading test, students average reading grades, and an attitude
questionnaire.
STAR reading test scores from before the control phase, after the control phase, and after
the intervention phase were analyzed for gains to determine if graphic organizers increased
reading comprehension. Means and standard deviations of the gains for the STAR reading test
during the control and intervention phases are given in Table 2.
Table 2
Comparisons of STAR Test Scores
Group Contrasts

SD

Mean Gain t-value

Beginning of School

14

1.81

0.44

Before Graphic Organizer Intervention

14

1.84

0.39

0.03

After Graphic Organizer Intervention

14

2.05

0.47

0.21

-1.99

0.07

*p < .05, **p < .01

As shown in Table 2, the mean (M = 2.05) after the use of graphic organizers was higher
than the mean (M = 1.84) before the use of graphic organizers; however, the difference was not
significant (t(13) = -1.99, p = 0.07). The use of graphic organizers did not have a significant
effect on the students reading comprehension.
The students average reading grades were used to determine the effectiveness of graphic
organizers on reading comprehension. The students average reading grades after the 4-week
control phase were compared to the average reading grades after the 4-week intervention phase.
The results were analyzed to determine if an increase in reading comprehension occurred after
the intervention phase. Means and standard deviations for the students average reading grades
during the control and intervention phases are given in Table 3.

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15

Table 3
Comparisons of Average Reading Test Scores without Graphic Organizers and with Graphic Organizers

Group Contrasts

SD

t-value

Without Graphic Organizers

14

87.57

6.63

2.71

0.02*

With Graphic Organizers

14

84.93

6.20

*p < .05, **p < .01

As shown in Table 3, the mean without graphic organizers (M = 87.57) was significantly
higher (t(13) = 2.71, p = 0.02) than the mean with graphic organizers. Therefore, graphic
organizers did not improve the students reading comprehension on reading tests. The results
showed a significant decrease on reading tests after the implementation of graphic organizers.
A graphic organizer questionnaire was given to students after the intervention phase to
determine student attitudes toward graphic organizers. The questions that were included in the
survey are shown in Table 4.
Table 4
Graphic Organizer Questionnaire Results
Questions

Yes

No

Don't Know

1. Did you enjoy using the graphic organizers during reading?

93%

7%

0%

2. Was it easier to remember details in the stories when we used our

graphic organizers during reading?
3. Do you think the graphic organizers help you learn more during
reading?
4. Do you think we should use graphic organizers with every reading
lesson?
5. Do you think you would learn the same amount without the graphic
organizers?
6. Did you think you would do well on the reading test after using the
graphic organizers?

86%

14%

0%

86%

0%

14%

64%

29%

7%

43%

43%

14%

79%

7%

14%

EFFECTS OF GRAPHIC

16

As noted in Table 4, 93% of the students enjoyed using graphic organizers during
reading. Of those students, 86% thought it was easier to remember details of a story when using
graphic organizers during reading and 86% also thought that graphic organizers helped them
learn more during reading. Sixty-four percent of the students wanted to use graphic organizers
with every reading lesson and seventy-nine percent thought they would do well on the reading
tests after using graphic organizers. Forty-three percent of students also believed that they would
not learn the same amount without the use of graphic organizers. Most students responded
positively to using graphic organizers to aid reading instruction.
Discussion
Conclusions
Did the use of graphic organizers improve reading comprehension? According to the
results of this study, the use of graphic organizers did not improve reading comprehension. The
STAR reading test scores showed a mean gain after the use of graphic organizers; however, the
difference was not significant. These results partly substantiate the previous research findings on
graphic organizers. Research says that graphic organizers are helpful tools in improving reading
comprehension (Chang, Sung, & Chen, 2002; Fisher et al., 2002; Hall & Strangeman, 2001) The
results of this study do show an improvement in reading comprehension on the STAR reading
test, even though they are not significant increases.
The students average reading grades showed a significant decrease after the use of
graphic organizers. The mean without graphic organizers was significantly higher than the mean
with graphic organizers. Therefore, using graphic organizers seemed to have an adverse effect on
the students reading test grades. Hall and Strangeman (2001) found a consistent elevated effect
when graphic organizers were used to aid reading comprehension. Ellis (1998) stated that the use

EFFECTS OF GRAPHIC

17

of graphic organizers increases classroom test scores quickly while achievement gains on
standardized tests may be less noticeable until the graphic organizers are mastered. Ellis (1998)
also agreed graphic organizers can improve classroom and achievement test scores of LD
students if they are used effectively. These results were not substantiated by the students average
reading grades. This difference could be due to the increased difficulty on reading tests or the
ineffective use of the graphic organizers by the researcher.
Did the students have a positive attitude toward graphic organizers? Most students
responded positively to the use of graphic organizers. Ninety-three percent of the students
enjoyed using graphic organizers during reading. Of those students, 86% thought it was easier to
remember details of a story when using graphic organizers during reading and 86% also thought
that graphic organizers helped them learn more during reading. Over half of the class also
wanted to use graphic organizers with every lesson and believed graphic organizers would
increase their reading test scores. Research shows that graphic organizers can promote positive
social interaction among students, while allowing them to acquire knowledge. Egan stated, As
they work cooperatively using graphic organizers, students learn to create, to share, to disagree,
and to respect one another. Under a teachers guidance they can derive great benefit from helping
one another to activate prior knowledge selectively, to construct new meaning, and to appreciate
one anothers thinking and learning styles (p. 642). These results were substantiated by the
positive answers given on the graphic organizer questionnaire.
Significance/Impact on Student Learning
As a result of the use of graphic organizers during reading instruction, students increased
in reading comprehension on the STAR test. They, however, did not show improvement on
reading grades. The results of this study were inconclusive showing both increases and decreases

EFFECTS OF GRAPHIC

18

in reading achievement. However, students enjoyed using the graphic organizers and believed
that they increased their learning. Their positive attitudes could, in turn, have a positive effect on
their future reading grades with continued use of graphic organizers. The students may also show
more positive results as they become more familiar with different graphic organizers.
Factors Influencing Implementation
Several factors influenced the implementation of this study. Several changes in the school
schedule, amounting to about 5 days, caused the researcher to condense some reading lessons
together into one day. These changes may have caused less retention of the material on those
days or even inadequate exposure to the graphic organizers. Two tests were also given by a
substitute; therefore, validity and reliability cannot be established. Also, the reading tests
increase with difficulty as the year progresses, which could account for the decrease in reading
test scores. The intervention phase was also interrupted and/or rushed as the students took the
Iowa Test of Basic Skills. This loss of instructional time during standardized testing could also
account for the drop in scores on reading tests.
Implications & Limitations
The findings of this study have allowed the researcher to see the validation of graphic
organizers on reading achievement and effects they have on the attitudes of the students. Even
though a significant difference on reading achievement was not found, the researcher did see an
increase in STAR test scores. These results support the conclusion that graphic organizers can be
used as an effective reading strategy. Students also saw the value in using graphic organizers and
had positive attitudes toward using them. Therefore, the researcher will continue to use graphic
organizers in the classroom to aid reading comprehension. The researcher will also suggest using

EFFECTS OF GRAPHIC

19

graphic organizers to other teachers while displaying the positive results and attitudes found by
the research.
There are several limitations that could have influenced the results of the study. The
students used in the study were those of the researcher and this factor may have affected the
achievement of the students. Other factors such as increased test difficulty, reading parts of the
test at the beginning of the year, and using other phonics programs in conjunction with the
normal reading program could have influenced the results. The length of the intervention (4weeks), the small number of students tested (n = 14), and the inexperience of the researcher
could have also influenced the results.
Further research is needed in order to validate the findings of this study. Graphic
organizers are research-validated strategies that improve reading comprehension; however, more
studies should be done on students of varying abilities. Specific graphic organizers should also
be compared to find those that show a greater improvement in test scores. The inconsistencies
between the research conducted here and previous research shows that closer examination is
needed. It is suggested that more studies be conducted using students with varying abilities and
also using specific graphic organizers. The researcher feels that these findings could be
generalized to any grade, teacher, or school. Thus, graphic organizers could benefit any of these
areas.

EFFECTS OF GRAPHIC

20
References

Arthaud, T., & Goracke, T. (2006). Implementing a structured story web and outline strategy to
assist struggling readers. Reading Teacher, 59(6), 581-586.
Chang, K., Sung, Y., & Chen, I. (2002). The effect of concept mapping to enhance text
comprehension and summarization. The Journal of Experimental Education, 71(1), 5-23.
Designed Instruction (2003). Graphic organizers and reading to learn. Retrieved June 1, 2008,
from: http://designedinstruction.com/research/brief_ed_02_3.html
Egan, M. (1999). Reflections on effective use of graphic organizers. Journal of Adolescent and
Adult Literacy, 42(8), 641-645.
Ellis, E. (1998). Framing main ideas and essential details to promote comprehension. In
Lawrence, KS: Edge Enterprises, The Framing Routine. Tuscaloosa, AL: Masterminds,
LLC.
Fisher, D., Frey, N., & Williams, D. (2002). Seven literacy strategies that work. Educational
Leadership, 60(3), 70-73.
Hall, T., & Strangeman, N. (2002). Graphic organizers. Wakefield, MA: National Center on
Accessing the General Curriculum. Retrieved June 1, 2008, from: http://www.cast.org/
publications/ncac/ncac_go.html
Horton, S., Lovitt, T., & Bergerud, D. (1990). The effectiveness of graphic organizers for three
classifications of secondary students in content area classes. Journal of Learning
Disabilities, 23(1), 12-22.
Institute for the Advancement of Research in Education at AEL. (2003, July). Graphic
organizers: A review of scientifically based research. Prepared for Inspiration Software,
Inc. Charleston, WV.

EFFECTS OF GRAPHIC

21

Kim, A., Vaughn, S., Wanzek, J., & Wei, S. (2004). Graphic organizers and their effects on the
reading comprehension of students with LD: A synthesis of research. Journal of Learning
Disabilities, 37(2), 105-118.
Norton, D. (1997). The effective teaching of language arts (5th ed.). New Jersey: Prentice-Hall
Inc.
Snyder, T. (2008). Reading for meaning: A research-based approach to reading comprehension
instruction. Retrieved June 1, 2008, from: http://www.tomsnyder.com/reports/ R4M
%20White%20Paper.pdf

EFFECTS OF GRAPHIC

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Appendix A
Christina Keene

DIRECTIONS: In order to protect your privacy, do not write your name on this paper. Read each
statement and choose the answer that best describes your feelings. If you are not sure, choose
dont know. Please answer honestly. This questionnaire will not affect your grade and you can
decide not to complete it and nothing will happen to you. Thank you for your help.
1. Did you enjoy using the graphic organizers during reading?
Yes

No

Dont Know

2. Was it easier to remember details in the stories when we used our graphic organizers
during reading?
Yes

No

Dont Know

3. Do you think the graphic organizers help you learn more during reading?
Yes

No

Dont Know

4. Do you think we should use graphic organizers with every reading lesson?
Yes

No

Dont Know

5. Do you think you would learn the same amount without the graphic organizers?
Yes

No

Dont Know

6. Did you think you would do well on the reading test after using the graphic organizers?
Yes

No

Dont Know